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HAND-BOOK 


OF 


UNIVERSAL   LITERATURE, 


FROM   THE  BEST   AND  LATEST   AUTHORITIES: 


DESIGNED  FOK  POPULAR  HEADING 


AND    AS   A 


TEXT-BOOK  FOR   SCHOOLS  AND   COLLEGES. 


BY 


ANNE    C.    LYNCH  \BOTTA 


"  Partout  le  vaste  champ  de  lii  llUerature  ressemble  k  line  immense  arene,  06  pcu  de  valn- 
qucurs  filevenl  leurs  tropheos  sur  les  armes  brisecs  d'une  grande  masse  de  vaiucus  ;  ce  n'esx 
que  lorsque  la  dtfaite  ett  devenue  mtmorable,  que  I'hidtolre  peut  s'en  occuper." 


NEW    YOrwK: 
DERBY   &   JACKSON,    498   BROADWAY 

1860. 


fl^lilBB. 


Knieked,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  yeai  1860,  bj 

ANNK     C.     LYNCH     BOTTA, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  Dislitol 

of  New  York. 


W.  H.  TI^so»,  Stereotyper. 


Geo.  Russki.l  &  Co.,  Printers. 


N 


PREFACE 


-•♦♦- 


This  work  was  begun  many  years  ago,  as  a  literary 
exercise,  to  meet  the  personal  requirements  of  tlie 
writer,  wliicli  were  such  as  most  persons  experience 
on  leaving  school  and  ^'  completing  their  education,"  as 
the  phrase  is.  Tlie  world  of  literature  lies  before 
them,  but  where  to  begin,  what  course  of  study  to  per- 
sue,  in  order  best  to  comprehend  it,  are  the  problems 
which  present  themselves  to  the  bewildered  questioner, 
who  finds  himself  in  a  position  not  unlike  that  of  a 
traveller  suddenly  set  down  in  an  unknown  country, 
without  guide-book  or  map.  The  most  natural  course 
under  such  circumstances  would  be  to  bescin  at  the  be- 
ginning,  and  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  entire  field  of 
literature,  arriving  at  its  details  through  this  general 
view.  But  as  this  could  be  accomplished  only  by  sub- 
jecting each  individual  to  a  severe  and  protracted  course 
of  systematic  study,  the  idea  was  conceived  of  obviating 
this  necessity  to  some  extent  by  embodying  the  results 
of  such  a  course  in  the  form  of  the  following  work, 
which,  after  being  long  laid  aside,  is  now  at  lengtli  com- 
pleted. 

In  conformity  with  this  design,  standard  books  have 


m 


IV  PKEFACE. 

been  condensed,  with  no  alterations  except  sucli  as  were 
rerpired  to  give  nnity  to  the  whole  work  ;  and  in  some 
instances  a  few  additions  have  been  made.  Wliere  stan- 
dard works  have  not  been  found,  the  sketches  liave  been 
made  from  tlie  best  sources  of  information,  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  criticism  of  able  scholars. 

Tlie  literatures  of  different  nations  are  so  related,  and 
have  so  influenced  each  other,  that  it  is  only  by  a  survey 
of  all,  that  any  single  literature,  or  even  any  great 
literary  work,  can  be  fully  comprehended,  as  the  various 
groups  and  figures  of  a  historical  picture  must  be 
viewed  as  a  whole,  before  thev  can  assume  their  true 

place  and  2:)roportions. 

A.  C.  L.  B. 


LIST   OF   AUTHORITIES. 


-•-e  9- 


The  following  worlcs  ni'o  the  sources  from  whicli  this  book  is 
wholly  or  chiefly  derived : 

Dwigbt's  Pliilologj' ;  Herder's  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry ;  Lowth's  Hebrew  Toetry ; 
Asiatic  Researches ;  the  works  of  Gesenius,  De  Wette,  Ewald,  Colebrooke,  Sir  William 
Jones,  Wilson,  Ward ;  Schlegel's  Hindu  Language  and  Literature  ;  Malcolm's  History  of 
Persia ;  Piicbardson  on  the  Language  of  Eastern  Nations ;  Adelung's  Mithridates ; 
Chodzko's  Specimens  of  the  Popular  Poetry  of  Persia;  Costello's  Rose  Garden  of  Persia; 
B.em.usa.Vs  Memoire  sicr  VEcriture  Chinoise;  Davis  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Chinese; 
Duholde's  Description,  de  la  Chine  ;  ChampoUion's  Letters ;  Wilkinson's  Extracts  from 
Hieroglyphical  Subjects ;  the  works  of  Bunsen,  Muller,  and  Lane  ;  Muller's  History  of  the 
Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  continued  by  Donaldson  ;  Browne's  Histoiy  of  Roman  Clas- 
sical Literature  ;  Fiske's  Manual  of  Classical  Literature ;  Sismondi's  Literature  of  the 
South  of  Europe ;  Goodrich's  Universal  History ;  Sandford's  Rise  and  Progress  of  Litera- 
ture ;  Schlegel's  Lectures  on  the  Historj"-  of  Literature ;  Schlegel's  History  of  Dramatic 
Art ;  Tkaboschi's  History  of  Italian  Literature ;  Maffei,  Corniani,  and  Ugoni  on  the  same 
subject;  Chambers'  Hand-books  of  Italian  and  German  Literature;  Foster's  Hand- 
book of  French  Literature;  Nizard's  TTlstoire  de  la  Litterature  Frangaise ;  Demo- 
geot's  do ;  Ticknor's  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;  Talvi's  (Ttlrs.  Robinson)  Literature  of 
the  Sla^■ic  Nations ;  Mallet's  Northern  Antiquities ;  Keyson's  Religion  of  the  Northmen ; 
Pigott's  Northern  Mythology ;  William  and  Mary  Howitt's  Literature  and  Romance  of 
Northern  Europe;  De  s'Gravenweert /S'm?*  la  Litterahtre  Xeerlandaise ;  Siegenbeck's 
Hlstoire  Litteraire  des  Pays-JBas  ;  Da  Pontes'  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Germany ;  Menzel's 
German  Literature ;  Spaulding's  History  of  English  Literature ;  Chambers's  Cyclopaedia  of 
English  Literature ;  Shaw's  English  Literature  ;  Triibner's  Guide  to  American  Literature ; 
Duyckincks'  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature  ;  Griswold's  Poets  and  Prose  Writers  of 
America ;  Tuckerman's  Sketch  of  American  Literature.  In  addition  to  the  above  works, 
French,  English,  and  American  Encyclopaedias,  Biographies,  Dictionaries,  and  numerous 
other  works  of  reference  have  been  extensively  consulted. 


CONTENTS. 


-♦-•-•- 


Preface        ...........m 

List  of  Acthorities  .........      v 

Classification  of  Languages      .  .  .  .  .  .  •  .    xv 

HEBREW   LITERATURE. 

1.  Hebrew  Literature ;  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language  ;  its  Alphabet ;  its  Struc- 
ture ;  Peculiarities,  Formation,  and  Phases. — 3.  The  Old  Testament. — 4.  Hebrew  Edu- 
cation.—5.  Fundamental  Idea  of  Hebrew  Literature. — 6.  Hebrew  Poetry. — 7.  Lyric 
Poetry;  Songs;  the  Psalms;  the  Prophets. — 8.  Pastoral  Poetry.— 9.  Didactic  Poetry  ; 
the  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes. — 10.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poetry;  the  Book  of  Job. — 
11.  Hebrew  History  ;  the  Pentateuch  and  other  Historical  Books. — 12.  Hebrew  Philoso- 
phy.— 13.  Restoration  of  the  Sacred  Books.— 14.  Manuscripts  and  TranslaUons. — 
15.  Rabbinical  Literature.  ........        9 

SYRIAC,.CHALDAIC  AND   PH(EXICIAN   LITERATURES. 

J..  The  Languages. — 2.  Syriac  Language  and  Literature.— 3.  Chaldaic  Language  and 
Literature. — 4.  Phoenician  Literature.     .  .  .  .  .  .  .21 

niXDU,  OR   SANSCRIT   LITERATURE. 

1.  Sanscrit  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Sanscrit  Language  and  its  Antiquity ; 
its  Structure  and  Dialects. — 3.  Social  Constitution  of  India.— 4.  Brahmanism.— 5.  The 
Vedas  and  the  other  Sacred  Books. — 6.  Sanscrit  Poetry.— 7.  Epic  Poetry ;  the  Rama- 
yana  ;  the  Mahabharata.— 8.  Lyric  Poetry. — 9.  Didactic  Poetry ;  the  Hitopadesa. — 
10.  Dramatic  Poetry. — ^11.  History  and  Science. — 12.  Philosophy.— 13.  Buddhism. — 
14.  Moral  Philosophy ;  the  Code  of  Manu.— 15.  Modern  Literatures  of  India. — 16.  Edu- 
cation in  India.      ..........      23 

PERSIAN   LITERATURE. 

I.  The  Persian  Language  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  Zendic  Literature  ;   The  Zendavesta. — 8. 
Pehlvi  and  Parsee  Literatures.— 4.  The   Cuneiform  Inscriptions. — 5.  The  Ancient 
Religion  of  Persia  ;     Zoroaster. — 6.  Modern    Literature. — 7.  The  Sufis. — 8.  Persian 
Poetry. — 9.  Persian  Poets;  Ferdusi ;  Essedi  of   Tus  ;  Togray,  etc. — 10.  History  and 
Philosophy. — 11.  Education  in  Persia.  .  .  .  .  .  .33 

vU 


VI 11  CONTENTS. 


CIIIXESE   LITERATURE. 

1.  Chinese  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language, — 3.  The  Writing  —4.  Canoni- 
cal and  Classic  Writings. — The  'U-King;  Ta-hio.— 5.  Chinese  Religion  and  Philosophy  ; 
Lao-tse  ;  Confucius  ;  Meng-ts6  ;  the  Iluligion  of  Fo. — 6.  Social  Constitution  of  China. — • 
?.  History. — S,  Science. — 0.  Poetry  and  Fiction  ;   Lyric   Poetry  ;    The  Drama ;    PiO- 

mances  — 10.  Education  in  China.      .......      49 

• 

EGYPTIAX   LITERATURE. 

1.  Egyptian  Literature. — 5.  The  Language. — 3.  The  Writing. — 4.  The  Discovery  of 
Champollion, — 5.  Egyptian  Monuments. — G.  History;  Manetho. — 7.  The  Religion  of 
Egypt. — S.  Science. — 9.  Literary  Condition  of  modern  Egypt.  .  .  .07 

GREEK   LITERATURE. 

Introduction. — 1.  Greek  Literature  and  its  Divisions.— 2.  The  Language. — 3.  The 
Religion. 

Pehiod  First.— 1.  Ante-Homeric  Songs  and  Bards. — 2.  Poems  of  Homer  ;  the  Iliad  ; 
the  Odyssey.— 3.  The  Cyclic  Poets  and  the  Homeric  Hymns.— 4.  Poems  of  Ilesiod ; 
the  AVorks  and  Days  ;  the  TheojOny.— 5.  Elegy  and  Epigram  ;  Tyrtreus  ;  Arcliilochus  ; 
Simonides.— 6.  Iambic  Poetry,  the  Fable  and  Parody  ;  ^sop. — 7.  Greek  JNIusic  and 
LjTic  Poetry ;  Terpander. — 8.  jEolic  Lyric  Poets  ;  Alcaeus  ;  Sappho  ;  Anacreon. — 
9.  Doric,  or  Choral  Lyric  Poets;  Alcman  ;  Stesichorus  ;  Pindar. — 10.  The  Orphic 
Doctrines  and  Poems.— 11.  Pre-Socratic  philosophy;  Ionian,  Eleatic,  Pythagorean 
Schools. — 12.  History  ;  Herodotus. 

Pkriod  Second. — 1.  Literary  predominance  of  Athens.— 2.  Greek  Drama. — 3.  Trage- 
dy — 4.  The  Tragic  Poets  ;  iEschykis  ;  Sophocles ;  Euripides. — 5.  Comedy' ;  Aristo- 
phanes ;  Menander. — 6.  Oratory,  Rhetoric  and  History ;  Pericles ;  the  Sophists ; 
Lysias  ;  Isocrates  ;  Demosthenes  ;  Thucydides  ;  Xenophon. — 7.  Socrates  and  the  So- 
cratic  Schools ;  Plato  ;  Aristotle. 

Pdkiod  Third.— 1.  Origin  of  the  Alexandrian  Li'erature.— 2.  The  Alexandrian 
Poets  ;  Philetas  ;  Callimachus  ;  Theocritus  ;  Dion  ;  Moschus. — .3.  The  Prose  Writers 
of  .\lexandna;  Zenodotus  ;  Aristophanes;  Aristarchus  ;  Eratosthenes  ;  Euclid;  Archi- 
medes.— 4.  Philosophy  of  Ale.xandria  ;  Neo-Platonism. — 5.  Anti-Xeo-Platonic  Tenden- 
cies ;  Epictetus ;  Lucian  ;  Longinus  — G.  Greek  Literature  in  Rome  ;  Dionysius  of  Ilali- 
carnassus  ;  Flavius  Josephus  ;  Polybius  ;  Diodorus  ;  Strabo  ;  riutarch.— 7,  Continued 
decline  of  Greek  Literature.  S.  Last  echoes  of  the  Old  Literature  ;  Hypatia  ;  Nonnus  ; 
Musaius;  Byzantine  Litcrature.~9.  The  New  Testament  and  the  Greek  Fathers.  .      6G 

ROMAN   LITERATURE. 

Introduction.— 1.  Roman  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language  ;  Ethno- 
graphical elements  of  the  Latin  Language  ;  the  Umbrian  ;  Oscan  ;  Etruscan ;  the  old 
Roman  tongue ;  Salurnian  verse ;  peculiarities  of  the  Latin  language. — 3.  The  Roman 
Religion. 

Period  First. — 1.  Early  Literature  of  the  Romans  ;  the  Fescennine  Songs ;  the  Fabulae 
Atellana;. — 2.  Early  Latin  Poets  ;  Livius  Andronicus,  Naivlus  and  Ennius. — 3.  Roman 
Comedy. — 4.  Comic  Poets ;  Plautus,  Terence  and  Statius. — 5.  Roman  Tragedy.— 6. 
Tragic  Poets  ;  Pacuvius  and  Attius. — 7.  Satire  ;  Lucilius. — 8.  History  and  Oratory  ; 
Fabius  Pictor;  O-'ncius  Alimentus  ;  Cato  ;  Varro  ;  ^L  Antonius  ;  Crassus  ;  Ilortensius.— 
\).   Roman  .Juri^prudonce.— 10.  Grammarians. 


COXTEXTS.  IX 

Period  Second.— 1.  Development  of  the  Roman  Literature.— 2.  Mimes,  Miraogi-a- 
phers,  Pantomime  ;  Laberius  and  P.  Syrus.— 3.  Epic  Poetry  ;  Virgil;  The.T:neid.-4.  Di- 
dactic Poetry;  the  Bucolics;  the  Georgics ;  Lucretius.— o.  Lyric  Poetry;  Catullus; 
Uorace.— 6.  Elegy  ;  Tibullus  ;  Propertius  ;  Ovid.— 7.  Oratory  and  Philosophy;  Cicero.— 
8.  History ;  J.  C«sar ;  Sallust  ;  Livy.— 9.  Other  Prose  Writers. 

Period  TuiuD.—l.  Decline  of  Roman  Literature.— 2.  Fable  ;  Phtedrus.— 3.  Satire  and 
Epigram ;  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial. — i.  Dramatic  Literature ;  the  Tragedies  of  Seneca. 
—5.  Epic  Poetry;  Lucan ;  Slius  Italicus;  Valerius  Flaccus  ;  P.  Statins— 6.  History 
Paterculus ;  Tacitus  :  Suetonius  ;  Q.  Curtius  ;  Valerius  MaxLmus.— 7.  Rhetoiic  and 
Eloquence;  Quintilian ;  Pliny  the  Younger.— 8.  Philosopiiy  and  Science;  Seneca; 
Pliny  the  Elder  ;  Celsus  ;  P.Mela;  Columella;  Frontinus.— 9.  Roman  Literature  from 
Hadrian  to  Theodoric  ;  Claudian  ;  Eutropius  ;  A.  Marcellinus  ;  S.  Sulpicius  ;  Gellius  ; 
Macrobius  ;  L  Apulelus;  Doethius-,  the  Latin  Fathei-s.— 10.  Roman  Jurisprudence.     122 


ARABIAN   LITERATURE. 

1.  European  Literature  in  the  Dark  Ages.— 2.  The  Arabian  Language.— 3  Ara- 
bian Mythology  and  the  Koran. — i.  Historical  Development  of  Arabian  Lite- 
rature.—5.  Grammar  and  Rhetoric— 6.  Poetry.— 7.  The  Arabian  Tales.— S.  History 
and  Science  .,.-.--.••    ISl 


ITALIAX  LITERATURE. 

IsTRODUCTios.— 1.  Italian  Literature  and  its  Divisions, — 2.  The  Language. 

Period  First. — 1.  Early  Poetry  and  Prose.— 2.  Dante;  the  Divine  Comedy.— 3.  Pe- 
trarch.— 4.  Boccaccio  and  other  prose  writers  ;  Villani,  Sacchetti. — 5.  The  first  decline 
of  Italian  Literature  ;  the  fifteenth  Century. 

Period  Second.- 1.  The  close  of  the  fifteenth  Century  ;  L^jrenzo  de'  Medici.— 2.  The 
origin  of  the  Drama  and  Romantic  Epic ;  Poliziano,  Pulci,  Boiardo. — 3.  Romantic  Epic 
Poetry;  Ariosto.— 4.  Heroic  Epic  Poetry;  Tasso.— 5.  Lyric  Poetry;  Bembo,  Molza, 
Tarsia,  V.  Colonna.— 6.  Dramatic  Poetry;  Trissino,  Rucellai;  the  -writers  of  Comedy. 
—7.  Pastoral  Drama  and  Didactic  Poetry;  Beceari,  Sannazzaro,  Tasso,  Guarini, 
Rucellai,  Alamanni.— S.  Satiricai  Poetry,  Novels  and  Tales ;  Bernl,  Graezini,  Firenzu- 
ola,  Bandello,  and  others.— 9.  History;  Machiavelli,  Guicciardini,  Nardi,  and  others. 
—10.  Grammar  and  Rhetoric  ;  the  Academy  detla  Criisca,  Delia  Casa,  Speroni,  and 
others.— IL  Science,  Philosophy  and  Politics;  the  Academy  del  C'im^nio,  Galileo, 
Torricelli,  Borelli,  Patrizi,  Telesio,  Campanella,  Bruno,  Castiglione,  Machiavelli,  and 
others.- 12.  Decline  of  the  Literature  in  the  seventeenth  Century. — 13.  Epic  and  Lyric 
Poetry;  Marini,  Fllicaja.— 14.  Mock  Heroic  Poetry,  the  Drama  and  Satire ;  Tassoni, 
Bracciolini,  Andreini,  and  others. — 15.  History  and  epistolary  writings  ;  Davila,  Benti- 
voglio,  Sarpi,  Redi. 

Period  Third.— 1.  Historical  Development  of  the  Third  Period.— 2.  The  Melodrama; 
Rinuccini,  Zeno,  Metastasio.— 3.  Comedy;  Goldoni,  C.  Gozzi,  and  others. — i.  Tragedy  ; 
Mafl'ei,  Alfieri,  Monti,  Manzoni,  Nicolini,  and  others.— 5.  Lyric,  Epic,  and  Didactic 
Poetry  ;  Parini,  ?.Ionti,  XJgo  Foscolo,  Leopardi,  Gross!,  Lorenzi,  and  others.  — 6.  Heroic- 
Comic  Poetry,  Satire,  and  Fable ;  Fortiguerri,  Passeroni,  G.  Gozzi,  Parini,  Giusti, 
and  others. — 7.  Romances  ;  Verri,  Manzoni,  D'Azeglio,  Cantu,  GuerrazzL,  and  others, — 

8.  History;     Muratori,  Vico,  Giannone,  Botta,   Colletta,    Tiraboschi,    and    others. — 

9.  Esthetics,  Criticism,  Philology,   and  Philosophy;    Baretti,  I'arini,  Giordani,  Gioja, 
Comagnosi,  Galluppi,  Rosmioi,  Gioberti  ......     198 

1- 


CONTEXTS. 


FREXCH   LITERATURE. 

IxTRODCCTiON. — 1.  French  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language. 

Period  First.— 1.  The  Troubadours.— 2.  The  Trouveres. — 3.  French  Literature  in  the 
Fifteenth  Century,  Charles  of  Orleans,  Villon,  Ville-Hardouin,  Joinville,  Froissart 
Philippe  de  Commines. 

Period  Second. — 1.  The  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation;  Marguerite  de  Valois, 
Marot,  Rabelais, Calvin,  Montaigne,  Charron,  and  others.— 2.  Light  Literature;  Ronsard, 
Jodelle,  Hardy,  Malherbe,  Scarron,  Madame  de  Rambouillet,  and  others. — 3.  The 
French  Academy. — 4.  The  Drama;  Corneille. — 5.  Philosophy;  Descartes,  Pascal;  Port 
Royal.— 6.  The  rise  of  the  Golden  Age  of  French  Literature ;  Louis  XIV.— 7.  Tragedy  ; 
Racine.— 8.  Comedy  ;  Moliere.— 9.  Fables,  Satires,  Mock-IIeroic,  and  other  Poetry  ; 
La  Fontaine,  Boileau.— 10.  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit  and  of  the  Bar ;  Bourdaloue,  Bos- 
suet,  Massillon,  Flechier,  Le  Maitre,  D'Aguesseau,  and  others. — 11.  Moral  Philosophy  ; 
Rochefoucauld,  La  Bruycre,  Nicole.— 12.  History  and  Memoirs  ;  Mtfzeray,  Fleury^ 
RoUin,  Brantome,  the  Duke  of  Sully,  Cardinal  de  Retz.— 13.  Romance  and  Lette- 
"Writing;  Fenelon,  Madame  de  Sevigne. 

Period  Third.- 1.  The  Dawn  of  Skepticism  ;  Bayle,  J.  B.  Rousseau,  Fontenelle, 
Lamotte. — 2.  Progress  of  Skepticism  ;  Montesquieu,  Voltaire. — 3.  French  Literature 
during  the  Revolution ;  D'Holbach,  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  J.  J.  Rousseau,  BufiFon,  Beau- 
marchais,  St.  Pierre,  and  others. — i.  French  Literature  under  the  Empire  ;  Madame 
de  Stael,  Chateaubriand,  Royer-Collard,  Bonald,  De  Maistre.— 5.  French  Literature 
from  the  age  of  the  Restoration  to  the  present  time ;  Barante,  Guizot,  Thierry,  Miche- 
let,  Thiers,  Cousin,  Lamennais,  Comte ;  the  Romantic  School ;  Beranger,  Delavigne, 
Lamartine,  Victor  Uusjo,  Sand,  Sue,  Scribe,  and  others.         .  .  .    249 

SPANISH  LITERATURE. 

iNTRODUcnos.— 1.  Spanish  Literature  and  its  divisions. — 2.  The  Language. 

Period  First.— 1.  Early  National  Literature;  the  Poem  of  the  Cid;  Berceo,  Alfonso 
the  Wise,  Segura ;  Don  Juan  Manuel,  the  Archpriest  of  Hita,  Santob,  Ayala.— 2.  Old 
Ballads.— 3.  The  Chronicles.— 4.  Romances  of  Chivalry. — 5.  The  Drama.— 6.  Provencal 
Literature  in  Spain.— 7.  The  influence  of  Italian  Literature  in  Spain.— 8.  The  Canci- 
oneros  and  Prose  writing. — 9.  The  Inquisition. 

Period  Second. — The  efifect  of  Intolerance  on  Letters— 2.  Influence  of  Italy  on 
Spanish  Literature;  Boscan,  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  Diego  de  Mendoza.— 3.  History; 
Cortez,  Gomara,  Oviedo,  Las  Casas. — 4.  The  Drama,  Rueda,  Lope  de  Vega,  Cal- 
deron  de  la  Barca.— 5.  Romances  and  Tales ;  Cervantes,  and  other  writers  of 
fiction.— 6.  Historical  Narrative  Poems;  Ercilla.— 7.  Lyric  Poetry;  the  Argenso- 
las ;  Luis  de  Leon,  Quevedo,  Ilerrera,  Gongora,  and  others.— S.  Satirical  and  other 
Poetry.— 9.  History  and  other  prose  writing;  Zurita,  JIariana,  Sandoval,  and 
others. 

Period  Third.— 1.  French  Influence  on  the  Literature  of  Spain  —2.  The  dawn  of 
Spanish  Literature  in  the  ISth  century;  Feyjoo,  Isla,  Moratin  the  elder,  Yriarte,  Me- 
lendez,  Gonzalez,  Quintana,  Moratin  the  younger.— 3.  Spanish  Literature  in  the  19th 
Century.      .......••••    '^^^ 

PORTUGUESE   LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Portuguese  Language.— 2.  Early  Literature  of  Portugal.— 3.  Poets  of  tlie 
Fifteenth  Century  ;    Macias,  Ribeyro.— 4.  Introduction  of   the  ltali:'.n  style ;    Saa  de 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Miranda,  Montemayor,  Fcrreira.— 5.  Epic  Poetry ;  Camoens  ;  the  Lusiad. — 6.  Dramatic 
Poetry' ;  Gil  Vicente. — 7.  Prose  Writing;  Rodriguez  Lobo,  Barros,  Brito,  Veira. — 
8.  Portuguese  Literature  in  the  Seventeenth,  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries ; 
Antonio  Jose,  Manuel  do  Nascimento,  Manuel  de  Bocage    ....    &43 

FIXNISn,    HUNGARIAN,    TURKISH  AND   ARMENIAN 

LITERATURES. 

1.  The  Finnish  Language  and  Literature:  Poetry;  thelvalevala;  Kovonen. — 2.  The 
Hungarian  Language  and  Literature  :  the  Age  of  Stephen  I.  ;  Influence  of  the  House  of 
Anjou;  of  the  Reformation;  of  the  House  of  Austria;  Kossuth;  Josika ;  EiJluos  ; 
Kuthy ;  Szigligeti ;  Petcifi.— 3.  The  Turkish  Language  and  Literature  :  two  dialects  ; 
Turkish  Poetry  and  History  :  Mohammed  Mir-Ali-Schir ;  Mohammed  Tschelebi ;  Lami ; 
Baki ;  Fasli ;  Saad-Ed-Din ;  Education. — 4.  Armenian  Language  and  Literature  :  Cha- 
racter of  Armenian  Literature ;  its  Golden  Age,  and  its  present  condition.  .    35S 

SLAVIC  LITERATURES. 

1.  The  Slavic  Race  and  Language  ;  the  Eastern  and  Western  Stems  ;  the  Alphabets  ; 
the  Old  or  Church  Slavic  Language ;  St.  Cyril's  Bible ;  the  Pravda  Russkaya  ;  the 
Annals  of  Nestor. — 2.  The  Russian  Language  and  Literature ;  from  the  earliest  times 
to  Peter  the  Great;  from  Peter  the  Great  to  Lomonosof;  Kirsha  Danilof,  Kanteniir ; 
from  Lomonosof  to  Karamsin ;  Lomonosof,  Sumarokof,  Von  Wisin,  Dershavin ;  from 
Karamsin  to  Nicholas  I.;  Karamsin,  Dmitrief,  Shukofsky,  Koslof;  from  Nicholas  I. 
to  the  present  time  ;  Polevoi,  Skromenko,  Oustralof,  Bestushef,  Pushkin  ;  Popular 
Songs.— 3.  The  Servian  Language  and  Literature;  Popular  Poetry ;  the  Female  Songs  ; 
the  Heroic  Poems. — 4.  The  Bohemian  Language  and  Literature;  from  the  earliest  time 
to  John  Huss  :  Early  Poetry ;  John  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague;  Golden  Age  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Literature,  its  Decline  and  Revival ;  Comenius,  Kramerius,  Dobrovsky,  Kollar, 
Schaffarik. — 5.  Tiie  Polish  Language  and  Literature ;  from  the  Introduction  of  Christ- 
ianity to  Casimir  the  Great ;  from  Casimir  the  Great  to  the  beginning  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  ;  Rey  of  Naglowic,  John  Kochanowskl,  Rybinski,  Copernicus ;  Decline 
of  the  Polish  Literature,  and  its  revival ;  Konarskl,  Zaluski,  Czartoryski,  Naruszewicz, 
Krasicki,  Niemcewicz ;  from  the  Revolution  of  1330  to  the  present  time ;  Mochnacki, 
Lelewel,  Mickiewicz ;  Popular  Songs.     .......    365 

SCANDINAVIAN   LITERATURE. 

1.  Introduction.  The  Ancient  Scandinavians  ;  their  influence  on  the  English  race.— 
2.  The  Mythology. — 3.  The  Scandinavian  Languages. — 1.  Icelandic,  or  old  Norse  Litfr 
rature :  the  Poetic  Edda,  the  Prose  Edda,  the  Scalds,  the  Sagas,  the  Heimskringla. 
The  Folks-sagas  and  Ballads  of  the  Middle  Ages.— 5.  Danish  Literature  :  Saxo  Gramma 
ticus  and  Theodoric.  Arreboe,  Kingo,  Tycho  Brahe,  Holberg,  Evald,  Baggesen,  Rah- 
bek,  Oehlenschlager,  Grundtvig,  Blicher,  Ingemann,  Heiberg,  Hans  Christian  Andersen 
and  others.  Malte  Brun,  Rask,  Rafn,  Magnusen,  the  brothers  Oersted.— 6.  Swedish 
Literature:  Messenius,  Stjernhjelm,  Lucidor  and  others.  The  Gallic  period;  Dalin, 
Nordenflycht,  Crutz  and  Gyllenborg,  Gustavus  III.,  Kellgren,  Leopold,  Oxenstjerna. 
The  new  Era ;  Bellman,  Hallman,  Kexel,  Wallenberg,  Lidner,  Thorild,  Lengien,  Fran» 
zen,  Wallin.  The  Phosphorists ;  Atterbora,  Hammarskold  and  Palmblad.  The  Gothic 
School ;  Geijer,  Tegner,  Stagnelius,  Almquist,  Vitalis,  Runeberg  and  others.  The  Ro- 
mance writers  ;  Cederborg,  Bremer,  Carlen,  Knorrinp:.  Science  ;  Swedenborg,  Liuna-ua 
and  others 380 


XU  COXTEXTS. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

Introdcction. — 1.  German  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Mythology.— S.  Th« 
Language. 

Period  First. — 1.  Early  Literature;  Translation  of  the  Bible  by  Ulphilas  ;  the 
Hildebrand  Lied. — 2.  The  Age  of  Charlemagne ;  his  Successors  ;  the  Ludwigs  Lied  ; 
Roswitlia  ;  the  Lombard  Cycle. — 3.  The  Suabian  Age ;  the  Crusades ;  the  Minne- 
singers ;  the  Romances  of  Chivalry  ;  the  Heldenbuch  ;  the  Xibelungen  Lied. — 4.  The 
Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries;  the  Master  Singers;  Satires  and  Fables;  Mys- 
teries and  Dramatic  Representations ;  the  Mystics  ;  the  Universities  ;  the  invention  of 
Printing. 

PtKioD  Second — From  1517  to  1700. — 1.  The  Lutheran  Period  ;  Luther,  Melanchthon. — 
2.  Manuel,  Zwingle,  Fischart,  Franck,  Arnd,  Boehm. — 3.  Poetry,  Satire  and  Demono- 
logy  ;  Paracelsus  and  Agrippa  ;  the  Thirty  Years'  War. — 4.  The  Seventeenth  Century; 
Opitz,  Leibnitz,  Pufendorf,  Kepler,  AVolf,  Thomasius,  Gerhard;  Silesian  Schools  ;  Uolf- 
manswaldau,  Lohenstein. 

Pkriod  Third.— 1.  The  Swiss  and  Saxon  Schools ;  Gottsched,  Bodmer,  Rabener, 
Gellert,  Kastner,  and  others. — 2,  Klopstock,  Lessing,  "Wieland  and  Herder.— 3. 
Goethe  and  Schiller.— 4  The  GiJttingen  School;  Voss,  Stolberg,  Claudius,  Burger  and 
others. — ^.  The  Romantic  School ;  the  Schlegels,  Novalis  ;  Tieck,  Korner,  Arndt, 
Uhland,  and  otliers. — C.  The  Drama;  Goethe  and  Schiller  ;  the  Power  Men  ;  Milliner, 
Werner,  Ilowald  and  Grillparzer. — 7.  Novels,  Romances  and  Legends ;  Goethe, 
Richter,  Tieck,  Novalis,  and  others.— S.  Literary  History  and  Criticism ;  Winckel- 
niann;  the  Schlegels,  Grimm,  and  others. — 9.  History  and  Theology.— 10.  Philosophy; 
Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling  and  Hegel. — 11.  Miscellaneous  Writings.      .  ,  .    404 

DUTCH  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language.— 2.  Dntth  Literature  to  tlie  IGth  Century  ;  Maeilant ;  Kiel's  Stoke; 
DeWeert;  The  Chambers  of  Rlietoric;  The  Flemish  Chronicle.s;  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch 
Republic— 3.  The  Latin  Writers  ;  Erasmus ;  G.-otius  ;  Arminius  ;  Lipsius  ;  The  Scali- 
gers,  and  others;  Salmasius  ;  Spinoza;  Boerhaave;  Johannes  Secundus. — 4.  Dutch 
Writers  of  the  16th  Century;  Anna  Byns;  Coornhert  ;  Marnix  de  St.  Aldegonde  ; 
Bor,  Vissclier  and  Spieghel. — 5.  Writers  of  the  17th  Century  ;  Hooft  ;  Vondel  ;  Cats  ; 
Antonides;  Brandt,  and  others;  Decline  in  Dutch  Literature.— 6.  The  ISth  Century; 
Poot ;  Langendijk  ;  Hoogvliet ;  De  Marre  ;  Feitama  ;  Huydecoper;  The  Van  Harens  ; 
Smits  ;  Ten  Kate  ;  Vifti  Winter  ;  Van  Merken  ;  De  Lannoy  ;  Van  Alphen  ;  Bellamy  ; 
Nieuwland,  StyL  and  others.- 7.  The  19th  Century;  Feith ;  Helmers  ;  Bilderdyk  ; 
Van  der  Palm  ;  Loosjes  ;  Loots,  Tollens,  Van  Kampen,  De  s'Gravenweert,  Van  Hoevell, 
others.  ...........     447 

EXGLISH   LITERATURE. 

I.VTHODUCTiON.— 1.  Engliftli  Literature.— l\s  Divisions.     2.   Tlie  language. 

Period  First.— 1.  Celtic  Literature.— Irish,  Scotch,  and  Cymric  Celts  ;  the  Chroni- 
cles of  Ireland  ;  Ossian's  Poems  ;  Traditions  of  Arthur ;  the  Triads  ;  Tales.  2.  Latin, 
Literature.— hede  \  Alcuin  ;  Erigena.  3.  Anglo-Saxon  Literature.— Poetry  ;  Prose; 
Versions  of  Scripture  ;  the  Saxon  Chronicle  ;  Alfred. 

Pkriod  Skco.nd.— The  Norman  Age  and  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries.— 
1.  Literature  in  the  Latin  Tongue.  2.  Literature  in  Norman-French.— Voeiry ; 
Jlomances  of  Chivalry.    3.  S<txon-EngU.^h.—'SleU-\ci\\  remains.     4.  Literature  in  tJiM 


•  •> 


CONTEXTS.  XUl 

Fourteenth  Centiinj.—'Pcose  Writers  ;  Occam,  Duns  Scotus,  Wickliffe,  Mandevllle, 
Chaucer.  Poetrj-;  Langland,  Gower,  Chaucer.  5.  Literature  in  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
<Mry.— Ballads.  6.  Poets  of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  in  Scotland.— 
"WyntouD,  Barbour,  and  others. 

Pkriod  Third.— I.  Age  of  the  Reformation  (1509-58) —Classical,  Theological,  and 
Miscellaneous  Literature  ;  Sir  Thomas  More  and  others.  Poetry ;  Skelton,  Surrey,  and 
Sackville  ;  the  Drama.  2.  The  Age  of  Spenser.,  Shakspea>'e,  Bacoii,  and  Milton  (155S- 
1660,).  Scholastic  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature;  Translations  of  the  Bible;  Hooker, 
Andrews,  Donne,  Hall,  Taylor,  Baxter ;  other  Prose  Writers ;  Fuller,  Cudworth,  Ba- 
con, Hobbes,  Kaleigh,  Milton,  Sidney,  Selden,  Burton,  Browne,  and  Cowley ;  Dramatic 
Poetry.  Marlowe  and  Greene,  Shakspeare,  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Ben  Jonson,  and 
others;  Massinger,  Ford,  and  Shirley  ;  Decline  of  the  Drama.  Non-dramatic  Poetry; 
Spenser  and  the  Minor  Poets.  Lyrical  Poets ;  Donne,  Cowley,  Denham,  Waller,  Mil- 
ton. 3.  The  Age  of  the  Restoration  and  Revolution  (lGGO-1702).  Prose;  Le'gh- 
ton,  Tillotson,  Barrow,  Bunyan,  Locke,  and  others.  The  Drama ;  Dryden,  Otway. 
Comedy  ;  Didactic  Poetry  ;  Roscommon,  Marvell,  Butler,  Pryoi-,  Dryden.  4.  The 
Eighteenth  Century.  The  First  Generation  (1702-27);  Pope,  Swift,  and  others; 
the  Periodical  Essayists  ;  Addison,  Steele.  The  Second  Generation  (1727-'60) ; 
Theology ;  Warburton,  Butler,  Watts,  Doddridge.  Philosophy ;  Hume.  Miscella- 
neous Prose  ;  Johnson ;  the  Novelists  ;  Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  and  Sterne. 
The  Drama ;  Non-dramatic  Poetry ;  Young,  Blair,  Akenside,  Thomson,  Gray, 
and  Collins.  The  Third  Generation  (1760-lSOO) ;  the  Historians  ;  Hume,  Robert- 
son, and  Gibbon.  Miscellaneous  Prose  ;  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  "  Junius,"  Pitt, 
Fox,  Sheridan,  and  Burke.  Criticism;  Burke,  Reynolds,  Campbell,  Kames.  Political 
Economy ;  Adam  Smith.  Ethics  ;  Paley,  Smith,  Tucker.  Metaphysics  ;  Reid.  Theo- 
logical and  Religious  AVriters;  Campbell,  Palej',  Watson,  Newton,  Hannah  More,  and 
Wilberforce.  Poetry  ;  Comedies  of  Goldsmith  and  Sheridan ;  Minor  Poets ;  Later 
Poems;  Beattie's Minstrel ;  Cowper  and  Burns.  5.  The  Xineteenth  Centurij. — First 
Age  (1SOO-'30) ;  the  Poets ;  Campbell,  Southey,  Scott,  Byron,  Coleridge,  and  Words- 
worth, Wilson,  Shelley,  Keats,  Crabbe,  Moore,  and  others.  Prose ;  the  Waverley 
and  other  Novels.  Periodical  Writings ;  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  Review  and 
Blackwood's  Magazine.  Criticism  ;  Jeffrey,  Coleridge,  Hazlitt,  Lamb,  Wilson.  Social 
Science;  Bentham  and  others.  Historj' ;  Hallam  and  others.  Theology;  Foster,  Hall, 
and  Chalmers.  Philosophy;  Stewart,  Brown,  Mackintosh,  and  Bentham,  Alison  and 
others.  The  Second  Age  (ISSO-'GO).— Poets ;  Tennj-son  and  others.  Novels;  BuL 
wer,  Thackeray,  and  Dickens.  History  and  Essaj's ;  Hallam,  De  Quincoy,  Macaulay, 
Carlyle.  Religious  Works  ;  Newspapers  and  Magazines  ;  Philologj- ;  Travels;  Physical 
Science ;  Political  Economy  ;  Logic  ;  Metaphj^sics,     .....    4(31 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

The  Colonial  Pkriod. — 1.  The  seventeenth  century.  George  Sandys  ;  The  Bay  Psalm 
Book;  Anne  Bradstreet,  John  Eliot  and  Cotton  Mather.^ — 2.  From  1700  to  1770  :  Jona- 
than Edwards,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Cadwallader  Colden. 

Fip.ST  American  Period  from  1771  to  1S20. — 1.  Statesmen  and  political  writers : 
Washington,  Jefiferson,  Hamilton.  The  Federalist:  Jay,  Madison,  Marshall,  Fisher  Ames 
and  others. — 2.  The  Poets  :  Freneau,  Trumbull,  Hopkinson,  Barlow,  Clifton  and 
Dwight. — 3.  Writers  in  other  departments :  Bellamy,  Hopkins,  Dwight  and  Bishop 
White.  Rush,  McClurg,  Lindley  Murray,  Charles  Brockden  Brown.  Ramsay,  Graydon. 
Count  Rumford,  Wirt,  Ledyard,  Piukney  and  Pike. 

Second  American  Period  from  1S20  to  ISGO. — 1.  History,  Biography,  and  Travels: 
Bancroft,  Prescott,  Motley,  Godwin,    Ticknor,  Schoolcraft,  Hildreth,  Sparks,  Irving, 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

Ileadley,  Stephens,  Kane,  Squier,  Perry,  Lynch,  Taylor,  and  others. — 2.  Oratory ; 
Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Benton,^  Everett,  and  others. — 3.  Fiction  :  Cooper,  Irving, 
Willis,  Hawthorne,  Poe,  Simms,  Mrs.  Stowe,  and  others. — 4.  Poetry :  Bryant,  Dana, 
Halleck,  Longfellow,  Willis,  Lowell,  Allston,  Ilillhouse,  Drake,  Whittier,  Hoffman,  and 
others. — 5.  Miscellaneous  writings :  Emerson,  Margaret  Fuller,  Whipple,  Tuckerman, 
Ripley,  Curtis,  Briggs,  Prentice  and  others. — 6.  Encyclopaedias,  Dictionaries,  and  Educa- 
tional Books.  The  Encyclopaedia  Americana.  The  New  American  Cyclopaedia.  Allibone, 
Griswold,  Duyckinck,  Webster,  Worcester,  Anthon,  Felton,  Barnard,  and  others. — 7. 
Theology,  Philosophy,  Economy,  and  Jurisprudence  :  Stuart,  Robinson,  Wayland, 
Barnes,  Channing,  Parker.  Tappan,  Henry,  Hickok,  Haven.  Carey,  Kent,  Wheaton, 
Story,  Livingston,  Bouvier. — S.  Natural  Sciences  :  Franklin,  Morse,  Fulton,  SiUiman, 
Dana,  Hitchcock,  Rogers,  Bowditch,  Peirce,  Bache,  Holbrook,  Audubon,  Morton,  Glid- 
don,  Maury,  and  others. — 9.  Foreign  writers :  Paine,  Witherspoon,  Rowson,  Priestlej', 
Wilson,  Agassiz,  Guyot,  Mrs.  Robinson,  Gurowski,  and  others. — 10.  Newspapers  and 
Periodicals.  ..........      525 


Index.      ..........  .551 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  LAl^GUAGES. 

Modem  philologists  have  made  various  classifications  of  the 
languages  of  tlie  world,  based  upon  difi*erent  peculiarities.  One  of 
the  most  ingenious  is  that  of  Max  Miiller,  an  eminent  philologist  of 
our  time,  who  regards  the  development  of  human  language  as  cor- 
responding to  the  social  development  of  man,  the  antediluvian  age 
being  the  epoch  of  roots,  and  the  next,  or  family  stage,  being  the  phi- 
lologic  epoch  of  juxtaposition  and  concentration,  as  in  the  Chinese. 
Then  follows  the  nomadic  or  agglutinative  stage  of  the  Turanian 
tongues,  and  lastly  the  political  stage,  or  that  of  amalgamation, 
represented  in  the  two  cardinal  nuclei  of  the  Semitic  and  Aiyan 
languages. 

Another  arrangement,  based  on  outward  differences  of  form, 
divides  the  various  languages  of  the  world  into  three  great  classes  : 
the  Monosyllabic^  the  Agglutinated^  and  the  Inflected. 

The  first^  or  Monosyllabic  class,  contains  those  languages  which 
consist  only  of  separate,  unvaried  monosyllables.  The  words  have 
no  organization  that  adapts  them  for  mutual  affiliation,  and  there 
is  in  them  accordingly  an  uttor  absence  of  all  scientific  forms  and 
principles  of  grammar.  The  Chinese,  and  a  few  languages  in  its 
vicinity,  doubtless  originally  identical  with  it.  are  all  that  belong 
to  this  class.  The  languages  of  the  North  American  Indians, 
though  differing  in  many  respects,  have  the  same  general  grade  of 
character. 

The  second  class  consists  of  those  languages  which  are  formed 
by  agglutination.  The  words  combine  only  in  a  mechanical  way  ; 
they  have  no  elective  affinity,  and  exhibit  toward  each  other  none 
of  the  active  or  sensitive  capabilities  of  living  organisms.  Prepo- 
sitions are  joined  to  substantives,  and  pronouns  to  verbs,  but  never 
so  as  to  make  a  new  form  of  the  original  word,  as  in  the  inflected 
languages,  and  words  thus  jjlaced  in  juxtaposition  retain  their  per- 
sonal identity  unimpaired. 

The  agglutinative  languages  are  known  also  as  the  Turanian, 

XT 


XVI  CLASSIFICATION    OF   LANGUAGES. 

from  Turan,  a  name  of  Central  Asia,  and  tlic  principal  varieticg 
of  this  family  are  the  Tatar,  Finnish,  Lappish,  Hungarian,  and 
Caucasian.  Thej  are  classed  together  almost  exclusively  on  the 
ground  of  correspondence  in  their  grammatical  structure,  but  thej 
are  bound  together  by  ties  of'farless  strength  than  those  which 
connect  the  inflected  languages.  The  race  by  whom  they  are 
spoken  has,  from  the  first,  occupied  more  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth  than  either  of  the  others,  stretching  westward  from  the 
shores  of  the  Japan  Sea  to  the  neighborhood  of  Yienna,  and  south- 
ward from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  Affghanistan  and  the  southern  coast 
of  Asia  Minor. 

The  inflected  languages  form  tlie  tliini  great  division.  They 
have  all  a  complete  interior  organization,  complicated  with  many 
mutual  relations  and  adaptations,  and  are  thoroughly  systematic  in 
all  their  parts.  Between  this  class  and  the  monosyllabic  there  is 
all  the  diflerence  that  there  is  between  organic  and  inorganic  forms 
of  matter ;  and  between  them  and  the  agglutinative  languages 
there  is  the  same  difference  that  exists  in  nature  between  mineral 
accretions  and  vegetable  growths.  The  boundaries  of  this  class  of 
languages  are  the  boundaries  of  cultivated  humanity,  and  in  their 
history  lies  embosomed  that  of  the  civilized  portions  of  the  world. 

Two  great  races  speaking  inflected  languages,  the  Semitic  and 
Indo-European,  have  shared  between  them  the  peopling  of  the 
historic  portions  of  the  earth;  and  on  this  account  these  two  lan- 
guages have  sometimes  been  called  political  or  state  languages,  in 
contrast  with  the  appellation  of  the  Turanian  as  nomadic. 

The  term  Semitic  is  applied  to  that  family  of  languages  which 
are  native  in  southwestern  Asia,  and  whicli  are  supposed  to  have 
been  spoken  by  the  descendants  of  Shem,  the  son  of  Noah.  They 
are  the  Hebrew,  Aramsean,  Arabic,  the  ancient  Egyptian  or  Coptic, 
the  Chaldean  and  Phoenician.  Of  these  the  only  living  language 
of  note  is  the  Arabic,  which  has  supplanted  all  the  others,  and 
wonderfully  diffused  its  elements  among  the  constituents  of  many 
of  the  Asiatic  tongues.  In  Europe  the  Arabic  has  left  a  deep  im- 
press on  the  Spanish  language,  and  is  still  represented  in  the  Maltese, 
which  is  one  of  its  dialects. 

The  Semitic  languages  differ  widely  from  the  Indo-European  in 
reference  to  their  grammar,  vocabulary  and  idioms.  On  account  of 
the  great  preponderance  of  the  pictorial  element  in  them,  they  may 
be  called  the  metaphorical  languages,  while  the  Indo-European, 
from  the  prevailing  style  of  their  liigher  literature,  may  be  called 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   LAXGCTAGES.  XVll 

the  philosopliical  languages.  The  Semitic  nations  also  diifer  from 
the  Indo-European  in  their  national  characteristics ;  while  they  have 
lived  with  remarkable  nuiformitj  on  the  vast  open  plains,  or  wan- 
dered over  the  wide  and  drearj  deserts  of  their  native  region,  the 
Indo-Europeans  have  spread  themselves  over  both  hemispheres, 
and  carried  civilization  to  its  highest  development.  But  the  Semitic 
mind  has  not  been  without  influence  on  human  progress.  It  early 
recorded  its  thoughts,  its  wants,  and  achievements  in  the  hiero- 
glyphs of  ancient  Egypt ;  the  Phoenicians,  foremost  in  their  day  in 
commerce  and  the  arts,  invented  alphabetic  letters,  of  which  all 
the  world  has  since  made  use.  The  Jewish  portion  of  the  race, 
long  in  communication  with  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Babylonia,  and 
Persia,  could  not  fail  to  impart  to  these  nations  some  knowledge  of 
their  religion  and  literature,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  many 
new  ideas  and  quickening  influences  were  thus  set  in  motion,  and 
communicated  to  the  more  remote  countries  both  of  the  East  and 
West. 

The  most  ancient  languages  of  the  Indo-European  stock  may  be 
grouped  in  two  distinct  family  pairs :  the  Aryan,  which  comprises 
two  leading  families,  the  Indian  and  Iranian,  and  the  Grseco-Italic 
or  Pelasgic,  which  comprises  the  Greek  family  and  its  various  dia- 
lects, and  the  Italic  family,  the  chief  sub-divisions  of  which  are 
the  Etruscan,  the  Latin,  and  the  modern  languages  derived  from 
the  Latin.  The  other  Indo-European  families  are  the  Lettic,  Slavic, 
Gothic,  and  Celtic,  with  their  various  sub-divisions. 

The  word  Aryan  (Sanscrit,  Arya),  the  oldest  known  name  of  the 
entire  Indo-European  family,  signifies  well-born,  and  was  applied 
by  the  ancient  Hindus  to  themselves  in  contradistinction  to  the 
rest  of  the  world,  whom  they  considered  base-born  and  con- 
temptible. 

In  the  country  called  Aryavarta,  lying  between  the  Himalaya  and 
the  Yindhya  Mountains,  the  high  table-land  of  Central  Asia,  more 
than  two  thousand  years  before  Christ,  our  Hindu  ancestors  had 
their  early  home.  From  this  source  there  have  been  historically 
two  great  streams  of  Aryan  migration.  One,  towards  the  south, 
stagnated  in  the  fertile  valleys  where  they  were  walled  in  from  all 
danger  of  invasion,  by  the  Himalaya  Mountains  on  the  north,  the 
Indian  Ocean  on  the  south,  and  the  deserts  of  Bactria  on  the  west, 
and  where  the  people  sunk  into  a  life  of  inglorious  ease,  or  wasted 
their  powers  in  the  regions  of  dreamy  mysticism.  The  other  mi- 
gration, at  first  northern,   and  then  western,   includes  the  great 


Xvm  CLASSIFICATION    OF   LANGUAGES. 

families  of  nations  in  northwestern  Asia  and  in  Europe.  Forced 
by  circumstances  into  a  more  objective  life,  and  under  the  stimulus 
of  more  favorable  influences,  these  nations  have  been  brought  into 
a  marvellous  state  of  individual  and  social  progress,  and  to  this 
branch  of  the  human  family  belongs  all  the  civilization  of  the 
present,  and  most  of  that  which  distinguishes  the  past. 

The  Indo-European  family  of  languages  far  surpasses  the  Semitic 
in  variety,  flexibility,  beauty,  and  strength.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
vitality,  and  has  the  power  of  continually  regenerating  itself  and 
bringing  forth  new  linguistic  creations.  It  renders  most  faithfully 
the  various  workings  of  the  human  mind,  its  wants,  its  aspirations, 
its  passion,  imagination,  and  reasoning  power,  and  is  most  in  har- 
mony with  the  ever  progressive  spirit  of  man.  In  its  varied  scien- 
tific and  artistic  development  it  forms  the  most  perfect  family  of 
languages  on  the  globe,  and  modern  civilization,  by  a  chain  reaching 
through  thousands  of  years,  ascends  to  this  primitive  source. 


HANDBOOK   OF  UNIVERSAL  LITEBATUKE. 


-4W- 


HEBEEW  LITEEATUEE. 

1.  Hebrew  Literature  ;  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Language ;  its  Alphabet ;  its  Struc- 
ture ;  Peculiarities,  Formation,  and  Phases. — 3.  The  Old  Testament. — L  Hebrew  Edu- 
cation.—5.  Fundamental  Idea  of  Hebrew  Literature.— 6.  Hebrew  Poetry. — 7.  Lyric 
Poetry ;  Songs  ;  the  Psalms  ;  the  Prophets. — 8.  Pastoral  Poetry.— 9.  Didactic  Poetry  ; 
the  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes. — 10.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poetry  ;  the  Book  of  Job. — 
11.  Hebrew  History  ;  the  Pentateuch  and  other  Historical  Books. — 12.  Hebrew  Philoso- 
phy.— 13.  Restoration  of  the  Sacred  Books. — 14.  ManuBcripts  and  Translationa. — 
15.  Rabbinical  Literature. 

1.  Hebrew  Literature. — The  Hebrew  Literature  expresses 
the  national  character  of  that  ancient  people,  who  were  selected 
by  God  as  the  conservators  of  His  revelation,  and  who,  for  a 
period  of  four  thousand  years,  through  captivity,  dispersion  and 
persecution  of  every  kind,  present  the  wonderful  spectacle  of  a 
race  preserving  its  nationality,  its  peculiarities  of  worship,  of 
doctrine  and  of  literature.  Its  history  reaches  back  to  the 
earliest  period  of  the  world,  its  code  of  laws  has  been  studied 
and  imitated  by  the  legislators  of  all  ages  and  countries,  and  its 
Hterary  monuments  surpass  in  credibility,  originality,  poetic 
strength  and  rehgious  importance  those  of  any  other  nation 
before  the  Christian  Era.  The  Hterature  of  the  Hebrews  may 
be  divided  into  the  four  following  periods  : 

The  first,  extending  from  remote  antiquity  to  the  time  of 
David,  B.C.  1048,  includes  all  the  records  of  patriarchal  civil- 
ization, transmitted  by  tradition,  previous  to  the  age  of  Moses, 
and  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  or  five  books,  written  by  him 
under  divine  inspiration,  after  he  had  delivered  the  people  from 
the  bondage  of  Egypt. 

The  seco'ud  period  extends  from  the  time  of  David  to  the 

9 


10  nEKREW    LITERATURE. 

dcalh  of  Solomon,  b.c.  1048-962,  and  to  it  we  refer  tlie  Psalms 
of  David,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  Proverbs,  Eeclesiastes, 
Josliua,  the  Judges,  Samuel,  the  Books  of  Kings,  Esther,  lluth, 
and  the  Chronicles. 

The  third  period  extends  from  the  death  of  Solomon  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  962-532,  and  to  this  age 
belong  the  writings  of  the  Prophets,  and  those  of  Ezra  and 
Xehemiah. 

The  fourth  period  extends  from  the  return  from  the  Baljy- 
lonish  caj^tivity  to  the  present  time  ;  to  it  belong  the  Septua- 
giut  translation  of  the  Bible,  the  writings  of  Josephus,  of  Philo 
of  Alexandria,  and  the  llabbinical  literature. 

2.  The  Language. — The  Hebrew  language  is  of  Semitic 
origin  ;  its  alphabet  consists  of  twenty-two  letters,  of  which  five 
are  considered  as  vowels,  each  divided  into  a  long  and  short 
vowel,  to  which  may  be  added  others  called  semi-vowels,  which 
serve  to  connect  the  consonants.  The  number  of  accents  is 
nearly  forty,  some  of  which  distinguish  the  sentences  like  the 
punctuation  of  our  language,  and  others  serve  to  determine  the 
number  of  syllables,  or  to  mark  the  tone  with  which  they  are  to 
be  sung  or  spoken. 

The  Hebrew  character  is  of  two  kinds,  the  ancient  or  square, 
and  the  modern  or  rabbinical.  In  the  first  of  these  the  Scrip- 
tures were  originally  written.  The  last  is  deprived  of  most  of  its 
angles,  and  is  more  easy  and  flowing.  The  Hebrew  words  as 
well  as  letters  are  written  from  right  to  left  in  common  with  the 
Semitic  tongues  generally,  and  the  language  is  regular,  particu- 
larly in  its  conjugations.  Indeed  it  has  but  one  conjugation, 
but  with  seven  or  eight  variations,  having  the  effect  of  as  many 
different  conjugations,  and  giving  great  variety  of  expression. 
The  predominance  of  these  modifications  over  the  noun,  the  idea 
of  time  contained  in  the  roots  of  almost  all  its  verbs,  so  expres- 
sive and  so  picturesque,  and  even  the  scarcity  of  its  prepositions, 
adjectives  and  adverbs,  make  this  language  in  its  organic  struc- 
ture breathe  life,  vigor  and  emotion,  and  its  tenses,  fluctuating 
between  the  past,  present  and  future,  express  most  truly  and 
energetically  the  character  of  the  divine  poetry,  by  which  the 
pro])hetic  idea  of  the  future  is  united  with  the  present,  and  both 
are  identified  in  eternity.  If  this  language  lacks  the  flowery 
and  luxuriant  elements  of  the  other  oriental  idioms,  no  one  of 
these  can  be  compared  with  the  Hebrew  tongue  for  the  richness 
of  its  figures  and  imagery,  for  its  depth  and  for  its  majestic  and 
imposing  features. 


HEBREW   LITER ATUEE.  II 

111  the  formation,  development  and  decay  of  this  language, 
the  following  periods  may  be  distinguished  : 

First.  From  Abraham  to  Moses,  when  the  old  stock  was 
changed  by  the  infusion  of  the  Eg^'ptiau  and  Arabic.  Abraham, 
residing  in  Chaldea,  spoke  the  Chaldaic  language,  then  travel- 
ling through  Egypt,  and  establishing  himself  in  Canaan  or  Pales- 
tine, his  language  mingled  its  elements  with  the  tongues  spoken 
by  those  nations,  and  perhaps  also  with  that  of  the  Phenicians, 
who  early  established  commercial  intercourse  with  him  and  his 
descendants.  It  is  probable  that  the  Hebrew  language  sprung 
from  the  mixture  of  these  elements. 

Second.  From  Moses  and  the  composition  of  the  Pentateuch 
to  Solomon,  when  it  attained  its  perfection,  not  without  being 
influenced  by  the  Phenician.  This  is  the  Golden  Age  of  the 
Hebrew  language. 

Third.  From  Solomon  to  Ezra,  when,  although  increasing  in 
beauty  and  sweetness,  it  became  less  pure  by  the  adoption  of 
foreign  ideas  and  idioms. 

Fourth.  From  Ezra  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  the  Maccabees, 
when  it  was  gradually  lost  in  the  Aramaean  tongue,  and  became 
a  dead  languao:e. 

The  Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages,  incited  by  the  learning  of  the 
Arabs  in  Spain,  among  whom  they  received  the  protection 
denied  them  by  Christian  nations,  endeavored  to  restore  their 
language  to  something  of  its  original  purity,  and  to  render  the 
Biblical  Hebrew  again  a  written  language  ;  but  the  Chaldaic 
idioms  had  taken  too  deep  root  to  be  eradicated — and  besides, 
the  ancient  language  was  found  insufficient  for  the  necessities  of 
an  advancing  civilization.  Hence  arose  a  new  form  of  written 
Hebrew,  called  rabbinical  from  its  origin  and  use  among  the 
Rabbins.  It  bon*owed  largely  from  many  contemporary  lan- 
guages, and  though  it  became  richer  and  more  regular  in  its 
structure,  it  retained  little  of  the  strength  and  purity  of  the 
ancient  Hebrew. 

3.  The  Old  Testament. — The  literary  productions  of  the 
Hebrews  are  collected  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
in  which,  according  to  the  celebrated  Orientalist,  Sir  WiUiam 
Jones,  we  can  find  more  eloquence,  more  historical  and  moral 
truth,  more  poetr\^ — in  a  word,  more  beauties  than  we  could 
gather  from  all  other  books  together  of  whatever  country  or 
language.  Aside  from  its  supernatural  claims,  this  book  stands 
alone  among  the  literary  monuments  of  other  nations,  for  the 
sublimity  of  its  doctrine,  as  well  as  for  the  simplicity  of  its  style. 


12  HEBREW    LITERATUKE. 

It  is  the  book  of  all  centuries,  countries  and  conditions,  and 
affords  the  best  solution  of  the  most  mysterious  problems  con- 
cerning God  and  the  world.  It  cultivates  the  taste,  it  elevates 
the  mind,  it  nurses  the  soul  with  the  word  of  life,  and  it  has 
inspired  the  best  productions  of  human  genius. 

4.  Hebrew  Educatiox. — Religion,  morals,  legislation,  history, 
poetry  and  music  were  the  special  objects,  to  which  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Levites  and  Prophets  "was  particularly  directed. 
The  general  education  of  the  people,  however,  was  rather  simple 
and  domestic.  They  were  trained  in  husbandry,  and  in  mili- 
tary and  gymnastic  exercises,  and  they  appHed  their  minds 
almost  exclusively  to  religious  and  moral  doctrines  and  to  divine 
worship  ;  they  learned  to  read  and  write  their  own  language 
correctly,  but  they  seldom  learned  foreign  languages  or  read 
foreign  books,  and  they  carefully  prevented  strangers  from  obtain- 
ing a  knowledge  of  their  own. 

5.  Fundamental  Idea  of  Hebrew  Literature. — Monotheism 
was  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  Hebrew  literature,  as  weU  as 
of  the  Hebrew  religion,  legislation,  morals,  politics  and  philoso- 
phy. The  idea  of  the  unity  of  God  constitutes  the  most  striking 
characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry,  and  chiefly  distinguishes  it  from 
that  of  all  mythological  nations.  Other  ancient  literatures  have 
created  their  divinities,  endowed  them  with  human  passions,  and 
painted  their  achievements  in  the  glowing  colors  of  poetry. 
The  Hebrew  poetry,  on  the  contrary,  makes  no  attempt  to  por- 
tray the  Deity  by  the  instruments  of  sensuous  representation, 
but  shnple,  majestic  and  severe,  it  pours  forth  a  perpetual 
anthem  of  praise  and  thanksgiving.  The  attributes  of  God,  his 
power,  his  paternal  love  and  wisdom,  are  described  in  the  most 
sublhne  language  of  any  age  or  nation.  His  seat  is  the  heavens, 
the  earth  is  his  footstool,  the  heavenly  hosts  his  servants  ;  the 
sea  is  his,  and  he  made  it,  and  his  hands  prepared  the  dry  land. 

Placed  under  the  immediate  government  of  Jehovah,  having 
with  Him  common  objects  of  aversion  and  love,  the  Hebrews 
reached  the  very  source  of  enthusiasm,  the  fire  of  which  burned 
in  the  hearts  of  the  prophets  so  fervently,  as  to  cause  them  to 
utter  the  denunciations  and  the  promises  of  the  Eternal  in  a 
tone  suited  to  the  inspired  of  God,  and  to  sing  his  attributes 
and  glories  with  a  dignity  and  authority  becoming  them,  as  the 
Ticegerents  of  God  upon  earth. 

6.  Hebrew  Poetry. — The  character  of  the  people  and  their 


HEBREW    LITERATURE.  13 

language,  its  mission,  the  pastoral  life  of  the  patriarchs,  the 
beautiful  and  grand  scenery  of  the  country,  the  wonderful  his- 
tory of  the  nation,  the  feeling  of  divine  inspiration,  the  promise 
of  a  Messiah  who  should  raise  the  nation  to  glory,  the  imposing- 
solemnities  of  the  divme  worship,  and  finally,  the  special  order 
of  the  prophets,  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  the  poetical  genius  of 
the  nation,  and  concurred  in  producing  a  form  of  poetry  which 
cannot  be  compared  with  any  other  for  its  simplicity  and  clear- 
ness, for  its  depth  and  majesty. 

These  features  of  Hebrew  poetry,  however,  spring  from  its 
internal  force  rather  than  from  any  external  form.  Indeed,  the 
Hebrew  poets  soar  far  above  all  other  poets  in  that  energy  of 
feeling,  impetuous  and  irresistible,  which  penetrates,  warms  and 
moYes  the  very  soul.  They  reveal  their  anxieties  as  well  as 
their  hopes;  they  paint  with  truth  and  love  the  actual  condition 
of  the  human  race,  with  its  sorrows  and  consolations,  its  hopes 
and  fears,  its  love  and  hate.  Thev  select  their  miages  from  the 
habitual  ideas  of  the  people,  and  they  personify  inanimate 
objects — the  mountains  tremble  and  exult,  deep  cries  unto  deep. 
Another  characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry  is  the  strong  feeling  of 
nationality  it  expresses.  Of  their  two  most  sublime  poets,  one 
was  their  legislator,  the  other  their  greatest  king. 

7.  Lyric  Poetry. — In  their  national  festivals  the  Hebrews 
sang  the  hymns  of  their  lyric  poets,  accompanied  by  musical 
instruments.  The  art  of  singing,  as  connected  with  poetry, 
flourished  especially  under  David,  who  instituted  twenty-four 
choruses,  composed  of  four  thousand  Levites,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  sing  in  the  public  solemnities.  It  is  generally  believed  that 
the  Hebrew  hTic  poetry  was  not  ruled  by  any  measure,  either 
of  syllables  or  of  time.  Its  predominant  form  was  a  succession 
of  thou'i'hts  and  a  rhvthmic  movement,  less  of  svllables  and  words 
than  of  ideas  and  images  systematically  arranged.  The  Psalms, 
especially,  are  essentially  symmetrical,  according  to  the  ritual  of 
the  Hebrews,  the  verses  being  sung  alternately  by  the  Levites 
and  by  the  people,  both  in  the  synagogues  and  more  frequently 
in  the  open  air.  The  song  of  Moses  after  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea  is  the  most  sublime  triumphal  hymn  in  any  language, 
and  of  equal  merit  is  his  song  of  thanksgiving  in  Deuteronomy. 
Beautiful  examples  of  the  same  order  of  poetry  may  be  found  in 
the  song  of  Judith  (though  not  canonical),  and  the  songs  of 
Deborah  and  Balaam.  But  Hebrew  poetry  attained  its  meridian 
splendor  in  the  Psalms  of  David.  The  works  of  God  in  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  in  the  government  of  men  ;  the  illus- 


14  IIEIUIKW    IJTEKATURE. 

trious  deeds  of  the  House  of  Jacob  ;  the  wonders  and  mysteries 
of  the  new  Covenant  are  sung  by  David  in  a  fervent  out-pouring 
of  an  impulsive,  passionate  spirit,  that  alternately  laments  and 
exults,  bows  in  contrition,  or  soars  to  the  sublimest  heights  of 
devotion.  The  Psalms,  even  now,  reduced  to  prose,  after  three 
thousand  years,  present  the  best  and  most  sublime  collection 
of  lyrical  poems,  unequalled  for  their  aspiration,  their  living- 
imagery,  their  grand  ideas,  and  majesty  of  style. 

When,  at  lenuth,  the  Hebrews,  forgetful  of  their  high  duties 
and  calling,  trampled  on  their  institutions  and  laws,  prophets 
were  raised  up  by  God  to  recall  his  wandering  people  to  their 
idlegiance.  Isaiah,  whether  he  foretells  the  future  destiny  of 
the  nation,  or  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  in  his  majestic  elo- 
(juence,  sweetness,  and  simplicity,  gives  us  the  most  perfect 
model  of  lyric  poetry.  He  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of 
Azariah  and  Ilezekiah,  and  his  writings  bear  the  mark  of  true 
inspiration. 

Jeremiah  flourished  during  the  darkest  period  in  the  history 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  under  the  last  four  kings,  pre- 
vious to  the  Captivity.  The  Lamentations,  in  which  he  pours 
forth  his  grief  for  the  fiite  of  his  country,  are  full  of  touching 
melancholy  and  pious  resignation,  and,  in  their  harmonious  and 
beautiful  tone,  show  his  ardent  patriotism  and  his  unshaken 
trust  in  the  God  of  his  fathers.  He  does  not  equal  Isaiah  in 
the  sublimity  of  his  conceptions  and  the  variety  of  his  unagery, 
but  whatever  may  be  the  imperfections  of  his  style,  they  are 
lost  in  the  passion  and  vehemence  of  his  poems. 

Daniel,  after  having  struggled  against  the  corruptions  of 
Babylon,  boldly  foretells  the  decay  of  that  empu'e  with  terrible 
power.  His  conceptions  and  images  are  truly  subhme  ;  but  his 
style  is  less  correct  and  regular  than  that  of  his  predecessors,  his 
language  being  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic. 

Such  is  also  the  style  of  Ezekiel,  a  pupil  of  Daniel,  who 
sings  the  development  of  the  obscure  prophecies  of  his  mas- 
ter. His  writings  abound  in  dreams  and  visions,  and  convey 
rather  the  idea  of  the  terrible  than  of  the  sublime. 

Tiiese  four,  from  the  length  of  their  writings,  are  called  the 
Greater  Prophets,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  twelve  Elinor 
Prophets  :  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Joxah,  Micah,  Nahum, 
Habakkuk,  Zkphaniaii,  IIagGxU,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  all 
of  whom,  though  endowed  with  different  characteristics  and 
genius,  show  in  their  writings  more  or  less  of  that  fire  and 
vigor,  which  can  only  be  found  in  writers  who  were  moved  and 
warmed  by  the  very  spirit  of  God. 


HEBREW    LITERATURE.  15 

8.  Pastoral  Poetry. — The  Song  of  Solomon  and  the  history 
of  lluth  are  the  best  specimens  of  the  Hebrew  idyl,  and  breathe 
all  the  simplicity  of  pastoral  life. 

.9.  Didactic  Poetry. — The  books  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesi- 
astes  contain  treatises  on  moral  philosopliy,  or  rather,  didactic 
poems.  The  Proverb,  which  is  a  maxim  of  wisdom,  greatly  used 
by  the  ancients  before  the  introduction  of  dissertation,  is,  as  the 
name  indicates,  the  prevalent  form  of  the  first  of  these  books. 
In  Ecclesiastes  we  have  described  the  trials  of  a  mind  which  has 
lost  itself  in  undefined  wishes  and  in  despair,  and  the  efficacious 
remedies  for  these  mental  diseases  are  shown  in  the  pictures  of 
the  vanity  of  the  world  and  in  the  final  divine  judgment,  in 
which  the  problem  of  this  life  will  have  its  complete  solution. 
Solomon,  the  author  of  these  works,  adds  splendor  to  the  sub- 
limity of  his  doctrines  by  the  dignity  of  his  style. 

10.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poetry. — The  Book  of  Job  may  be 
considered  as  belonging  either  to  epic  or  to  dramatic  poetry. 
Its  exact  date  is  uncertain  ;  some  writers  refer  it  to  the  primitive 
period  of  Hebrew  literature,  and  others  to  a  later  age  ;  and, 
while  some  contend  that  Job  was  but  an  ideal,  represent- 
ing human  sufiTering,  and  whose  story  was  sung  by  an  anonymous 
poet,  others,  with  more  probability,  regard  him  as  an  actual 
person,  exposed  to  the  trials  and  temptations  described  in  this 
wonderful  book.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  this 
monument  of  wisdom  stands  alone,  and  that  it  can  be  compared 
to  no  other  production  for  the  subhmity  of  its  ideas,  the  vivacity 
and  force  of  its  expressions,  the  grandeur  of  its  imagery,  and 
the  variety  of  its  characters.  No  other  work  represents,  in  more 
true  and  vivid  colors,  the  nobility  and  misery  of  humanity,  the 
laws  of  necessity  and  Providence,  and  the  trials  to  which  the 
good  are  subjected  for  their  moral  improvement.  Here  the 
great  struggle  between  evil  and  good  appears  in  its  true  light, 
and  human  virtue  heroically  submits  itself  to  the  ordeal  of 
misfortune.  Here  we  learn  that  the  evil  and  good  of  this  life 
are  by  no  means  the  measure  of  morality,  and  here  we  witness 
the  final  triumph  of  justice. 

11.  Hebrew  History. — Moses,  the  most  ancient  of  all  his- 
torians, was  also  the  first  leader  and  legislator  of  the  Hebrews. 
When,  at  length,  the  traditions  of  the  patriarchs  had  become 
obscured  and  confused  among  the  different  nations  of  the  earth, 
God  commanded  Moses  to  write,  under  his  own  inspiration,  the 


16  HEBREW    LITEllATUEE. 

history  of  the  human  race,  and  especially  of  his  chosen  people, 
in  order  to  bequeath  to  coming  centuries  a  memorial  of  the 
revealed  truths  and  of  the  divine  works  of  eternal  Wisdom. 
Thus,  ]\Ioses,  in  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  without  aiming  to 
write  the  complete  annals  of  the  first  period  of  the  world, 
summed  up  the  general  history  of  man,  and  described,  more 
especially,  the  genealogy  of  the  patriarchs  and  of  the  genera- 
tions previous  to  the  time  of  the  dispersion.  He  then  com- 
mences the  particular  history  of  the  Hebrews,  from  Adam  to 
Joseph,  a  period  of  two  thousand  four  hundred  years.  Here, 
we  find  the  history  of  the  Creation,  especially  of  man,  in  his 
first  unfallen  state,  his  subsequent  fall  and  misery,  the  corrup- 
tion of  mankind,  the  deluge,  the  origin  of  the  arts,  of  govern- 
ments, the  distribution  of  the  land,  the  propagation  of  the  race, 
and  many  other  facts  of  no  less  importance.  The  book  of 
Genesis  bears  internal  evidence  of  its  divine  origin  ;  it  is  the 
foundation  of  all  history,  a  precious  monument  of  the  first  records 
of  our  race. 

The  subject  of  the  book  of  Exodus  is  the  delivery  of  the  peo- 
ple from  the  Egyptian  bondage,  and  is  not  less  admirable  for 
the  importance  of  the  events  which  it  describes,  than  for  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  related.  In  this,  and  in  the  following 
book  of  Numbers,  the  record  of  patriarchal  life  gives  place  to 
the  teachings  of  Moses  and  to  the  history  of  the  wanderings  in 
the  deserts  of  Arabia. 

In  Leviticus  the  constitution  of  the  priesthood  is  described,  as 
well  as  the  peculiarities  of  a  worship,  which  was  but  the  symbol 
and  preparation  of  the  future  sacrifice  of  the  Son  of  God. 

Deuteronomy  records  the  laws  of  Moses,  and  concludes  with 
his  sublime  hymn  of  thanksgiving. 

The  historical  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings, 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  etc.,  contain  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  nation 
for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  and  relate  the  prosperity  and  the 
disasters  of  the  chosen  people,  and  the  stupendous  works  which 
God  wrought  in  their  behalf.  Here  are  recorded  the  deeds  of 
Joshua,  of  Samson,  of  Samuel,  of  David,  and  of  Solomon,  the 
building  of  tlie  Temple,  the  division  of  the  tribes  into  two  kin^ 
doms,  the  prodigies  of  EHjali  and  Elisha,  the  impieties  of  Ahab, 
the  calamities  of  Jedekiah,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  of 
the  first  Temple,  the  dispersion  and  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
the  deliverance  under  Cyrus,  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  and 
temple  under  Ezra,  and  other  great  events  in  Hebrew  history. 

The  internal  evidence  derived  from  the  peculiar  character  of 
each  of  the  historical  books  is  decisive  of  their  genuineness, 


HEBREW   LITEKATURE.  17 

wMcli  is  supported  above  all  suspicion  of  alteration  or  addition 
by  the  scrupulous  conscientiousness  and  veneration  with  which 
the  Hebrews  regarded  their  sacred  writings.  Their  authenticity 
is  also  proved  by  the  uniformity  of  doctrine,  which  pervades 
them  all,  though  written  at  different  periods  by  the  simplicity 
and  naturalness  of  the  narrations  and  by  the  sincerity  of  the 
writers. 

These  histories  display  neither  vanity  nor  adulation,  nor  do 
they  attempt  to  conceal  from  the  reader  whatever  might  be 
considered  as  faults  in  their  authors  or  their  heroes.  While 
they  select  facts  with  a  nice  judgment,  and  present  the  most 
luminous  picture  of  events  and  of  their  causes,  they  abstahi 
from  reasoning  or  speculation  in  regard  to  them. 

12.  Hebrew  Philosophy. — Although  the  Hebrews,  in  their 
difl'erent  sacred  writings,  have  transmitted  to  us  the  best  solu- 
tion of  the  ancient  philosophical  questions  on  the  creation  of  the 
world,  on  the  Providence  which  rules  it,  on  monotheism,  and  on 
the  origin  of  sin,  yet  they  have  nowhere  presented  us  with  a 
complete  system  of  philosophy. 

During  the  Captivity,  their  doctrines  were  influenced  by 
those  of  Zoroaster,  and  later,  when  many  of  the  Jews  established 
themselves  in  Egypt,  they  acquired  some  knowledge  of  the 
Greek  philosophy,  and  the  tenets  of  the  sects  of  Essenes  bear 
a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Pythagorean  and  Platonic  schools. 
This  resemblance  appears  most  clearly  in  the  writings  of  Philo 
of  Alexandria,  a  Jew,  born  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  our 
Saviour.  Though  not  belonging  to  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  he 
followed  their  example  in  adopting  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  and 
taking  them  as  the  criterion  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. So,  also,  Flavins  Josephus,  born  in  Jerusalem,  37  a.p., 
and  Numenius,  born  in  Syria,  in  the  second  century  a.d., 
adopted  the  Greek  philosophy,  and  by  its  doctrines  amphfied 
and  expanded  the  tenets  of  Judaism. 

13.  Restoration  of  the  Sacred  Books. — One  of  the  most 
important  eras  in  Hebrew  literature  is  the  period  of  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Mosaic  institutions,  after  the  return  from  the 
Captivity.  At  that  time,  Ezra  established  the  great  Synagogue, 
a  college  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  learned  men,  who  were 
appointed  to  collect  copies  of  the  ancient  sacred  books,  the 
originals  of  which  had  been  lost  in  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Kehemiah  soon  after  placed  this, 
or  a  new  collection,  in  the  temple.     The  design  of  these  re- 


18  HEBEEW   LITEKATUKE. 

formers  to  give  the  people  a  religious  canon  in  their  ancient 
tongue  induces  the  belief,  that  they  engaged  in  the  work  with 
the  strictest  lidelitj  to  the  old  Mosaic  institutions,  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  was  the  same  as  that  which  we  have  at  present. 

14.  Maxuscripts  and  Translations. — Of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  we  have  Hebrew  manuscripts,  printed 
editions  and  translations.  The  most  esteemed  manuscripts  are 
those  of  the  Spanish  Jews,  of  which  the  most  ancient  belong 
to  the  11th  and  12th  centuries.  The  printed  editions  of  the 
Bible  in  Hebrew  are  numerous.  The  earliest  are  those  of 
Italy.  Luther  made  his  German  translation  from  the  edition 
of  Brescia,  printed  in  1494.  The  earliest  and  most  famous 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  Septuagint,  or  Greek 
translation,  which  was  made  about  283  B.C.  It  may,  probal^ly, 
be  attributed  to  the  Alexandrian  Jews,  who,  having  lost  tlie 
knowledge  of  the  Hebrew,  caused  the  translation  to  be  made 
by  some  of  their  learned  countrymen,  for  the  use  of  the  Syna- 
gogues of  Egypt.  It  was  probably  accomphshed  under  the 
authority  of  the  Sanhedrim,  composed  of  seventy  elders,  and 
therefore  called  the  Septuagint  version,  and  from  it  the  quota- 
tions in  the  New  Testament  are  chiefly  taken.  It  was  regarded 
as  canonical  hj  the  Jews  to  the  exclusion  of  other  books  written 
in  Greek,  but  not  translated  from  the  Hebrew,  which  we  now 
call,  by  the  Greek  name,  the  Apocrypha. 

The  Vulgate  or  Latin  translation,  which  has  official  authority 
in  the  Catholic  Church,  was  made  gradually  from  the  8th  to  the 
16th  century,  partly  from  an  old  translation  which  was  made 
from  the  Greek  in  the  early  history  of  the  Church,  and  partly 
from  translations  from  the  Hebrew  made  by  St.  Jerome. 

The  Enghsh  version  of  the  Bible  now  in  use  in  England  and 
America  was  made  by  order  of  James  I.  It  was  accomphshed 
by  forty-seven  distinguished  scholars,  divided  into  six  classes,  to 
each  of  which  a  part  of  the  work  was  assigned.  This  transla- 
tion occupied  three  years,  and  was  printed  in  1611. 

15.  Rabbinical  Literature. — Rabbinical  literature  includes 
all  the  writings  of  the  rabbins,  or  teachers  of  the  Jews  in  the 
later  period  of  Hebrew  letters,  who  have  interpreted  and  deve- 
loped the  literature  of  the  earlier  ages.  The  language  made  use 
of  by  them  has  its  foundation  in  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic,  with 
various  alterations  and  modifications  in  the  use  of  words,  the 
meaning  of  which  they  have  considerably  enlarged  and  extendec* 


HEBIIEW    LITERATUEE.  19 

The  rabbins  have  frequently  borrowed  from  the  Arabic,  Greek 
and  Latin,  and  from  those  modern  tongues  spoKen  where  they 
■  geverally  resided. 

The  Talviud,  from  the  Hebrew  word  signifying  he  has  learned, 
is  a  collection  of  traditions  illustrative  of  the  laws  and  usages  of 
the  Jews.  The  Talmud  consists  of  two  parts,  the  Mishna  and 
the  Gemara.  The  Mishna  or  sccoiid  laio  is  a  collection  of  rab- 
binical rules  and  precepts  made  in  the  second  century.  The 
Gemara  {completion  or  doctrine)  was  composed  in  the  third 
century.  It  is  a  collection  of  commentaries  and  explanations 
of  the  Mishna,  and  both  together  formed  the  Jerusalem  Tal- 
mud. 

About  500  A.D.,  the  Babylonian  rabbins  composed  new  com- 
mentaries on  the  Mishna,  and  this  formed  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud. At  the  period  of  the  Christian  Era,  the  civil  constitution, 
language  and  mode  of  thinking  among  the  Jews  Imd  undergone 
a  complete  revolution,  and  were  euth'ely  different  from  what 
they  had  been  in  the  early  period  of  the  commonwealth.  The 
Mosaic  books  contained  rules  no  longer  adapted  to  the  situa- 
tion of  the  nation,  and  many  difficult  questions  arose  to  which 
their  law  afforded  no  satisfactory  solution.  The  rabbins  under- 
took to  supply  this  defect,  partly  by  commentaries  on  the  Mosaic 
precepts,  and  partly  by  the  composition  of  new  rules. 

The  Talmud  requires  that  wherever  twelve  adults  reside 
together  in  one  place,  they  shall  erect  a  synagogue  and  serve 
the  God  of  their  fathers  by  a  multitude  of  prayers  and  formali- 
ties, amidst  the  daily  occupations  of  life.  It  allows  usury,  treats 
agricultural  pursuits  with  contempt,  and  requires  strict  separa- 
tion from  the  other  races,  and  commits  the  government  to  the 
rabbins.  The  Talmud  is  followed  by  the  Rabbinites,  to  which 
sect  nearly  all  the  European  and  American  Jews  belong.  The 
sect  of  the  Caraites  reject  the  Talmud  and  hold  to  the  law  of 
Moses  only.  It  is  less  numerous  and  its  members  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  east,  or  in  Turkey  and  Eastern  Russia. 

The  Cabala,  or  oral  tradition,  is,  according  to  the  Jews,  a 
perpetual  divine  revelation,  preserved  among  the  Jewish  people 
by  secret  transmission.  It  sometimes  denotes  the  doctrines  of 
the  prophets,  but  most  commonly  the  mystical  philosophy,  which 
was  probably  introduced  into  Palestine  from  Egypt  and  Persia. 
It  was  first  committed  to  writing  in  the  second  century,  a.d.  The 
Cabala  is  divided  into  the  symbolical  and  the  real,  of  which  the 
former  o-ives  a  mvstical  signification  to  letters.  The  latter  com- 
prehends  doctrines,  and  is  divided  into  the  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical.    The  first  aims  to  explain  the  Scriptures  according  to  the 


20  HEBREW   LITERATURE. 

secret  traditions,  while  the  last  pretends  to  teach  the  art  of 
performing  miracles  by  an  artificial  use  of  the  divine  names  and 
sentences  of  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

The  Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages  acquired  great  reputation  for 
learning,  especially  in  Spain,  where  they  were  allowed  to  study 
astronomy,  mathematics  and  medicine  in  the  schools  of  the 
Moors.  Granada  and  Cordova  became  the  centres  of  rabbinical 
literature,  which  was  also  cultivated  in  France,  Italy,  Portugal 
and  Germany.  In  the  16th  century  the  study  of  Hebrew  and 
rabbinical  literature  became  common  among  Christian  scholars, 
and  in  the  following  centuries  it  became  more  interesting  and 
important  from  the  introduction  of  comparative  Philology  in 
the  department  of  languages.  At  the  present  time,  rabbhi- 
ical  literature  has  its  students  and  interpreters.  In  Padua, 
Berhn  and  Metz  there  are  seminaries  for  the  education  of  rab- 
bins, which  supply  with  able  doctors  the  synagogues  of  Italy, 
Germany  and  France  ;  the  Polish  rabbins  and  Talmudists,  how- 
ever, are  the  most  celebrated. 


SYRIAC,  CHALDAIC  A:N^D  PHCEXICIAIjT 
LITEEATUEES. 

1.  The  Languages. — 2.  Syriac  Language  and  Literature.— 3.  Chaldaic  Language  and 
Literature. — 4.  Phoenician  Literature. 

1.  The  Languages. — ^The  Syriac,  Chaldaic  and  Phenician 
languages  bear  a  close  analogy  to  tlie  Hebrew,  and  belong  like 
that  to  the  Semitic  family.  The  Syriac  and  Chaldaic  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Hebrew,  however,  by  a  less  abundance  of 
resounding  vowels,  fewer  inflections,  and  by  other  pecuUarities, 
while  the  Phenician  is  almost  identical  with  it. 

2.  Syriac  Language  and  Literature. — The  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  from  the  original  Greek,  made  in  the 
second  century  a.d.,  is  the  only  monument  of  Syriac  literatm'e 
which  has  been  preserved.  The  language  of  the  translation, 
hoY\'ever,  is  not  pm*e,  but  contains  many  words  and  phrases  of 
Greek  origin,  introduced  into  it  during  the  domination  of  the 
successors  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  that  country. 

The  language  spoken  by  the  Jews  in  Syiia  at  the  time  of 
the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  called  the  Syro-Chaldaic,  was  also 
impure,  as  is  that  spoken  in  our  day  in  Mesopotamia.  Since 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  this  language  has  been  used  by 
the  Nestorians  and  Maronites  in  then*  rehgious  services  and  in 
their  literary  works. 

The  spoken  language  of  S}Tia  has  passed  through  many 
changes,  corresponding  to  the  political  changes  of  the  country. 

3.  Chaldaic  Language  and  Literature. — The  Chaldaic  lan- 
guage was  spoken  by  the  people  of  the  Babylonian  Empire, 
the  literary  men  of  which  were  called  Chaldeans,  and  under 
that  name  they  formed  a  separate  body  among  the  people,  and 
lived  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  Egyptian  priests.  Their 
principal  occupation  was  study,  and  they  were  exempted  by  law 
iVom  any  other  office  or  duty.     The  Chaldeans  made  the  earliest 


22         STRIAC,    CIIALDAIC    AXD   niCEXICIAN   LITERATUEES. 

discoveries  in  astronomy  ;  they  understood  the  movements  of  tha 
heavenly  bodies,  and  the  use  of  the  sun-dial.  They  divided  the 
year  into  305  days,  6  hours  and  11  minutes.  CalUsthenes,  who 
accompanied  the  expedition  of  Alexander,  brought  with  him  from 
Babylon  on  his  return  the  astronomical  observations  of  1903 
years.  Unfortunately,  the  Chaldeans  perverted  astronomy  to 
the  service  of  astrology,  and  claimed  from  their  astronomical 
ol3servations  to  foretell  the  future.  Babylon  retained  for  a 
long  time  its  ancient  splendor  after  the  conquest  by  Cyrus  and 
the  final  fall  of  the  empu'e,  and  in  the  first  period  of  the  Mace- 
donian sway.  But  soon  after  that,  its  fame  was  extinguished, 
and  its  monuments,  arts  and  sciences  perished.  A  part  of  the 
books  of  Daniel  and  of  Ezra  were  ^Titten  in  the  Chaldaic 
language.  Some  fragments  of  the  history  of  Babylon  wiitten 
by  Berosus,  a  Chaldean  who  lived  in  the  third  century  e.g., 
were  preserved  by  Josephus. 

Durinsc  the  Babvlonian  exile,  the  Hebrews  learned  the  Chal- 
daic  language,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  closely  alUed  to  their 
own,  and  on  their  return  to  Palestine  it  was  for  some  time  used 
with  the  Hebrew,  the  latter  remaining  the  written  and  sacred 
tongue.  Gradually,  however,  the  Hebrew  lost  this  prerogative, 
and  in  the  second  century  a.d.  the  Chaldaic  was  the  only  spoken 
lauo-uao-e  in  Palestine. 

O  O 

4.  Phcexician  Literature. — The  Phoenicians  from  the  earliest 
ages  were  noted  for  their  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  sciences, 
and  above  all  for  their  extensive  commerce.  From  Phoenicia 
Greece  received  the  science  of  arithmetic  and  the  invention  of 
letters,  but  of  its  literature  little  is  known.  Theii'  national  his- 
torian, Sanconiathon,  lived  1250  e.g.  He  wrote,  besides  a  his- 
tory of  the  Phenicians,  treatises  on  philosophy  and  Egyptian 
theology.  Of  these  two  works  there  are  no  remains.  The 
history  was  translated  into  Greek  in  the  second  century  a.d., 
but  of  this  there  remains  only  a  long  fragment  preserved 
by  Eusebius,  the  authenticity  of  v/hich  is  by  some  writers 
denied. 


HmDU   OE  SAKSCEIT  LlTERxiTUEE. 


1.  Sanscrit  Literature  and  its  Divisions.— 2.  The  Sanscrit  Language  and  its  Antiquity; 
Its  Structure  and  Dialects.— 3.  Social  Constitution  of  India.— 4.  Brahmanism.— 5.  The 
Vedas  and  tlie  other  Sacred  Books. — 6.  Sanscrit  Poetry.— 7.  Epic  Poetry;  the  Rama- 
yana  ;  the  Mahabharata. — S.  Lyric  Poetry. — 9.  Didactic  Poetry  ;  the  Hitopadesa. — 
10.  Dramatic  Poetry. — 11.  History  and  Science. — 12.  Philosophy. — 13.  Buddhism. — 
14.  Moral  Philosophy ;  the  Code  of  Manu. — 15.  Modern  Literatures  of  India. — 16.  Edu- 
cation in  India. 

1.  Sanscrit  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — The  literary 
mouuments  of  the  Sanscrit  language  are  ranked  among  the  most 
ancient  in  the  world,  and  they  correspond  to  the  great  eras  of 
the  history  of  India.  The  first  period  reaches  back  to  that 
remote  age,  when  those  tribes  of  the  Aryan  race  speaking 
Sanscrit  emigrated  to  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  Indian 
Peninsula,  and  established  themselves  there,  an  agricultural  and 
pastoral  people.  That  was  the  age  in  which  were  composed  the 
prayers,  hymns  and  precepts,  afterwards  collected  in  the  form 
of  the  Vedas,  the  sacred  books  of  the  country.  In  the  second 
period,  the  people,  incited  by  the  desire  of  conquest,  penetrated 
into  the  fertile  valleys  lying  between  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  ; 
and  the  s-truggle  with  the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  which  followed 
their  invasion,  gave  birth  to  epic  poetry,  in  which  the  wars  of 
the  different  races  were  celebrated  and  the  extension  of  Hindu 
civilization  related.  The  third  period  embraces  the  successive 
ages  of  the  formation  and  development  of  a  learned  and  artistic 
Uterature.  It  contains  collections  of  the  ancient  traditions, 
expositions  of  the  Yedas,  works  on  grammar,  lexicography  and 
science  ;  and  its  conclusion  forms  the  golden  age  of  Sanscrit 
literature,  when  the  country  being  ruled  by  liberal  princes,  poetry, 
and  especially  the  drama,  reached  its  higliest  degree  of  perfection. 
The  chronology  of  these  periods  varies  according  to  the  systems 
of  different  orientalists.  It  is,  however,  admitted  that  the 
Yedas  are  the  first  literary  productions  of  India,  and  that  their 
origin  cannot  be  later  than  the  15th  century  b.c.  The  period 
of  the  Yedas  embraces  the  other  sacred  books,  or  commentaries 
founded  upon  them,  though  written  several  centuries  afterwards. 
The  second  period,  to  which  belong  the  two  great  epic  poems, 

23 


24  HINDU    OR   SAXSCRIT   LITER ATUEE. 

the  "  Ramayana"  and  the  '*  Mahabharata/'  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  ends  with  the  Gth  or  tth  century  b.c.  The  third 
period  embraces  all  the  poetical  and  scientific  works  written 
trom  that  time  to  the  3d  or  4th  century  e.g.,  when  the  language 
having  been  progressively  refined,  became  fixed  in  the  writings  of 
Kalidasa,  Jayadeva,  and  other  poets.  A  fourth  period,  including 
the  10th  century  a.d.,  may  be  added,  distinguished  by  its  eru- 
dition, grammatical,  rhetorical  and  scientific  disquisitions,  which, 
however,  is  not  considered  as  belonging  to  the  classical  age. 
From  the  Hindu  languages,  origmating  in  the  Sanscrit,  new 
literatures  have  sprung  ;  but  they  are  essentially  founded  on  the 
ancient  literature,  which  far  surpasses  them  in  extent  and  im- 
portance, and  is  the  great  model  of  them  all.  Indeed  its  influ- 
ence has  not  been  limited  to  India  ;  all  the  poetical  and  scientific 
works  of  Asia,  China  and  Japan  included,  have  borrowed 
largely  from  it,  and  in  Southern  Russia  the  scanty  literature  of 
the  Kalmucks  is  derived  entirely  from  Hindu  sources.  The 
Sanscrit  literature  has  been  known  to  Europe  only  recently, 
through  the  researches  of  the  English  and  German  orientalists, 
and  has  now  become  the  auxiliary  and  foundation  of  all  philo- 
logical studies. 

2.  The  Sanscrit  Language. — Sanscrit  is  considered  as  the 
most  primitive  of  all  the  idioms  of  the  great  Indo-European 
family,  which  more  or  less  reflect  the  internal  features  of  that 
language.  Though  in  a  rude  state,  long  antecedent  to  the 
15th  century  b.c.  it  must  have  been  spoken  in  India.  In  a 
later  age,  used  in  the  sacred  writings,  it  acquired  by  degrees 
that  softness,  flexibility  and  polish,  which  appear  in  the  great 
Sanscrit  poems.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  3d  or  4th  century 
B.C.,  this  language  was  yet  spoken,  though  in  a  corrupt 
form  orin-inatinGT  in  the  mixture  of  diiferent  races  and  in  various 
political  convulsions;  till  at  length  it  was  entirely  superseded  by 
new  dialects,  engrafted  on  the  ancient  stock  of  the  Sanscrit, 
which,  however,  has  continued  to  be  revered  and  used  by  the 
Hindus  as  the  sacred  and  literary  language  of  the  country. 

The  Sanscrit,  meaning  'perfected,,  is  founded  on  a  vast  logical 
system  of  grammar,  whose  equal  cannot  be  found  in  any  other 
language.  It  is  written  from  loft  to  right,  and  its  alphabet 
consists  of  fifty  letters,  of  which  sixteen  are  vowels  and  thirty- 
four  consonants  ;  two  accessory  signs  serve  to  modify  and 
enrich  the  language.  By  different  combinations  of  these  letters 
all  the  vocal  sounds  and  their  numberless  modifications  can  be 
clearly  expressed,  and  an  exact  symmetry  and  an  admirable  clear- 


HINDU    OR   SANSCRIT   LITERATURE.  25 

ness  obtained.  The  Sanscrit  is  richly  endowed  with  monosyllabic 
notes,  and  tliough  inferior  in  yariety  and  richness  to  the  Greek 
and  some  other  languages  of  the  Indo-European  family,  it 
unites  many  qualities  which  belong  separately  to  them,  and  the 
study  of  it  is  important  in  a  historical  and  philological  point  of 
view.  Its  declension  is  composed  of  three  genders,  three  num- 
bers and  eight  cases,  and  its  conjugation  of  three  persons,  six 
moods  and  six  tenses. 

At  an  early  period,  Sanscrit  became  the  language  of  the 
privileged  classes.  While  the  people  of  the  north  spoke  the 
Prakrit,  which  contained  the  same  elements,  though  in  a  differ- 
ent and  less  refined  form,  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
country  the  Pali  prevailed,  which  was  also  a  close  derivative 
from  the  Sanscrit.  Among  the  modern  tongues  of  India,  the 
Hindui  and  the  Hindustani  may  be  mentioned  ;  the  former, 
the  language  of  the  pure  Hindu  population,  is  written  in 
Sanscrit  characters  ;  the  latter  is  the  language  of  the  Moham- 
medan-Hindus in  which  Arabic  letters  are  used.  Many  of  the 
other  dialects  spoken  and  written  in  northern  India  are  derived 
from  the  Sanscrit.  Of  the  more  important  among  them  there 
are  English  grammars  and  dictionaries. 

3.  Social  Constitutiox  of  India. — Hindu  literature  takes  its 
character  both  from  the  social  and  the  religious  institutions  of 
the  country.  The  social  constitution  is  based  on  the  distinction 
of  classes  into  which  tlie  people,  from  the  earliest  times,  have 
been  divided,  and  which  were  the  natural  effect  of  the  long 
struggle  between  the  aboriginal  tribes  and  the  new  race  which 
had  invaded  India.  These  castes  are  four  :  1st.  The  Brahmins 
or  priests  ;  2d.  The  warriors  and  prmces  ;  3d.  The  husband- 
men ;  4th.  The  laborers.  There  are  besides  several  impure 
classes,  the  result  of  an  intermingling  of  the  different  castes. 
Of  these  lower  classes  some  are  considered  utterly  abominable — 
as  that  of  the  Pariahs.  The  different  castes  are  kept  distinct 
from  each  other  by  the  most  rigorous  laws  ;  though  in  modern 
times,  the  system  has  been  somewhat  modified. 

4.  Brahmanism. — The  Hindu  religion  is  called  Brahmanism, 
from  Brahman,  or  worship.  In  the  period  of  the  Yedas, 
this  religion  was  founded  on  the  simple  worship  of  nature. 
In  the  succeeding  period,  that  of  the  epic  poetry,  this  was 
represented  in  vast  cycles  of  myths  and  symbols  whicli 
gave  birth  to  innumerable  divinities  ;  among  them  are  three 
gods  which  constitute  the  Trimurfi,  or  god  under  three  forms — • 

2 


26  HINDU    OR   SAKSCKIT   LITEKATUllE. 

Brahma,  Siva  and  Yishnu.  Bralima,  the  impersonal  soul  of 
the  universe,  the  essence  of  nature,  immense,  indeterminate 
and  absolute,  existed  in  itself  from  eternity  ;  from  this  principle 
nature  emanated,  and  from  it  also  the  personal  and  active 
Brahma  developed  himself.  The  more  this  prmciple  develops 
itself,  the  more  it  differs  from  itself ;  hence  the  differences 
of  all  things  consist  only  in  the  different  degrees  of  their 
distance  from  Brahma,  and  the  mixture  of  these  degrees  consti- 
tutes the  multiplicity  of  things.  Hence,  nature  is  Brahma  in 
an  impure  and  degraded  condition  ;  and  it  must  return  into 
Braluna  by  purification.  The  human  soul  can  only  obtain  this 
purification  through  virtue  and  piety,  and  through  an  assiduous 
and  silent  contemplation  of  Brahma.  According  to  the  sins  or 
merits  of  its  former  existence,  the  soul  migrates  into  the  body  of 
a  higher  or  lower  being,  either  to  finish  or  to  begin  anew  its 
purification.  Thus  Brahmanism  is  essentially  founded  on  the 
doctrines  of  emanation  and  metempsychosis. 

Siva  is  the  second  form  of  the  Hindu  deity,  and  represents 
the  primitive  animating  and  destroying  forces  of  nature.  His 
symbols  relate  to  these  powers,  and  are  worshipped  more  espe- 
cially by  the  Sivaites — a  numerous  sect  of  this  religion.  The 
worshippers  of  Yishnu,  called  the  Preserver,  the  first  born  of 
Brahma,  constitute  the  most  extensive  sect  of  India,  and  their 
ideas  relating  to  this  form  of  the  Divinity  are  represented  by 
tradition  and  poetry,  and  are  particularly  developed  in  the  great 
monuments  of  Sanscrit  literature.  The  myths  connected  with 
Vishnu  refer  especially  to  his  incarnations  or  corporeal  appa- 
ritions both  in  men  and  animals,  which  he  submits  to  in  order 
to  conquer  the  spirit  of  evil. 

These  incarnations  are  called  Avatars,  or  descendings,  and 
form  an  important  part  of  Hindu  epic  poetry.  Of  the  ten  Ava- 
tars, which  are  attributed  to  Yishnu,  nine  have  already  taken 
place  ;  the  last  is  yet  to  come,  when  the  god  shall  descend 
again  from  heaven,  to  destroy  the  present  world,  and  to  restore 
peace  and  purity.  The  three  forms  of  the  Deity,  emanating 
mutually  from  each  other,  are  expressed  by  the  three  sym- 
bols, A  U  M,  forming  the  mystical  name  Om,  which  never 
escapes  the  lips  of  the  Hindus,  but  is  meditated  on  in  silence. 
The  predominant  worship  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  forms 
constitutes  the  peculiarities  of  the  numerous  sects  of  this  religion. 

There  are  other  inferior  divinities,  symbols  of  the  forces  of 
nature,  guardians  of  the  world,  demi-gods,  demons  and  heroes, 
whose  worship,  however,  is  considered  as  a  mode  of  reaching 
that  divine  rest,  immersion  and  absorption  in  Brahma,  which  is 


HIXDU    OR   SAXSCKIT   LITEKATUEE.  27 

the  object  of  this  religion.  To  this  end  are  directed  the  sacri- 
fices, the  prayers,  tlie  ablutions,  the  pilgrhnagcs  and  the  pen- 
ances, which  occupy  so  large  a  place  in  the  Hindu  worship. 

5.  The  Yedas  and  the  other  Sacred  Books. — The  Yedas 
(knowledge  or  science)  are  the  Bible  of  the  Hindus, and  con- 
tain the  revelation  of  Brahma,  which  was  preserved  by  tradition 
and  collected  by  Yyasa,  a  name  which  means  compiler,  and 
represents  an  epoch,  probably  the  fifteenth  century  b.c,  in 
which  the  Brahmauic  traditions  were  collected  and  disposed  in 
the  form  of  a  book.  The  Yedas  are  three  in  number  :  1st.  The 
Rig-  Veda,  consisting  of  hymns,  and  of  mystic  prayers  ;  2d.  The 
Yajur-  Veda,  containing  the  religious  rites  ;  and,  3d.  The  Sama- 
Veda,  with  prayers  in  the  form  of  songs.  A  fourth  Yeda  is 
usually  added,  which  consists  chiefly  of  formulas  of  consecration, 
expiation  and  imprecation.  But  this  last  book  is  evidently  of  a 
more  recent  date.  Each  Yeda  is  divided  into  two  parts  :  the 
first  contains  the  prayers  and  invocations,  the  most  of  which  are 
of  a  rhythmical  character  ;  the  second  records  the  precepts 
relative  to  those  prayers  and  to  the  ceremonies  of  the  sacrifices, 
and  describes  the  religious  myths  and  symbols. 

There  are  many  commentaries  on  the  Yedas  of  an  ancient 
date,  which  are  considered  as  sacred  books,  and  relate  to  medi- 
cine, music,  astronomy,  astrology,  grammar,  philosophy,  juris- 
prudence and,  indeed,  to  the  whole  circle  of  Hindu  science. 

The  Puranas  (ancient  writings)  hold  an  eminent  rank  in  the 
religion  and  literature  of  the  Hindus.  Though  of  a  more 
recent  date  than  the  Yedas,  they  possess  the  credit  of  an  ancient 
and  divine  origin,  and  exercise  an  extensive  and  practical  influ- 
ence upon  the  people.  They  comprise  vast  collections  of  ancient 
traditions  relating  to  theology,  cosmology  and  to  the  genealogy 
of  gods  and  heroes.  There  are  eighteen  acknowledged  Puranas, 
which  altogether  contain  400,000  stanzas.  The  Ujpafuranas, 
also  eighteen  in  number,  are  commentaries  on  the  Puranas. 
Finally,  to  the  sacred  books,  and  next  to  the  Yedas  both  in 
antiquity  and  authority,  belong  the  Manavadharmasastra,  or  the 
ordinances  of  Manu,  spoken  of  hereafter. 

6.  SAXscRrr  Poetry. — This  poetry,  springing  from  the  lively 
and  powerful  imagination  of  the  Hindus,  is  inspired  by  their 
religious  doctrines,  and  embodied  in  the  most  harmonious  lan- 
guage. Exalted  by  their  peculiar  belief  in  pantheism  and 
metempsychosis,  they  consider  the  universe  and  themselves  as 
directly  emanating  from  Brahma,  and  they  strive  to  lose  their  own 
individuality  in  its  infinite  essence.     Yet,  as  impure  beings,  they 


28  HINDU    OR   SANSCRIT   LITERATURE. 

feel  their  incfipacity  to  obtain  the  highest  moral  perfection, 
except  through  a  continual  atonement,  to  which  all  nature  is 
condemned.  Hence  Hindu  poetry  expresses  a  profound  melaii 
choly,  which  pervades  the  character  as  well  as  the  literature  of 
that  people.  This  poetry  breathes  a  spirit  of  perpetual  sacrifice 
of  the  individual  self,  as  the  ideal  of  human  life.  The  bards  of 
India,  inspired  by  this  predominant  feeling,  have  given  to  poetry 
nearly  every  form  it  has  assumed  in  the  western  world,  and  in 
each  and  all  they  have  excelled. 

Sanscrit  poetry  is  both  metrical  and  rhythmical,  equally  free 
from  the  confused  strains  of  unmoulded  genius  and  from  the  ser- 
vile pedantry  of  conventional  rules.  The  verse  of  eight  syllables 
is  the  source  of  all  other  metres,  and  the  sloka  or  double  distich  is 
the  stanza  most  frequently  used.  Though  this  poetry  pre- 
sents too  often  extravagance  of  ideas,  incumbrance  of  episodes, 
and  monstrosity  of  images,  as  a  general  rule  it  is  endowed  with 
simplicity  of  style,  pure  coloring,  sublime  ideas,  rare  figures,  and 
chaste  epithets.  Its  exuberance  must  be  attributed  to  the 
strange  mythology  of  the  Hindus,  to  the  immensity  of  the 
fables  which  constitute  the  groundwork  of  their  poems,  and  to 
the  gigantic  strength  of  their  poetical  imaginations.  A  striking 
peculiarity  of  Sanscrit  poetry  is  its  extensive  use  in  treating  of 
those  subjects  apparently  the  most  difficult  to  reduce  to  a  metri- 
cal form — not  only  the  Yedas  and  Manu's  code  are  composed  in 
verse,  but  the  sciences  are  expressed  in  this  form.  Even  in  the 
few  works  which  may  be  called  prose,  the  style  is  so  modulated 
and  bears  so  great  a  resemblance  to  the  language  of  poetry  as 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  it.  The  history  of  Sanscrit 
poetry  is,  in  reality,  the  history  of  Sanscrit  literature. 

1.  Epic  Poetry. — ^The  subjects  of  the  epic  poems  of  the 
Hindus  are  derived  chiefly  from  their  religious  tenets,  and  relate 
to  the  incarnations  of  the  gods,  who,  in  their  human  forms 
become  the  heroes  of  this  poetry.  The  idea  of  an  Almighty 
power  warrmg  against  the  spirit  of  evil  destroys  the  possibility 
of  struggle,  and  impairs  the  character  of  epic  poetry  ;  but  the 
Hindu  poets,  by  submitting  their  gods  both  to  fiite  and  to  the 
condition  of  men,  diminish  their  power  and  give  them  the  charac- 
ter of  epic  heroes. 

The  Hindu  mythology,  however,  is  the  great  obstacle  which 
must  ever  prevent  this  poetry  from  becoming  popular  in  the 
western  world.  The  great  personifications  of  the  Deity  have 
not  been  softened  down,  as  in  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  to 
the   perfection   of  human  symmetry,   but  are  here  exhibited  in 


HINDU    Oli   SANSCRIT   LITEEATUEE.  29 

their  original  gigantic  forms.  Majesty  is  often  expressed  by  enor- 
mous stature  ;  power,  by  multitudinous  bands  ;  providence,  by 
countless  eyes  ;  and  omnipresence,  by  innumerable  bodies. 

In  addition  to  this,  Hindu  epic  poetry  departs  so  far  from 
what  may  be  called  the  vernacular  idiom  of  thought  and  feeling, 
and  refers  to  a  people  whose  political  and  religious  institutions, 
as  well  as  moral  habits,  arc  so  much  at  variance  with  our  own, 
that  no  labor  or  skill  could  render  its  associations  familiar. 

The  Ramayana  and  the  Mahal^harata  are  the  most  important 
and  sublime  creations  of  Hindn  literature,  and  the  most  colos- 
sal epic  poems  to  be  found  in  the  literature  of  the  world.  They 
surpass  in  magnitude  the  IHad  and  Odyssey,  the  Jerusalem 
Delivered  and  the  Lusiad,  as  the  Pyi*amids  of  Egypt  tower 
above  the  temples  of  Greece. 

The  Ramayana  (^Rama  and  yana  expedition)  describes  the 
exploits  of  Rama,  an  ijicarnation  of  Yishnu,  and  the  son  of 
Dasaratha,  king  of  Oude.  Ravana,  the  prince  of  demons,  had 
stolen  from  the  gods  the  privilege  of  being  invulnerable,  and  had 
thus  acquired  an  equality  with  them.  He  could  not  be  over- 
come except  by  a  man,  and  the  gods  implored  Yishnu  to 
become  incarnate  in  order  that  Ravana  might  be  conquered. 
The  origin  and  the  development  of  this  Avatar,  the  departing 
of  Rama  for  the  battle-field,  the  divine  signs  of  his  mission, 
his  love  and  marriage  with  Sita,  the  daughter  of  the  king 
Janaka,  the  persecution  of  his  step-motlier,  by  which  the 
hero  is  sent  into  exile,  his  penance  in  the  desert,  the  abduc- 
tion of  his  bride  by  Ravana,  the  gigantic  battles  that  ensue,  the 
rescue  of  Sita,  and  the  triumph  of  Rama  constitute  the  principal 
plot  of  this  wonderful  poem,  full  of  incidents  and  episodes  of  the 
most  singular  and  beautiful  character.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  descent  of  the  goddess  Ganga,  which  relates  to 
the  mythological  origin  of  the  river  Ganges,  and  the  story  of 
Yajnadatta,  a  young  penitent,  who  through  mistake  was  killed 
by  Dasaratha  ;  the  former  splendid  for  its  rich  imag^ery,  the 
latter  incomparable  for  its  elegiac  character,  and  for  its  expres- 
sion of  the  passionate  sorrow  of  parental  affection. 

The  Ramayana  was  written  by  Yalmiki,  a  poet  belonging 
to  an  unknown  period.  It  consists  of  seven  cantos,  and  contains 
twenty-five  thousand  verses.  The  original,  with  its  trans- 
lation into  Italian,  has  recently  been  published  in  Paris  by 
the  o-overument  of  Sardinia. 

The  Mahabharata  (the  great  Bharata)  has  nearly  the 
same  antiquity  as  the  Ramayana,  It  describes  the  greatest 
Avatar  of  Yishnu,  the  incarnation  of  the  god  in  Krishna,  and  it 


30  "       HIXDU    OR    SAXSCniT   LITEEATURE. 

presents  a  vast  picture  of  the  Ilmclu  religion.  It  relates  to  the 
legendary  history  of  the  Bharata  dynasty,  especially  to  the  wars 
between  the  Pandas  and  Kurus,  two  branches  of  a  princely 
family  of  ancient  India.  Five  sons  of  Pandu,  having  been 
unjustly  exiled  by  their  uncle,  return,  after  many  wonderful  ad- 
ventures, with  a  powerful  army  to  oppose  the  Kurus,  and  being 
aided  by  Krishna,  the  incarnated  Vishnu,  defeat  their  enemies 
and  become  lords  of  all  the  country.  The  poem  describes  the 
birth  of  Krishna,  his  escape  from  the  dangers  which  surrounded 
his  cradle,  his  miracles,  his  pastoral  life,  his  rescue  of  sixteen 
thousand  young  girls  wlio  had  become  prisoners  of  a  giant,  his 
heroic  deeds  in  the  war  of  the  Pandus,  and  finally  his  ascent  to 
heaven,  where  he  still  leads  the  round  dances  of  the  spheres.  This 
work  is  not  more  remarkable  for  the  grandeur  of  its  conceptions, 
than  for  the  information  it  affords  respecting  the  social  and  reli- 
gious systems  of  the  ancient  Hindus,  which  are  here  revealed  with 
majestic  and  sublime  eloquence.  Five  of  its  most  esteemed 
episodes  are  called  the  Five  Precious  Stones.  First  among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  ''  Bhagavad-Gita,"  or  the  Divine  Song,  con- 
tahiing  the  revelation  of  Krishna,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
the  god  and  his  pupil  Arjuna.  Schlegel  calls  this  episode  the 
most  beautiful,  and  perhaps  the  most  truly  philosophical  poem, 
that  the  whole  range  of  literature  has  produced. 

The  Mahabharata  is  divided  into  18  cantos,  and  it  contains 
200,000  verses.  It  is  attributed  to  Yyasa,  the  compiler  of  the 
Vedas,  but  it  appears  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  period  of  liter- 
ature rather  than  the  work  of  a  single  poet.  Its  different  inci- 
dents and  episodes  were  probably  separate  poems,  which  from 
the  earliest  age  were  sung  by  the  people,  and  later,  by  degrees, 
collected  in  one  complete  work.  Of  the  Mahabharata  we  possess 
only  a  few  episodes  translated  into  English,  such  as  the  13haga- 
vad-Gita,  by  Wilkins. 

At  a  later  period  other  epic  poems  were  written,  either  as 
abridgments  of  tlie  Rama3^ana  and  the  Mahabharata,  or 
founded  on  episodes  contained  hi  them.  These,  however, 
belong  to  a  lower  order  of  composition,  and  cannot  be  com- 
pared with  the  great  works  of  Valmiki   and  Yyasa. 

8.  L^TJc  Poetry. — In  the  development  of  Lyric  poetry  the 
Hindu  bards,  particularly  those  of  the  third  period,  have 
been  eminently  successful  ;  their  power  is  great  in  the  sub- 
lime and  tlie  pathetic,  and  manifests  itself  more  particularly  in 
awakening  the  tender  sympathies  of  our  nature.  Here  we  find 
many  poems  full  of  grace  and  delicacy,  and  splendid  for  their 
charming  descriptions  of  nature.     Such  are  the  "Meghaduta" 


HINDU    OR   SANSCKTT   LITERATUKE.  31 

and  the  "  Ritusanhara  "  of  Kalidasa,  the  "  Madhava  and  Kadha  " 
of  Jayadeva,  and  especially  the  "  Gita-Govinda"  of  the  same 
poet,  or  the  adventures  of  Krishna  as  a  shepherd,  a  poem  in 
which  the  soft  langnoi-s  of  love  are  depicted  in  enchanting  colors, 
and  which  is  adorned  with  all  the  magnificence  of  language 
and  sentiment. 

9.  Didactic  Poetry. — Hindu  poetry  has  a  particular  tend- 
ency to  the  didactic  style  and  to  embody  religious  and  his- 
torical knowledge  ;  every  subject  is  treated  in  the  form  of 
verse,  such  as  inscriptions,  deeds  and  dictionaries.  Splendid  ex- 
amples of  didactic  poetry  may  be  found  in  the  episodes  of  the  epic 
poems,  and  more  particularly  in  the  collections  of  fables  and  apo- 
logues in  which  the  Sanscrit  literature  abounds.  Among  these 
the  "  Hitopadesa  "  is  the  most  celebrated,  in  which  Yishnu-sarma 
instructs  the  sons  of  a  king  committed  to  his  care.  Perhaps 
there  is  no  book,  except  the  Bible,  which  has  been  translated 
into  so  many  languages  as  these  fables.  They  have  spread  in 
two  branches  over  nearly  the  whole  civilized  world.  The  one, 
under  the  original  name  of  the  Hitopadesa,  remains  almost  con- 
fined to  India,  while  the  other,  under  the  title  of  Calila  and  Dim- 
na,  has  become  famous  over  all  western  Asia  and  in  all  the 
countries  of  Europe,  and  has  served  as  the  model  of  the  fables 
of  all  languages.  To  this  department  belong  also  the  Adven- 
tures of  the  "  Ten  Princes,"  by  Dandin,  which,  in  an  artistic  point 
of  view,  is  far  superior  to  any  other  didactic  writings  of  Hindu 
literature. 

10.  Dramatic  Poetry. — Hindu  dramatic  poetry  had  its  most 
flourishing  period  in  the  3d  or  4th  century  B.C.  It  has  a  moral 
and  a  religious  character.  Its  origin  is  attributed  to  Brahma, 
and  its  subjects  are  selected  from  the  mythology.  Whether  the 
drama  represents  the  legends  of  the  gods,  or  the  simple  circum- 
stances of  ordinary  life ;  whether  it  describes  allegorical  or  histor- 
ical subjects,  it  bears  always  the  same  character  of  its  origm  and 
of  its  tendency.  Simplicity  of  plot,  unity  of  episodes,  and  purity 
of  language,  unite  in  the  formation  of  the  Hindu  dramas. 
Prose  and  verse,  the  serious  and  the  comic,  pantomime  and  mu- 
sic are  intermingled  in  their  representations.  Only  the  principal 
characters,  the  gods,  the  Brahmins,  and  the  kings  speak  San- 
scrit ;  women  and  the  less  unportant  characters  speak  Prakrit, 
more  or  less  refined  according  to  their  rank.  Whatever  may 
offend  propriety,  whatever  may  produce  an  unwholesome  excite- 
ment, is  excluded  ;  for  the  hilarity  of  the  audience  there  is  an 


32  HIXDU    OR   SANSCRIT   LITERATURE. 

occasional  mtroduction  on  the  stage  of  a  parasite  or  a  buffoon. 
The  representation  is  usually  opened  by  an  apologue  and  ahvays 
concluded  with  a  prayer. 

Kalidasa,  the  Hindu  Shakspeare,  has  been  called  by  his  coun- 
trymen the  Bridegroom  of  poetry.  His  language  is  harmonious 
and  elevated,  and  in  his  compositions  he  unites  grace  and  ten- 
derness with  grandeur  and  sublimity.  Many  of  his  dramas  con- 
tain episodes  selected  from  the  epic  poems  and  are  founded  on 
the  principles  of  Brahmanism.  The  "Messenger  Cloud"  of  this 
author,  a  monologue  rather  than  a  drama,  is  unsurpassed  in 
beauty  of  sentiment  by  any  European  poet.  *'  Sakuntala,"  or  the 
Fatal  Ring,  is  considered  one  of  the  best  dramas  of  Kahdasa. 
It  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Sir  W.  Jones. 

Bhavabhuti,  a  Brahmin  by  birth,  was  called  by  his  contem- 
poraries the  Sweet  Speaking.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
dramas  of  distmguished  merit,  which  rank  next  to  those  of 
Kalidasa. 

11.  History  and  Science. — History,  considered  as  the  devel- 
opment of  mankind  in  relation  to  its  ideal,  is  unknown  to  San- 
scrit literature.  Indeed,  the  only  historical  work  thus  far  dis- 
covered is  the  "  History  of  Cashmere,"  a  series  of  poetical  compo- 
sitions, written  by  different  authors  at  different  periods,  the  last 
of  which  brings  down  the  annals  to  the  16th  century  a.d., 
when  Cashmere  became  a  province  of  the  Mogul  empire. 

In  the  scientific  department,  the  works  on  Sanscrit  Grammar 
and  Lexicography  come  first,  several  of  which  are  models  of 
logical  and  analytical  research.  There  are  also  some  valuable 
works,  and  some  rhythmical  ones,  on  jurisprudence  and  its  various 
divisions,  on  medicine,  on  rhetoric,  poetry,  music  and  other  arts. 
Several  works  of  modern  times,  on  mathematics,  are  considered 
of  a  high  standing  ;  and  it  is  well  established  that  the  Arabs 
derived  from  India  the  figures  which,  at  a  later  period,  they 
communicated  to  Europe.  It  appears,  also,  that  at  an  early 
age  the  Hindus  were  acquainted  with  the  first  principles  of 
als-ebra. 


*o^ 


12.  Philosophy. — The  object  of  Hindu  philosophy  consists  in 
obtaining  emancipation  from  metempsychosis,  through  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  soul  into  Brahma,  or  the  universal  being.  Accord- 
ing to  the  different  principles  Avhich  philosophers  adopt  in 
attaining  this  supreme  object,  their  doctrines  are  divided  into 
the  four  following  systems  :  1st.  Sensualism  ;  2d.  Idealism  ; 
3d.  Mysticism  ;  4th.  Eclecticism. 


HINDU    OK    SANSCRIT   LITERATURE.  33 

Sensualism  is  represented  in  the  school  of  Kapila,  according 
to  whose  doctrine  the  purification  of  the  soul  must  be  eftected 
through  knowledge,  the  only  source  of  which  lies  in  sensual 
perception.  In  this  system,  nature,  eternal  and  universal,  is 
considered  as  the  first  cause,  which  produces  intelligence  and  all 
the  other  principles  of  knowledge  and  existence.  This  philoso- 
phy of  nature  leads  some  of  its  followers  to  seek  their  purifica- 
tion in  the  sensual  pleasures  of  this  life,  "and  in  the  loss  of 
their  own  individuality  in  nature  itself,  in  which  they  strive  to 
-be  absorbed.  Materialism,  fatalism  and  atheism  are  the  natural 
consequences  of  the  system  of  Kapila. 

Idealism  is  the  foundation  of  three  philosophical  schools  :  the 
Dialectic,  the  Atomic  and  the  Yedanta.  The  Dialectic  school 
considers  the  principles  of  knowledge  as  entirely  distinct  from 
nature  ;  it  admits  the  existence  of  universal  ideas  in  the  human 
mind  ;  it  establishes  the  syllogistic  form  as  the  complete  method 
of  reasoning,  and  finally,  it  holds  as  fundamental  the  duality 
of  intelligence  and  nature.  In  this  theory,  the  soul  is  con- 
sidered as  distinct  from  Brahma  and  also  from  the  body.  Man 
can  approach  Brahma,  can  unite  himself  to  the  universal  soul, 
but  can  never  lose  his  own  individuaUty. 

The  Atomic  doctrine  explains  the  origin  of  the  world  through 
the  combination  of  eternal,  simple  atoms.  It  belongs  to  Ideahsm, 
for  the  predominance  which  it  gives  to  ideas  over  sensation,  and 
for  the  individuality  and  consciousness  which  it  recognizes  in  man. 

The  Yedanta  is  the  true  ideal  pantheistic  philosophy  of  India. 
It  considers  Brahma  in  two  different  states  :  first,  as  a  pure, 
simple,  abstract  and  inert  essence ;  secondly,  as  an  active  indi- 
viduality. Nature  in  this  system  is  only  a  special  quality  or 
quantity  of  Brahma,  having  no  actual  reality,  and  he  who  turns 
away  from  all  that  is  unreal  and  changeable  and  contemplates 
Brahma  unceasingly,  becomes  one  with  it,  and  attains  libera- 
tion. 

Mysticism  comprehends  all  doctrines  which  deny  authority  to 
reason,  and  admit  no  other  principles  of  knowledge  or  rule  of 
life  than  supernatural  or  direct  revelation.  To  this  system 
belong  the  doctrines  of  Patanjali,  which  teach  that  man  must 
emancipate  himself  from  metempsychosis  through  contemplation 
and  ecstasy  to  be  attained  by  the  calm  of  the  senses,  by  cor- 
poreal penance,  suspension  of  l3reath,  and  immobility  of  position. 
The  followers  of  this  school  pass  their  lives  in  solitude,  absorbecl 
in  this  mystic  contemplation.  The  forests,  the  deserts  and  the 
environs  of  the  temples  are  filled  with  these  mystics,  who,  thus 
separated  from  external  life,  believe  themselves  the  subjects  of 

2* 


34  IIIXDU    OR   SANSCRIT   LITERATURE. 

supernatural   illumination    and   power.      The   Bhagavad-Gita, 
already  spoken  of,  is  the  best  exposition  of  this  doctrine. 

The  Eclectic  school  comprises  all  theories  which  deny  the 
authority  of  the  Yedas,  and  admit  rational  principles  borrowed 
both  from  sensualism  and  idealism.  Among  these  doctrines, 
Buddhism  is  the  principal. 

13.  BuDDHisii. — Buddhism  is  so  called  from  Buddha,  a  name 
meaning  deified  teacher,  which  was  given  to  Sakyamuni,  or 
Saint  Sakya,  a  reformer  of  Brahmanism,  who  introduced  intis 
the  Hindu  religion  a  more  simple  creed,  and  a  milder  and  more 
humane  code  of  morality.  The  date  of  the  origin  of  this  reform 
is  uncertain.  It  is  probably  not  earlier  than  the  sixth  century, 
B.C.  Buddhism,  essentially  a  proselyting  religion,  spread  over 
central  Asia  and  tlirough  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Its  followers  in 
India  being  persecuted  and  expelled  from  the  country,  penetrated 
into  Thibet,  and  pushing  forward  into  the  wilderness  of  the 
Kalmucks  and  Mongols,  entered  China  and  Japan,  where  they 
introduced  their  worship  under  the  name  of  the  religion  of  Fo. 
Buddhism  is  more  extensively  diffused  than  any  other  form  of 
religion  in  the  world.  Though  it  has  never  extended  bevond 
the  limits  of  Asia,  its  followers  number  three  hundred  millions. 

As  a  philosophical  school.  Buddhism  partakes  both  of  sen- 
sualism and  ideahsm  ;  it  admits  sensual  perception  as  the  source 
of  knowledge,  but  it  grants  to  nature  only  an  apparent  exist- 
ence. On  this  universal  illusion.  Buddhism  founded  a  gigantic 
system  of  cosmogony,  establishing  an  infinity  of  degrees  in  the 
scale  of  existences,  from  that  of  pure  being  without  form  or 
quality  to  the  lowest  emanations.  According  to  Buddha,  the 
object  of  philosophy,  as  well  as  of  rehgion,  is  the  deliverance 
of  the  soul  from  metempsychosis,  and  therefore  from  all  pain 
and  illusion.  He  teaches  that  to  break  the  endless  rotation  of 
transmigration  the  soul  must  l)e  prevented  from  being  born  again, 
by  purifying  it  even  from  the  desire  of  existence.  Buddha 
denied  the  authoritv  of  the  Yedas,  and  abolished  or  ignored  the 
division  of  the  people  into  castes,  admitting  whoever  desired  it 
to  the  priesthood.  Though  his  morals  and  his  precepts  are 
pure  and  elevated  in  theory,  the  metempsychosis  and  the  panthe- 
ism, which  are  essential  parts  of  the  system,  often  inculcate  in 
practice  more  regard  to  animals  than  to  men,  and  place  the 
highest  moral  perfection  in  the  destruction  of  personality.  In 
the  course  of  time,  much  was  added  to  the  original  doctrine  of 
Buddha  in  the  way  of  mythology,  sacrifices,  penances,  hierarchy, 
and  mysticism. 


HIXDU    OR   SAXSCRIT   LITERATURE.  35 

A  complete  collection  of  the  sacred  books  of  Buddhism 
forms  a  theological  body  of  108  volumes.  These  works  were 
originally  written  in  Sanscrit,  and  afterward  translated  into 
Thibetan.  Buddhism  possesses  a  literature  of  its  own  ;  its 
language  and  style  are  simple  and  intelligible  to  the  common 
people,  to  whom  it  is  particularly  addressed.  For  this  reason, 
the  priests  of  this  religion  prefer  to  write  in  the  dialects  used  by 
the  people,  and  indeed  some  of  their  principal  works  are  written 
in  Prakrit  or  in  Pali.  Among  these  are  many  legends,  and 
chronicles,  and  books  on  theology  and  jurisprudence.  The  literary 
men  of  Buddhism  are  generally  the  priests,  who  receiye  difierent 
names  in  different  countries. 

14.  Moral  Philosophy. — The  moral  philosophy  of  India  is 
contained  in  the  Sacred  Book  of  Manavadharmasastra,  or  Code 
of  Manu.  This  embraces  a  poetical  account  of  Brahma  and 
other  gods,  of  the  origin  of  the  world  and  man,  and  of  the 
duties  arising  from  the  relation  of  man  towards  Brahma  and 
towards  his  fellow-men.  Whether  regarded  for  its  great  anti- 
quity and  classic  beauty,  or  for  its  importance  as  being  con- 
sidered of  divine  revelation  by  the  Hindu  people,  this  Code 
must  ever  claim  the  attention  of  those  who  devote  themselves 
to  the  study  of  the  Sanscrit  literature.  Though  inferior  to  the 
Yedas  in  antiquity,  it  is  held  to  be  equally  sacred;  and  being 
more  closely  connected  v/ith  the  business  of  life,  it  has  done 
so  much  towards  moulding  the  opinions  of  the  Hindus,  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  comprehend  the  literature  or  local  usages 
of  India  without  being  master  of  its  contents. 

It  is  believed  by  the  Hindus,  that  Brahma  taught  his  laws  to 
Manu  in  100,000  verses,  and  that  they  v^ere  afterwards  abridged 
for  the  use  of  mankind  to  4,000.  It  is  most  probable,  that  the 
work  attributed  to  Manu  is  a  collection  made  from  various 
sources  and  at  different  periods. 

Among  the  duties  prescribed  by  the  lav>"S  of  Manu,  man  is 
enjoined  to  exert  a  fidl  dominion  over  his  senses,  to  study  sacred 
science,  to  keep  his  heart  pure,  without  which  sacrifices  are  use- 
less, to  speak  only  when  necessity  requires,  and  to  despise  worldly 
honors.  His  principal  duties  toward  his  neighbor  are  to  honor 
old  age,  to  respect  parents,  the  mother  more  than  a  thousand 
fathers,  and  the  Brahmins  more  than  father  or  mother,  to  injure 
no  one  even  in  wish.  AVoman  is  taught  that  she  cannot  aspire 
to  freedom,  a  girl  is  to  depend  on  her  father,  a  wife  on  her  hus- 
band, and  a  widow  on  her  son.  The  law  forbids  her  to  marry 
a  second  time. 


36  HINDU    OR    SAXSCKIT  LITERATURE. 

The  Code  of  Manu  is  divided  into  twelve  books  or  chap- 
ters, in  which  are  treated  separately  the  subjects  of  crea- 
tion, education,  marriage,  domestic  economy,  the  art  of  living, 
penal  and  civil  laws,  of  punishments  and  atonements,  of  trans- 
migration, and  of  the  final  blessed  state.  These  ordinances  or 
institutes  contain  much  to  be  admired  and  much  to  be  con- 
demned. They  form  a  system  of  despotism  and  priestcraft,  both 
limited  by  law,  but  artfully  conspuing  to  give  mutual  support, 
tliouo-h  with  mutual  checks.  A  spirit  of  sul^lime  elevation  and 
amiable  benevolence  pervades  the  whole  work,  sufficient  to  prove 
the  author  to  have  adored  not  the  visible  sun,  but  the  incom- 
parably greater  light,  according  to  the  Vedas,  which  illuminates 
all,  delights  all,  from  which  all  proceed,  to  which  all  must  return, 
and  which  alone  can  irradiate  our  souls. 

15.  Modern  Literatures  of  India. — The  literature  of  the 
modern  tongues  of  the  Huidus  consist  chiefly  of  imitations 
and  translations  from  the  Sanscrit,  Persian,  Arabic,  and  from 
European  languages.  There  is,  however,  an  original  epic  poem, 
written  in  Ilindui  by  Tshand,  under  the  title  of  the  "Adventures 
of  Prithivi  Raja,"  which  is  second  only  to  the  great  Sanscrit 
poems.  This  work,  which  relates  to  the  twelfth  century  a.d., 
describes  the  struggle  of  the  Hindus  against  their  Mohamme- 
dan conquerors.  The  poem  of  "Ramayana,"  by  Tulsi-Das,  and 
that  of  the  "  Ocean  of  Love,"  are  extremely  popular  in  India. 
The  modern  dialects  contain  many  religious  and  national  songs 
of  exquisite  beauty  and  delicacy.  Among  the  poets  of  India, 
who  have  written  in  these  dialects,  Sauday,  Mir-Mohammed 
Taqui,  Wali,  and  Azad  are  the  principal. 

16.  Education  in  India. — The  state  of  education  is  exceedingly 
backward;  the  women  and  children  of  the  lower  classes  are  in  gene- 
ral entirely  ignorant.  Those  in  a  higher  station  are  instructed  by 
the  Brahmins  in  arithmetic,  and  taught  to  read  and  write.  The 
pupil  first  begins  to  write  upon  the  sand  with  his  finger,  and 
afterward  upon  palm  leaves  with  the  reed.  There  is  no  choice 
of  profession,  every  one  following  that  of  his  father  ;  and  the 
student  is  instructed  chiefly  in  the  Yedas,  and  in  the  ceremo- 
nies of  his  religion.  Tlie  mass  of  the  people,  however,  are 
entirely  ignorant  of  the  spirit  of  their  religion,  which  consists 
for  the  most  part  in  an  endless  detail  of  troublesome  ceremonies 
deeply  interwoven  with  the  whole  system  of  life. 

For  the  education  of  the  Brahmins  and  of  the  higher  classes, 
there  is  at  Benares,   the  Hindu  capital,   a  Sanscrit  College, 


HINDU    OR    SANSCRIT   LITERATURE.  37 

founded  in  1792.  The  course  of  instruction  embraces  Sanscrit, 
Persian,  English,  Hindu  law  and  general  literature.  Lately  a 
new  English  college  has  been  established  in  Benares,  in  which  the 
whole  range  of  European  literature  and  science  is  thrown  open 
to  the  Hindus.  Similar  institutions  may  be  found  in  Calcutta, 
and  other  cities. 


PEESIAK  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Persian  Language  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  Zendic  Literature ;  The  Zendavesta. — 3. 
Pehlvl  and  Parsee  Literatures.— 4.  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. — 5.  The  Ancient 
Religion  of  Persia  ;  Zoroaster. — 6.  Modern  Literature. — T.  The  Sufis. — 8.  Persian 
Poetry. — 9.  Persian  Poets;  Ferdusi;  Essedi  of  Tus  ;  Togi-ay,  etc. — 10.  History  and 
Philosophy. — 11.  Education  in  Persia. 

1.  The  Persian  Language  and  its  Divisions. — The  Persian 
language  and  its  varieties,  as  far  as  they  are  known,  belong  to  the 
great  Indo-European  family,  and  this  common  origin  explains 
the  affinities  that  exist  between  them  and  those  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  languages  of  Europe.  During  successive  ages,  four 
idioms  have  prevailed  in  Persia,  and  Persian  literature  may  be 
divided  into  four  corresponding  periods. 

First.  The  period  of  the  Zend  (living),  the  most  ancient  of  the 
Persian  languages;  it  was  from  a  remote,  unknown  age  spoken  in 
]\Iedia,  Bactria,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  Persia.  This  lan- 
guage partakes  of  the  character  both  of  the  Sanscrit  and  of  the 
Chaldaic.  It  is  written  from  right  to  left,  and  it  possesses,  in  its 
grammatical  construction  and  its  radical  words,  many  elements 
in  common  with  the  Sanscrit  and  the  German  languages. 

Second.  Tlie  period  of  the  Pehlvi,  or  language  of  heroes, 
anciently  spoken  in  the  western  part  of  the  country.  Its  alpha- 
bet is  closely  allied  with  the  Zendic,  to  which  it  bears  a  great 
resemblance.  It  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection  under  the 
Parthian  kings,  246  B.C.  to  229  a.d. 

Third.  The  i)criod  of  the  Parsee  or  the  dialect  of  the  south- 
v/estern  part  of  tlie  country.  It  reached  its  perfection  under 
the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides,  229-636  a.d.  It  has  great 
analogy  with  the  Zend,  Pehlvi  and  Sanscrit,  and  is  endowed 
with  peculiar  grace  and  sweetness. 

Fourth.  The  period  of  the  modern  Persian.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Persia,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Mohammedan  faith 
in  the  seventh  century  a.d.,  the  ancient  Parsee  language  became 
greatly  modified  by  the  Arabic.  It  adopted  its  alphabet,  ad- 
ding to  it,  however,  four  letters  and  three  points,  and  borrowed 


TEKSIAX    LITERATURE.  39 

from  it  not  only  words  but  whole  phrases,  and  thus  from  the 
union  of  the  Parsee  and  the  Arabic  was  formed  the  modern 
Persian.  Of  its  various  dialects,  the  Deri  is  the  language  of 
the  court  and  of  literature. 

2.  Zexdic  Literature. — To  the  first  period  belong  the 
ancient  sacred  books  of  Persia,  collected  under  the  name  of  Ztiv- 
davesta  (living  word),  which  contain  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster, 
the  prophet  and"  lawgiver  of  ancient  Persia.  The  Zendavesta 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  written  in  Zend,  the  other  in  Pehlvi ; 
it  contains  traditions  relating  to  the  primitive  condition  and  colo- 
nization of  Persia,  moral  precepts,  theological  dogmas,  prayers, 
and  astronomical  observations.  The  collection  originally  con- 
sisted of  twenty-one  chapters  or  treatises,  of  which  only  three 
have  been  preserved.  Besides  the  Zendavesta  there  are  two 
other  sacred  books,  one  containing  prayers  and  hymns,  and  the 
other  prayers  to  the  Genii  who  preside  over  the  days  of  the 
month.  To  this  first  period  some  writers  refer  the  fables  of 
Lokman,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  10th  century 
B.C.,  and  to  have  been  a  slave  of  Ethiopic  origin  ;  his  apologues 
ha.ve  been  considered  the  model  on  which  Greek  fable  was  con- 
structed. The  work  of  Lokman,  however,  existing  now  only  in 
the  Arabic  language,  is  believed  by  other  writers  to  be  of 
Arabic  origin.  It  has  been  translated  into  the  European  lan- 
guages, and  is  still  read  in  the  Persian  schools.  Among  the 
Zendic  books  preserved  in  Arabic  translations  may  also  be  men- 
tioned the  "  Giavidan  Kird,"  or  the  Eternal  Reason,  the  work 
of  Ilushang,  an  ancient  priest  of  Persia,  a  book  full  of  beautiful 
and  sublime  maxims. 

3.  Pehl^t  and  Parsee  Literatures. — The  second  period  of 
Persian  literature  includes  all  the  books  vfritten  in  Pehlvie, 
and  especially  all  the  translations  and  paraphrases  of  the  works 
of  the  first  period.  There  are  also  in  this  language  a  manual  of 
the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  dictionaries  of  Pehlvi  explained  by  the 
Parsee,  inscriptions  and  .legends. 

When  the  seat  of  the  Persian  empu-e  was  transferred  to  the 
southern  states  under  the  Sassanides,  the  Pehlvi  gave  way  to 
the  Parsee,  which  became  the  prevaihng  language  of  Persia 
in  the  third  period  of  its  literature.  The  sacred  books  were 
translated  into  this  tongue,  in  which  many  records,  annals,  and 
treatises  on  astronomy  and  medicine  were  also  written.  But  all 
these  monuments  of  Persian  literature  were  destroyed  by  the 
conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  by  the  fury  of  the  Mon- 


40  PEKSIAX   LITEKATUKE. 

gols  and  Arabs,  This  language,  however,  lias  been  immortal- 
ized by  Ferdusi,  whose  poems  contain  little  of  that  admixture  of 
Arabic,  which  characterizes  the  writings  of  the  modern  poets 
of  Persia. 

4.  The  CuNEiFORii  Ixscriptioxs. — To  the  period  of  the 
ancient  dialects  of  Persia  are  referred  the  inscriptions  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Persepolis.  The  single  character  used  in  these  inscrip- 
tions engraved  on  rocks,  monuments  and  public  buildings,  is  in 
the  shape  of  an  arrow,  or  rather  of  a  nail,  and  the  writing  is 
formed  by  its  different  combinations  in  vertical,  horizontal,  or 
diagonal  lines.  It  appears  that  this  character  was  used  only 
for  inscriptions  in  all  the  countries  which  anciently  composed  the 
great  Persian  empire,  and  its  combinations  were  probably  modi- 
lied  according  to  the  different  dialects.  Similar  inscriptions  have 
been  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  and  also 
in  Egypt,  where  the  cuneiform  character  was  brought  by  the 
Persiaus,  in  their  conquest  of  that  country  under  Cambyses. 

5.  The  Ancient  Peligion  of  Persia. — The  ancient  litera- 
ture of  Persia  is  mainly  the  exposition  of  its  religion.  Persia, 
Media  and  Bactria  acknowledged  as  their  first  religious  prophet 
Honover,  or  II om,  symbohzed  in  the  star  Sirius,  and  himself  the 
symbol  of  the  first  eternal  word,  and  of  the  tree  of  knowledge. 
In  the  numberless  astronomical  and  mystic  personifications  under 
which  Hom  was  represented,  his  individuality  was  lost,  and  little 
is  known  of  his  history  or  of  his  doctrines.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  he  was  the  founder  of  the  magi  (priests),  the  con- 
servators and  teachers  of  his  doctrine,  who  formed  a  particular 
order,  like  that  of  the  Levites  of  Israel  and  of  the  Chaldeans 
of  Assyria.  They  did  not  constitute  a  hereditary  caste  like 
the  Brahmins  of  India,  but  they  were  chosen  from  among  the 
people.  They  claimed  to  foretell  future  events.  They  wor- 
shipped fire  and  the  stars,  and  believed  in  two  principles  of  good 
and  evil,  of  which  light  and  darkness  were  the  symbols. 

Zoroaster,  one  of  these  magi,  who  probably  lived  in  the  eighth 
century  b.c,  undertook  to  elevate  and  reform  this  rehgion,  which 
had  then  fallen  from  its  primitive  purity.  Availing  himself  of 
the  doctrines  of  the  Chaldeans  and  of  the  Hebrews,  Zoroaster, 
endowed  by  nature  with  extraordinary  powers,  sustained  by 
popular  enthusiasm,  and  aided  by  the  favor  of  powerful  princes, 
extended  his  reform  throughout  the  country,  and  founded  a  new 
religion  on  the  ancient  worship.  According  to  this  religion  the 
two  great  principles  of  the  world  were  represented  by  Ormuzd 


PEKSIAN   LITER ATUKE.  41 

and  Ahriraan,  botli  born  from  eternity,  and  both  contending  for 
the  dominion  of  the  world.  Ormuzd,  the  principle  of  good,  is 
represented  by  light,  and  Ahriman,  the  principle  of  evil,  by 
darkness.  Light,  then,  being  the  body  or  symbol  of  Ormuzd,  is 
worshipped  in  the  sun  and  stars,  in  fire,  and  wherever  it  is  found. 
Men  are  either  the  servants  of  Ormuzd,  through  virtue  and  wis- 
dom, or  the  slaves  of  Ahriman,  through  folly  and  vice.  Zoroaster 
explained  the  hi^ory  of  the  world  as  the  long  contest  of  these 
two  principles,  which  was  to  close  with  the  conquest  of  Ormuzd 
over  Ahriman. 

The  moral  code  of  Zoroaster  is  pure  and  elevated.  It  aims 
to  assimilate  the  character  of  man  to  light,  to  dissipate  the  dark- 
ness of  ignorance  ;  it  acknowledges  Ormuzd  as  the  ruler  of  the 
universe  ;  it  seeks  to  extend  the  triumph  of  virtue  over  the  mate- 
rial and  spiritual  world. 

The  religion  of  Zoroaster  prevailed  for  many  centuries  in 
Persia.  The  Greeks  adopted  some  of  its  ideas  into  their  philo- 
sophy, and  through  the  schools  of  the  Gnostics  and  Neo-Platon- 
ists,  its  influence  extended  over  Europe.  After  the  conquest 
of  Persia  by  the  Mohammedans,  the  Fire-worshippers  were 
driven  to  the  deserts  of  Kerman,  or  took  refuge  in  India,  where, 
under  the  name  of  Parsees  or  Guebers,  they  still  keep  alive  the 
sacred  fire,  and  preserve  the  code  of  Zoroaster. 

6.  Modern  Literature. — Some  traces  of  the  modern  litera- 
ture of  Persia  appeared  shortly  after  the  conquest  of  the  country 
by  the  Arabians  in  the  7th  century  a.d.  ;  but  the  true  era  dates 
from  the  9th  or  10th  century.  It  may  be  divided  into  the  depart- 
ments of  Poetry,  History  and  Philosophy. 

T.  The  Sufis. — After  the  introduction  of  Mohammedanism 
into  Persia,  there  arose  a  sect  of  pantheistic  mystics  called 
Sufis,  to  which  most  of  the  Persian  poets  belong.  They  teach 
their  doctrine  under  the  images  of  love,  wine,  intoxication,  etc., 
by  which,  with  them,  a"  divine  sentiment  is  always  understood. 
The  doctrines  of  the  Sufis  are  undoubtedly  of  Hindu  origin. 
Their  fundamental  tenets  are,  that  nothing  exists  absolutely 
but  God  ;  that  the  human  soul  is  an  emanation  from  his  essence 
and  will  finally  be  restored  to  him  ;  that  the  great  object  of  life 
should  be  a  constant  approach  to  the  eternal  spirit,  to  form  as 
perfect  a  union  with  the  divine  nature  as  possible.  Hence  all 
worldly  attachments  should  be  avoided,  and  in  all  that  we  do  a 
spiritual  object  should  be  kept  in  view.  The  great  end  with  these 
philosophers  is  to  attain  to  a  state  of  perfection  in  sphituality, 


42  PERSIAN   LITERATURE. 

and  to  be  absorbed  in  holy  contemplation,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
worldly  recollections  or  interests. 

8.  Persian  Poetry. — The  Persian  tongue  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  purposes  of  poetry,  which  in  that  language  is  rich  in  forcible 
expressions,  in  bold  metaphors,  in  ardent  sentiments,  and  in  de- 
scriptions animated  with  the  most  lively  coloring.  In  poetical 
composition  there  is  much  art  exercised  by  the  i*ersian  poets,  and 
the  arrangement  of  their  language  is  a  work  of  great  care.  One 
fayorite  measure  which  frequently  ends  a  poem,  is  called  the 
Suja,  literally  the  cooing  of  doves. 

The  poetical  compositions  of  the  Persians  are  of  several  kinds  ; 
the  gazel  or  ode  usually  treats  of  love,  beauty  or  friendship.  The 
poet  generally  introduces  his  name  in  the  last  couplet.  The  idyl 
resembles  the  gazel,  except  that  it  is  longer.  Poetry  enters  as  a 
universal  element  into  all  compositions  ;  physics,  mathematics, 
medicine,  ethics,  natural  history,  astronomy,  grammar — all  lend 
themselves  to  verse  in  Persia. 

The  works  of  favorite  poets  are  generally  written  on  fine,  silky 
paper,  the  ground  of  which  is  often  powdered  with  gold  or  silver 
dust,  the  margins  illuminated,  and  the  whole  perfumed  with  some 
costly  essence.  The  magniiicent  volume  containing  the  poem  of 
Yussuf  and  Zuleika  in  the  public  library  at  Oxford,  afibrds  a 
proof  of  the  honors  accorded  to  poetical  composition.  One  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  caligraphy  and  illumination  is  the  exor- 
dium to  the  life  of  Shah  Jehan,  for  which  the  writer,  besides  the 
stipulated  remuneration,  had  his  mouth  stuffed  with  pearls. 

There  are  three  prmcipal  love  stories  in  Persia  which,  from 
the  earliest  times,  have  been  the  themes  of  every  poet.  Scarcely 
one  of  the  great  masters  of  Persian  literature  but  has  adopted 
and  added  celebrity  to  these  beautiful  and  interesting  legends, 
which  can  never  be  too  often  repeated  to  an  Oriental  ear.  They 
are,  the  "History  of  Khosru  and  Shireen,"  the  "  Loves  of  Yussuf 
and  Zuleika,"  and  the  "Misfortunes  of  Mejnoun  and  Leila."  So 
powerful  is  the  charm  attached  to  theSe  stories,  that  it  appears 
to  have  been  considered  almost  the  imperative  duty  of  all  the 
poets  to  compose  a  new  version  of  the  old,  familiar  and  beloved 
traditions.  Even  down  to  a  modern  date,  the  Persians  have  not 
deserted  their  favorites,  and  these  celebrated  themes  of  verse  re- 
appear, from  time  to  time,  under  new  auspices.  Each  of  these 
poems  is  expressive  of  a  peculiar  character.  That  of  Khosru 
and  Shireen  may  be  considered  exclusively  the  Persian  romance  ; 
that  of  Mejnoun  the  Arabian  ;  and  that  of  Yussuf  and  Zuleika 
the  sacred.    The  first  presents  a  picture  of  happy  love  and  female 


PEESIAN   LITEIIATUKE.  43 

excellenoe  in  Shireen  ;  Mejnoun  is  a  representation  of  unfortu- 
nate love  carried  to  loadness  ;  the  third  romance  contains  the 
ideal  of  perfection  in  Yussuf  (Joseph)  and  the  most  passionate 
and  imprudent  love  in  Zuleika  (the  wife  of  Potiphar),  and  exhi- 
bits in  strong  relief  the  power  of  love  and  beauty,  the  mastery 
of  mind,  the  weakness  of  overwhelming  passion,  and  the  victo- 
rious spirit  of  holiness. 

9.  Persian  Poets.- — The  first  of  Persian  poets,  the  Homer  of 
his  country,  is  Abul  Kasim  Mansur,  called  Ferdusi  or  "  Paradise," 
from  the  exquisite  beauty  of  his  compositions.  He  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  the  Shah  Mahmud  (940-1020  a.  d.).  Mahmud 
commissioned  him  to  write  in  his  faultless  verse  a  history  of  the 
monarchs  of  Persia,  promising  that  for  every  thousand  couplets 
he  should  receive  a  thousand  pieces  of  gold.  Por  thirty  years 
he  studied  and  labored  on  his  epic  poem,  "the  Shah  Namah,"  or 
Book  of  Kmgs,  and  when  it  was  completed  he  sent  a  copy  of  it, 
exquisitely  written,  to  the  sultan,  who  received  it  coldly,  and 
treated  the  work  of  the  aged  poet  with  contempt.  Disappointed 
at  the  ingratitude  of  the  Shah,  Ferdusi  wrote  some  satirical  lines, 
which  soon  reached  the  ear  of  Mahmud,  who,  piqued  and  of- 
fended at  the  freedom  of  the  poet,  ordered  sixty  thousand  small 
pieces  of  money  to  be  sent  to  him,  instead  of  the  gold  which  he 
had  promised.  Ferdusi  vras  in  the  pubhc  bath  when  the  money 
was  given  to  him,  and  his  rage  and  amazement  exceeded  all 
bounds  v/hen  he  found  himself  thus  insulted.  He  distributed 
the  paltry  sum  among  the  attendants  of  the  bath  and  the  slaves 
who  brought  it. 

He  soon  after  avenged  himself  by  writing  a  satire  full  of 
stinging  invective,  which  he  caused  to  be  transmitted  to  the 
favorite  vizier  who  had  instigated  the  sultan  against  hun.  It 
was  carefully  sealed  up,  with  directions  that  it  should  be  read  to 
Mahmud  on  some  occasion  when  his  mind  vras  perturbed  with 
affairs  of  state,  and  his  temper  ruffled,  as  it  was  a  poem  likely 
to  afford  him  entertainment.  Ferdusi  having  thus  prepared  his 
vengeance,  quitted  the  ungrateful  court  without  leave-taking, 
and  was  at  a  safe  distance  when  news  reached  him  that  his  lines 
had  fully  answered  their  mtended  purpose.  Mahmud  had 
heard  and  trembled,  and  too  late  discovered  that  he  had  ruined 
his  own  reputation  forever.  After  the  satire  had  been  read  by 
Shah  Mahmud,  the  poet  sought  shelter  in  the  court  of  the 
caliph  of  Bagdad,  in  whose  honor  he  added  a  thousand  couplets 
to  the  poem  of  the  Shah  Namah,  and  who  rewarded  him  with 
the  sixty  thousand  gold  pieces,  which  had  been  withheld  by 


44-  PERSIAN   LITERATURE. 

Malimud.  Meantime,  Ferdusi's  poem  of  Yussuf,  and  his  mag- 
niticont  verses  on  several  subjects,  had  received  the  fame  they 
deserved.  Shah  Mahmud's  late  remorse  awoke.  Thinking  by 
a  tardy  act  of  liberality  to  repair  his  former  meanness,  he  dis- 
patched to  the  author  of  Shah  Namah  the  60,000  pieces  he  had 
promised,  a  robe  of  state  and  many  apologies  and  expressions 
of  friendship  and  admiration,  requesting  his  return,  and  professing 
great  sorrow  for  the  past.  But  when  the  message  arrived, 
Ferdusi  was  dead,  and  his  family  devoted  the  whole  sum  to  the 
benevolent  purpose  he  had  intended, — the  erection  of  public 
buildings,  and  the  general  improvement  of  his  native  village,  Tus. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  80.  The  Shah  Namah  contains  the  hi&- 
tory  of  the  kings  of  Persia,  down  to  the  death  of  the  last  of 
the  Sassanide  race,  who  was  deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  th3 
invasion  of  the  Arabs  during  the  caliphat  of  Omar,  63G  a.d. 
The  language  of  Ferdusi  may  be  considered  as  the  purest  speci- 
men of  the  ancient  Parsee — Arabic  words  are  seldom  intro- 
duced. There  are  many  episodes  in  the  Shah  Namah  of  great 
beauty,  and  the  power  and  elegance  of  its  verse  are  unrivalled. 

Essedi,  of  Tus,  is  distinguished  as  having  been  the  master  of 
Ferdusi,  and  as  having  aided  his  illustrious  pupil  in  the  comple- 
tion of  his  great  work.  Among  many  poems  which  he  wrote, 
the  "  Dispute  between  Day  and  Night "  is  the  most  celebrated. 

Togray  was  a  native  of  Ispahan  and  contemporary  with  Fer- 
dusi. He  became  so  celebrated  as  a  writer,  that  the  title  of 
Honor  of  Writers  was  given  him.  He  was  an  alchemist,  and 
wrote  a  treatise  on  the  philosopher's  stone. 

Moasi,  called  King  of  Poets,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
11th  century.  He  obtained  his  title  at  the  court  of  Ispahan, 
and  rose  to  high  dignity  and  honor.  So  renowned  were  his  odes, 
that  more  than  a  hundred  poets  endeavored  to  imitate  his  style. 

Omar  Khiam,  who  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
poets  of  Persia,  lived  toward  the  close  of  the  11th  century. 
He  was  remarkable  for  the  freedom  of  his  religious  opinions, 
and  the  boldness  with  which  he  denounced  hy])ocrisy  and  intol- 
erance. He  particularly  directed  his  satu'c  against  the  mystic 
poets. 

Nizami,  the  first  of  the  romantic  poets,  flourished  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  12th  century,  a.d.  His  principal  works  are  called  the 
"  Five  Treasures,"  of  which  the  ''  Loves  of  Khosru  and  Shireen," 
is  the  most  celebrated,  and  in  the  treatment  of  which  he  has 
succeeded  beyond  all  other  poets. 

Sadi  (1194-1282)  is  esteemed  among  the  Persians  as  a  mas- 
ter in  poetry  and  in  morality.     lie  is  better  known  in  Europe 


PEESIAN   LITERATUEE.  45 

than  any  other  eastern  author,  except  Hafiz,  and  has  been  more 
frequently  translated.  Jami  calls  him  the  nightingale  of  the 
groves  of  Shu-az,  of  which  city  he  was  a  natiye.  He  spent 
n  part  of  his  long  life  in  travel  and  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge,  and  the  remainder  in  retkement  and  devotion. 
His  works  are  termed  the  salt-mine  of  poets,  being  revered 
as  unrivalled  models  of  the  first  genius  in  the  world.  His  phi- 
losophy enabled  him  to  support  all  the  ills  of  Ufe  with  patience 
and  fortitude,  and  one  of  his  remarks,  arising  from  the  desti- 
tute condition  in  which  he  once  found  himself,  deserves  preser- 
vation :  "I  never  complained  of  my  conchtion  but  once,  when 
my  feet  were  bare,  and  I  had  not  money  to  buy  shoes  ;  but  I 
met  a  man  without  feet,  and  I  became  contented  with  my  lot." 
The  works  of  Sadi  are  very  numerous,  and  are  popular  and 
faaaihar  everywhere  in  the  East.  His  two  greatest  works  are 
the  "Bostan"  and  "  Gulistan,"  (Bostan,  the  rose  garden,  and 
Guhstan,  the  fruit  garden).  They  abound  in  striking  beauties, 
and  show  great  knowledge  of  human  nature. 

Attar  (1119-1233)  was  one  of  the  great  Sufi  masters,  and 
spent  his  hfe  in  devotion  and  contemplation.  He  died  at  the 
advanced  age  of  114.  It  would  seem  that  poetry  in  the  East 
was  favorable  to  human  life,  so  many  of  its  professors  attained 
to  a  great  age,  particularly  those  who  professed  the  Sufi  doc- 
trine. The  great  work  of  Attar  is  a  poem  containing  useful 
moral  maxims. 

Roumi  (1203-1272),  usually  called  the  Mulah,  was  an 
enthusiastic  follower  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Sufis.  His  son  suc- 
ceeded him  at  the  head  of  the  sect,  and  surpassed  his  father  not 
only  in  the  virtues  and  attainments  of  the  Sufis,  but  by  his 
splendid  poetical  genius.  His  poems  are  regarded  as  the  most 
perfect  models  of  the  mystic  stvle.  Su'  Wilham  Jones  savs, 
"  There  is  a  depth  and  solemnity  in  his  works  unequalled  by  any 
poet  of  this  class,  even  Hafiz  must  be  considered  inferior  to 
hun." 

Among  the  poets  of  Persia,  the  name  of  Hafiz  (d.  1389),  the 
prince  of  Persian  lyric  poets,  is  most  famihar  to  the  English 
reader.  He  was  born  at  Shiraz.  Leading  a  life  of  poverty,  of 
which  he  was  proud,  for  he  considered  poverty  the  companion 
of  srenius,  he  constantly  refused  the  mvitation  of  monarchs  to 
visit  their  courts.  There  is  endless  variety  in  the  poems  of 
Hafiz,  and  they  are  replete  with  surpassing  iDeauty  of  thought, 
feeling  and  expression.  The  grace,  ease  and  fancy  of  his  num- 
bers are  inimitable,  and  there  is  a  mao-ic  in  his  lavs  which  few 
even  of  his  professed  enemies  have  been  able  to  resist.     To  the 


46  PERSIAN   LITERATURE. 

young,  tlic  gay  and  the  euthusiastic,  liis  verses  are  ever  welcome; 
and  the  sage  discovers  in  them  a  hidden  mystery,  which  recon- 
ciles him  to  their  subjects.  His  tomb,  near  Shiraz,  is  visited  as 
a  sacred  spot  by  pilgrims  of  all  ages.  The  place  of  his  birth  is 
held  in  veneration,  and  there  is  not  a  Persian  whose  heart  does 
not  echo  his  strains. 

Jami  (d.  1492)  was  born  in  Khorassan,  in  the  village  of  Jam, 
from  whence  he  is  named — his  proper  appellation  being  Abd 
Arahman.  He  was  a  Sufi,  and  preferred,  like  many  of  his 
fellow-poets,  the  meditations  and  ecstasies  of  mysticism  to 
the  pleasures  of  a  court.  His  writings  are  very  voluminous  ; 
he  composed  nearly  forty  volumes,  all  of  great  length,  of 
which  twenty-two  are  preserved  at  Oxford.  The  greater 
part  of  them  treat  of  Mohammedan  theology,  and  are  written 
in  the  mystic  style.  He  collected  the  most  interesting  under 
the  name  of  the  "  Seven  Stars  of  the  Bear,"  or  the  "  Seven 
Brothers,"  and  among  these  is  the  famous  poem  of  Yussuf  and 
Zuleika.  This  favorite  subject,  which  every  Persian  poet  has 
touched  with  more  or  less  success,  has  never  been  so  beautifully 
rendered  as  by  Jami.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  admiration  which 
this  poem  inspires  in  the  East. 

Hatifi  (d.  1520)  was  the  nephew  of  the  great  poet  Jami.  It 
was  his  ambition  to  enter  the  lists  with  his  uncle,  by  composing 
poems  on  similar  subjects.  Opinions  are  divided  as  to  whether 
he  succeeded  as  well  as  his  master,  but  none  can  exceed  him  in 
sweetness  and  pathos.  His  version  of  the  sad  tale  of  Mejnoun 
and  Leila,  the  Borneo  and  Juliet  of  the  East,  is  confessedly 
superior  to  that  of  Nizami. 

The  lyrical  compositions  of  Scheik  Feizi  (d.  15T5)  are  highly 
valued.  In  his  mystic  poems  he  approaches  to  tlie  sublimity  of 
Attar.  His  ideas  are  tinged  with  the  belief  of  the  Hindus,  in 
which  he  was  educated.  When  a  boy  he  was  introduced  to  the 
Brahmins  by  the  Sultan  Mohammed  Akbar,  as  an  orphan  of 
their  tribe,  in  order  that  he  might  learn  their  language  and 
obtain  possession  of  their  religious  secrets.  He  became  attached 
to  the  daughter  of  the  Brahmin  who  protected  him,  and  she  was 
offered  to  him  in  marriage  by  the  unsuspecting  parent.  After  a 
struggle  between  inclination  and  honor,  the  latter  prevailed  and 
he  confessed  the  fraud.  The  Brahmin,  struck  with  horror, 
attempted  to  put  an  end  to  his  own  existence,  fearing  that  he 
had  betravcd  his  oath  and  brouc-ht  dano-er  and  disorrace  on  his 
sect.  Feizi,  with  tears  and  protestations,  besought  him  to  for- 
bear, promising  to  submit  to  any  command  he  might  impose  on 
him.     The  Brahmin  consented  to  live,  on  condition  that  Feizi 


PERSIAN    LITERATURE.  47 

should  take  an  oath  never  to  translate  the  Yedas  nor  to  repeat 
to  any  one  the  creed  of  the  Hindus.  Feizi  entered  into  the 
desired  obligations,  parted  with  his  adopted  father,  bade  adieu  to 
his  love,  and  with  a  sinking  heart  returned  home.  Among  his 
works  the  most  important  is  the  *'Mahabarit,"  which  contains 
the  chronicles  of  the  Hindu  princes,  and  abounds  in  romantic 
episodes. 

The  most  celebrated  recent  Persian  poet  is  Blab  Phelair  (1^29- 
1825.)  He  left  many  astronomical,  moral,  pohtical,  and  literary 
works.     He  is  called  the  Persian  Yoltaire. 

Among:  the  collections  of  novels  and  fables,  the  "  Lio-hts  of 
Canope"  may  be  mentioned,  imitated  from  the  Hitopadesa. 
Persian  literature  is  also  enriched  by  translations  of  the  standard 
works  in  Sanscrit,  among  which  are  the  epic  poems  of  Yalmiki 
and  Yvasa. 


10.  History  and  Philosophy. — Among  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  Persian  historians  is  Mirkhond,  who  hved  in  the  middle  of  the 
15th  century.  His  great  work  on  universal  history  contains  an  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  world,  the  life  of  the  patriarchs,  prophets, 
and  philosophers  of  Persia,  and  affords  valuable  materials,  espe- 
cially for  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages.  His  son,  Khondemir, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  same  branch  of  literature,  and  wrote 
two  works  which,  for  their  historical  correctness  and  elegance  of 
stvle,  are  in  ""reat  favor  amono;  the  Persians.  Ferischta,  who 
flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  ITth  century,  is  the  author  of 
a  valuable  history  of  India.  Mirgholah,  a  historian  of  the 
18th  century,  gives  a  contemporary  history  of  Hindustan  and  of 
his  own  countrv,  under  the  title  of  "A  Glance  at  Recent  Affairs," 
and  in  another  work  he  treats  of  the  causes  which,  at  some  future 
time,  wiil  probably  lead  to  the  fall  of  the  British  power  in  India. 
The  "  History  of  the  Reigning  Dynasty"  is  among  the  principal 
modern  historical  works  of  Persia. 

The  Persians  possess  numerous  works  on  rhetoric,  geography, 
medicine,  mathematics,  and  astronomy,  few  of  which  are  entitled 
to  much  consideration.  In  philosophy  may  be  mentioned  the 
"  Essence  of  Logic,"  an  exposition  in  the  Arabic  language  of  the 
doctrines  of  Aristotle  on  logic  ;  and  the  "  Moral  System  of 
Nasir,"  published  in  the  13th  century  a.d.,  a  valuable  treatise 
on  morals,  economy,  and  politics. 

11.  Education  in  Persia. — There  are  established,  in  every 
town  and  city,  schools  in  which  the  poorer  children  can  be 
instructed  in  the  rudiments  of  the  Pei*sian  and  Arabic  Ian Q:ua,i]re3 


48  PERSIAN   LITERATURE. 

The  pnpil,  after  he  has  learned  the  alphabet,  reads  the  Korau 
in  Arabic  ;  next,  fables  in  Persian  ;  and  lastly  is  taught  to 
write  a  beautiful  hand,  which  is  considered  a  great  accomplish- 
ment. The  Persians  are  fond  of  poetry,  and  the  lowest  artisans 
can  read  or  repeat  the  finest  passages  of  their  most  admired 
poets.  For  the  education  of  the  higher  classes,  there  are  in 
Persia  many  colleges  and  universities,  where  the  pupils  are 
taught  grammar,  the  Turkish  and  Arabic  languages,  rhetoric, 
philosophy  and  poetry.  The  literary  men  are  numerous  ;  they 
pursue  their  studies  till  they  are  entitled  to  the  honors  of  the 
colleges  ;  afterwards  they  devote  themselves  to  copying  and 
illuminating  manuscripts. 


CHINESE   LITEKATUEE. 

1.  Chinese  Literature  and  its  Divisions.— 2.  The  Language,— 3.  The  Writing  — i.  Canoni- 
cal and  Classic  Writings.— The  'U-King;  Ta-hio.— 5.  Chinese  Religion  and  Philosophy  ; 
Lao-tse  ;  Confucius  ;  Meng-tse  ;  the  Religion  of  Fo.— 6.  Social  Constitution  of  China. — 
7.  History.- 8.  Science.— 9.  Poetry  and  Fiction  ;  Lyric  Poetry  ;  The  Drama ;  Ro- 
mances.— 10.  Education  in  China. 

1.  Chinese  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — The  Chinese 
literature  ranks  among  the  most  important  of  those  of  Asia. 
Originating  in  a  vast  empire,  it  is  diffused  among  a  population 
numbering  nearly  half  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe  ;  it  is  ex- 
pressed by  an  original  language  differing  entirely  from  all  others  ; 
it  refers  to  a  nation  whose  history  may  be  traced  back  nearly 
five  thousand  years  in  an  almost  unbroken  series  of  annals,  and 
it  illustrates  the  peculiar  character  of  a  people  long  unknown  to 
the  western  world.  It  is  one  of  the  most  voluminous  of  all 
literatures  ;  the  printed  catalogue  of  the  Hbrary  of  the  emperor 
Khian-Lung,  who  reigned  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  con- 
sists of  122  volumes,  and  a  selection  only  of  works  from  this 
literature  ordered  by  the  same  emperor  was  to  have  contained 
180,000  volumes,  of  which  78,t81  had  already  appeared  in 
1818. 

The  Chinese  literature  may  be  divided  into  four  departments. 
1st.  The  canonical  and  classic  writings.  2d.  History.  3d. 
Science.     4th.  Poetry  and  Fiction. 

2.  The  Language.— The  Chinese  belongs  to  the  monosyllabic 
family  of  languages.  In  it  every  syllable  expresses  an  idea  or  a 
woi-d,  and  every  syllable  begins  with  a  consonant  or  with  a  pecu- 
liar aspiration,  and  ends  in  a  vowel  or  in  a  sign  expressing  a 
nasal  sound.  Its  radical  words  number  450  ;  but,  as  many  of 
these,  by  being  pronounced  with  a  different  accent,  convey  a 
different  meaning,  in  reality  they  amount  to  1,203.  The  system 
of  its  declensions  and  conjugations  is  chiefly  based  on  particles, 
which,  prefixed  or  suffixed  to  the  nouns  or  verbs,  produce  their 
different  modifications.  Its  construction  is  regular,  and  the 
meaning  of  a  word  often  depends  on  its  position.      Its  pro- 

3 


50  CHINESE   LITEKATUEE. 

nimciation  varies  in  the  different  provinces,  but  that  of  Nan- 
king, the  ancient  capital  of  the  empire,  is  considered  the  most 
pure.  Man}^  dialects  also  are  spoken  in  the  various  parts  of 
the  country.  The  Chinese  proper,  however,  is  the  literary  tongue 
of  the  nation,  the  language  of  the  court,  of  high  officers,  of 
polite  society,  and  it  is  vernacular  in  that  portion  of  China 
which  is  called  the  Middle  Kingdom. 

3.  The  Wkitixg. — There  is  an  essential  difference  between 
the  Chinese  language  as  spoken  and  written  ;  and  the  poverty  of 
the  former  presents  a  striking  contrast  with  the  exuberance  of 
the  latter.  Chinese  writing,  generally  speaking,  does  not  express 
the  sounds  of  the  words,  but  it  represents  the  ideas  or  the 
objects  indicated  by  them.  Its  alphabetical  characters  are  there- 
fore ideographic  and  uot  phonetic.  They  were  originally  rude 
representations  of  the  thing  signified  ;  but  they  have  undergone 
various  changes  from  picture-writing  to  the  present  more  sym- 
bolical and  more  complete  system. 

As  the  Chinese  alphabetic  signs  represent  objects  or  ideas,  it 
would  follow  that  there  must  be  in  writing  as  many  characters 
as  words  in  the  spoken  language.  Yet  many  words,  which  have 
the  same  sound,  represent  different  ideas  ;  and  these  must  be 
represented  also  in  the  written  language.  Thus  the  number  of 
the  written  words  far  surpasses  that  of  the  spoken  language. 
As  far  as  they  are  used  in  the  common  writing,  they  amount  to 
2,425.  These  characters  are  divided  into  six  classes.  The  1st 
consists  of  single  images  of  perceptible  objects,  as  of  the  sun, 
moon,  etc.  The  2d,  of  those  formed  of  two  or  more  images, 
as  of  an  eye  and  water,  meaning  tear.  The  3d,  of  those  ex- 
pressing position,  as  above,  below,  etc.  The  4th,  of  those 
representing  certain  relations  of  position,  as  up  to  down,  left  to 
right,  etc.  Tiie  5th,  of  metaplioric  and  symbolic  signs,  as  heart 
for  affection,  etc.  Finally,  the  6th  class  embraces  characters 
botli  phonetic  and  ideographic  ;  or  those  images  which  have 
been  chosen  for  signs  of  sound,  and  which,  as  such,  have  lost  their 
original  meaning.  So  the  word  iz,  written  alone,  signifies  a  mile, 
but  united  to  the  image  of  a  fish,  conveys  the  idea  of  a  carp. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Chinese  signs  belong  to  this  class  ;  they 
amount  to  21,810.  The  number  of  characters  in  the  Chinese 
dictionary  is  40,000,  of  which,  however,  only  10,000  are  re- 
quired for  the  general  purposes  of  literature.  They  are  disposed 
under  214  signs,  which  serve  as  keys,  and  which  correspond  to 
our  alphabetic  order. 

The  Chinese  language  is  written  from  right  to  left,  in  vertical 
columns  or  in  horizontal  lines. 


CHINESE   LITERATLKE.  51 

4.  Canoxical  and  Classic  Wpjtixgs. — The  '  U-Jdng  (fiyo 
canons,  or  fundamental  doctrines)  are  the  most  ancient  monu- 
ments of  the  Chinese  poetry,  history,  philosophy  and  legislation, 
and  some  fragments  of  them,  at  least,  belong  to  the  most 
ancient  writings  of  the  world.  They  are  divided  as  follows  : 
1st,  Y-king,  or  the  book  of  transformations,  the  oldest  of  the 
five  canons.  Its  date  is  probably  not  later  than  2,800  b.c.  It 
contains  a  system  of  symbolic  combinations  of  signs,  which  refer 
to  the  first  principles  of  all  existence  and  knowledge.  Many 
commentaries  have  been  written  on  this  singular  book.  2d. 
Shu-ldng,  or  annals,  containing  a  collection  of  documents  relat- 
ing to  the  history  of  the  first  four  dynasties  of  China.  3d. 
Shi-king,  or  the  book  of  chants,  a  collection  of  songs  and  hymns, 
some  of  which  are  remarkable  for  tlieir  subHraity.  4th. 
Li-ki,  or  the  ritual  and  mirror  of  morality,  a  collection  of 
moral  laws  and  precepts,  which  is  still  the  basis  of  the  religion 
of  the  cultivated  classes.  5th.  Chun-tsieu,  or  the  Spring-Autumn, 
a  history  of  China,  beginning  from  the  year  770  b.c,  and  con- 
tinued to  550.  Of  these  canonical  books,  the  three  first  were 
collected  and  arranged  by  Confucius,  the  two  last  were  written 
cither  by  Confucius  himself  or  by  some  of  his  disciples.  To  Confu- 
cius are  also  referred  the  Sse-shu,  or  the  four  classic  books  ;  the 
most  important  of  which  is  Ta-hio,  the  Great  Doctrine,  or  the 
art  of  good  government  through  self-dominion.  This  book,  how- 
ever, with  the  exception  of  the  first  chapter,  like  the  other  three 
attributed  to  Confucius,  was  probably  written  by  his  disciples 
from  his  oral  instructions,  and  all  of  them  are  full  of  practical 
wisdom  and  moral  precepts  of  the  purest  and  most  sublime 
character.  Innumerable  commentaries,  having  great  authority, 
have  been  written  on  all  these  works. 

In  the  3d  century  b.c,  one  of  the  emperors  conceived  the  mad 
scheme  of  destroying  all  existing  records,  and  writing  a  new  set 
of  annals  in  his  own  name,  in  order  that  posterity  might  con- 
sider him  the  founder  of  the  empu'e.  Sixty  years  after  this  bar- 
ba,rous  decree  had  been  carried  into  execution,  one  of  his  suc- 
cessors, who  desired  as  far  as  possible  to  repair  the  injury,  caused 
these  books  to  be  re-written  from  a  copy  which  had  escaped 
destruction. 

5.  Chinese  Religion  and  Philosophy. — Three  periods  may 
be  distinguished  in  the  history  of  the  religious  and  philosophical 
progress  of  China.  The  first  relates  to  ancient  tradition,  to  the 
idea  of  one  supreme  God,  to  the  patriarchal  institutions,  which 
were  the  foundation  of  the  social  organization  of  the  empire,  and 


52  CHINESE    LITEKATUEE. 

to  the  primitive  customs  and  moral  doctrines.  It  appears  that 
this  religion  at  length  degenerated  into  that  mingled  idolatry 
and  indiilerence,  which  still  characterizes  the  peo})le  of  China. 

In  the  Gth  century  b.c,  the  corruption  of  the  ancient  religion 
having  reached  its  height,  a  reaction  took  place,  which  gave  birth 
to  the  second,  or  philosophical  period,  which  produced  three  sys- 
tems. Lao-tse,  born  604  B.C.,  was  the  founder  of  the  religion 
of  the  Tao,  or  of  the  external  and  supreme  reason.  The  Tao  is 
the  primitive  existence  and  intelligence,  the  great  principle  of  the 
spiritual  and  material  world,  which  must  be  worshipped  through 
the  purification  of  the  soul,  by  retirement,  abnegation,  contem- 
plation and  metempsychosis.  This  school  gave  rise  to  a  sect  of 
mystics  similar  to  those  of  India. 

Confucius  was  the  founder  of  the  second  school,  which  has 
exerted  a  far  more  extensive  and  beneficial  influence  on  the 
political  and  social  institutions  of  China.  Confucius  is  a  Latin 
name  corresponding  to  the  original  Kuug-fu-tse,  Kung  being  the 
proper  name,  and  Fu-tse  signifying  reverend  teacher  or  doctor. 
He  was  born  551  b.c,  and  educated  by  his  mother,  who  impressed 
upon  him  a  strong  sense  of  morahty.  After  a  careful  study  of  the 
ancient  writings,  he  decided  to  undertake  the  moral  reform  of 
his  country,  and  giving  up  his  high  position  of  prime  mmister, 
he  travelled  extensively  in  China,  preaching  justice  and  virtue 
wherever  he  went.  His  doctrines,  founded  on  the  unity  of  God 
and  the  necessities  of  human  nature,  bore  essentially  a  moral 
character,  and  being  of  a  practical  tendency,  they  exerted  a  great 
influence  not  only  on  the  morals  of  the  people,  but  also  on  their 
legislation,  and  the  authority  of  Confucius  became  supreme.  He 
died  479  b.c,  at  the  age  of  72,  eleven  years  before  the  birth  of 
Socrates.  He  left  a  grandson,  through  whom  the  succession  has 
been  transmitted  to  the  present  day,  and  his  descendants  consti- 
tute a  distinct  class  in  Chinese  society. 

At  the  close  of  the  4th  century  b.c,  another  philosopher 
appeared  by  the  name  of  Meng-tse,  or  eminent  and  venerable 
teacher,  whose  method  of  instruction  bore  a  strong  similarity  to 
that  of  Socrates.  His  books  rank  among  the  classics,  and  breatlie 
a  spirit  of  freedom  and  independence  ;  tliey  are  fall  of  irony  on 
petty  sovereigns  and  on  their  vices  ;  they  establish  moral  good- 
ness above  social  position,  and  the  will  of  the  people  above  the 
ar])itrary  power  of  their  rulers.  He  was  much  revered,  and  con- 
sidered even  bolder  and  more  eloquent  than  Confucius. 

The  third  period  of  the  intellectual  development  of  the  Chinese 
dates  from  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  the  country,  under 
the  name  of  the  religion  of  Fo,  70  years  a.d.     The  emperor  him- 


CHINESE   LITERATURE.  53 

self  professes  this  religion,  and  its  followers  have  tlie  largest 
number  of  temples.  Buddhism,  however,  has  lost  in  China  much 
of  its  originality,  and  for  the  mass  it  has  sunk  into  a  low  and  debas- 
ing idolatry.  Recently  a  new  religion  has  sprung  up  in  China, 
a  mixture  of  ancient  Chinese  and  Christian  doctrines,  which 
apparently  finds  great  favor  in  some  portions  of  the  country. 

6.  Social  Constitution  of  China. — The  social  constitution  of 
China  rests  on  the  ancient  traditions  preserved  in  the  canonical 
and  classic  books.  The  Chinese  empire  is  founded  on  the  patri- 
archal system,  in  which  all  authority  over  the  family  belongs 
to  the  pater-familias.  The  emperor  represents  the  great  father 
of  the  nation,  and  is  the  supreme  master  of  the  state  and  the 
head  of  religion.  All  his  subjects  being  considered  as  his  chil- 
dren, they  are  all  equal  before  him,  and  according  to  their 
capacity  are  admitted  to  the  public  offices.  Hence  no  distinction 
of  castes,  no  privileged  classes,  no  nobility  of  birth  ;  but  a  gene- 
ral equality  under  an  absolute  chief.  The  public  administration 
is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  who  is  assisted  by  his 
mandarins,  both  military  and  civil.  They  are  admitted  to  this 
rank  only  after  severe  examinations,  and  from  them  the  members 
of  the  ditferent  councils  of  the  empire  are  selected.  Among  these 
the  Board  of  Control,  or  the  all-examining  Court,  and  the  Court 
of  history  and  literature,  deserve  particular  mention,  as  being 
more  closely  related  to  the  subject  of  this  work.  The  duty  of 
this  Board  consists  in  examining  all  the  official  acts  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  preventing  the  enacting  of  those  measures  which 
they  may  deem  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the  country. 
They  can  even  reprove  the  personal  acts  of  the  emperor,  an 
office  which  has  afforded  many  occasions  for  the  display  of  elo- 
quence. The  courage  of  some  of  the  members  of  this  Board 
has  been  indeed  sublime,  and  gave  to  their  Avords  wonderful 
power. 

The  Court  of  history  and  literature  superintends  public  educa- 
tion, examines  those  who  aspire  to  the  degree  of  mandarins,  and 
decides  on  the  pecuniary  subsidies,  which  the  government  usually 
grants  for  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  publication  of  great 
works  on  history  and  science. 

1.  History  and  Geography. — The  historical  and  geographical 
works  of  China  form  the  most  valuable  and  interesting  depart- 
ment of  its  hterature.  The  historical  era  of  the  empire  begins 
2691  B.C.  The  Chinese  eras  are  not  formed  of  centuries,  but 
of  cycles  of  60  years,  each  of  which  has  a  particular  namev 


54  CHINESE   LITEEATUEE. 

Chinese  history,  however,  refers  rather  to  the  dynasties  than  to 
the  people,  as  every  fact  of  any  importance,  every  invention  and 
improvement,  is  attributed  to  the  emperor,  who  thus  becomes  a 
symbol  of  his  age.  Generally  speaking,  the  history  of  one 
dynasty  is  not  written  until  after  the  succession  of  another. 
Among  the  Chinese  historians,  Sse-mathan  is  called  the  prince 
of  history,  as  he  was  the  collector  and  the  compiler  of  the 
ancient  documents  relating  to  the  history  of  China.  The  **  His- 
torical Memoirs"  of  his  son,  Sse-ma-thian,  pubhshcd  100  years 
B.C.,  contains  the  history  of  China  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
begimiing  of  the  second  century  e.g.  This  work  has  been  conti- 
nued under  the  patronage  of  the  different  dynasties,  and  forms, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  interruptions,  a  most  complete  collec- 
tion of  the  annals  of  the  empire  to  the  year  1643  a.d.  There 
exists  another  collection  called  the  22  Histories,  divided  into 
416  volumes,  and  containing  official  annals  from  2698  b.c.  to 
1645  A.D.  The  ''Exact  Examination  of  Documents,"  written  in 
the  14th  century  by  Ma-tuan-lin,  is  a  complete  historical,  geo- 
graphical and  universal  history  ;  it  is  divided  into  348  books, 
and  covers  a  period  of  forty  centuries.  This,  and  many  similar 
contributions,  either  of  a  general  or  of  a  local  character,  unite 
in  rendering  this  department  rich  and  important  for  tliose  who 
are  mterested  in  tlie  history  of  Asiatic  civilization.  To  these 
great  works  may  be  added  many  chronological  tables,  numerous 
biographies  and  1)iographical  lexicons,  the  "  General  Geography 
of  the  Chinese  Empire,"  the  huge  collection  of  the  statistics  of 
the  country,  divided  into  260  volumes,  with  maps  and  tables, 
and  above  all,  the  great  collection  of  the  "  Statutes  of  the 
reigning  Dynasty  from  tlie  year  1818,"  which  alone  forms  more 
than  one  thousand  volumes. 

8.  Science. — Comparing  the  scientific  development  of  the 
Chinese  with  that  of  the  western  world,  it  may  be  said  that  they 
have  made  little  progress  in  any  branch  of  science.  There  are, 
however,  to  be  found  in  almost  every  department  some  works  of 
no  indiiferent  merit.  In  mathematics,  tliey  begin  only  now  to 
make  some  progress,  since  the  mathematical  works  of  Eurojie 
have  been  introduced  into  their  country.  Astrology  still  takes 
the  place  of  astronomy,  and  the  almanacs  prepared  at  the  ob- 
servatory of  Pe-king  are  made  chiefly  by  foreigners.  Books 
on  natural  philosophy  abound,  some  of  which  are  written  by 
the  emperors  themselves.  ^ledicine  is  imperfectly  understood. 
They  possess  several  valuable  works  on  Chinese  jurisprudence, 
on  agriculture,  economy,  mechanics,  trades,  many  cyclopedias 


CHINESE   LITERATURE.  55 

and  compendia,  and  several  dictionaries,  composed  with  extra- 
ordinary skill  and  patience. 

To  this  department  may  be  referred  all  educational  books, 
the  most  of  them  written  in  rhym?,  and  according  to  a  system 
of  intellectual  gradation. 

9.  Poetry  axd  Fiction. — Chinese  poetry  consists  chiefly  of 
short  measured  sentences,  delivered  as  instructions  to  the  people, 
such  as  are  found  in  the  ancient  writings  and  in  the  moral 
maxims  of  Confucius.  The  Chinese  people  are  all  fond  of  poetry, 
and  the  literary  man  who  does  not  WTite  verses  is  compared  to 
a  flower  without  fragrance.  They  have  their  rules  of  rhyme, 
measure  and  quantity,  the  last  of  which  is  given  by  the  tones 
and  accentuations,  which  are  entirely  modern.  The  Chinese 
have  no  epic  poems,  pastorals  nor  satires,  but  they  have  songs, 
and  a  variety  of  other  poems. 

The  Shi-king  is  a  collection  of  upwards  of  three  hundred  odes. 
The  lines  consist  of  no  definite  number  of  syllables,  some  con- 
taining three,  some  seven,  but  the  greater  part  limited  to  four. 
The  rhyme  is  equally  irregular,  some  having  none,  in  others 
every  line  terminating  with  the  same  word.  Sometimes  six  lines 
rhyme  in  a  stanza  of  eight  hues,  occasionally  four,  three,  and 
sometimes  only  the  first  and  last.  There  is  not  much  subhmity 
or  depth  of  thought  in  these  odes,  but  they  abound  in  touches 
of  nature,  and  are  exceedingly  interesting  and  curious,  as  show- 
ing how  little  change  time  has  effected  in  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  this  singular  people.  Similar  in  character  are  the  poems 
of  the  Tshian-teug-shi,  another  collection  of  lyrics  published  at 
the  expense  of  the  emperor  in  several  thousand  volumes.  Among 
modern  poets,  may  be  mentioned  the  emperor  Khian-lung,  who 
died  at  the  close  of  the  last  century. 

Dramatic  poetry  constitutes  a  large  department  in  Chinese 
literature,  though  there  are,  properly  speaking,  no  theatres  in 
China.  A  platform  in  the  open  air  is  the  ordinary  stage,  the 
decorations  are  hangmgs  of  cotton  supported  by  a  few  poles 
of  bamboo,  and  the  action  is  frequently  of  the  coarsest  kind. 
When  an  actor  comes  on  the  staa-e  he  savs,  ''I  am  the  mandarin 
so-and-so."  If  the  drama  requires  the  actor  to  enter  a  house, 
he  takes  some  steps  and  says,  ''  I  have  entered  ;"  and  if  he  is 
supposed  to  travel,  he  does  so  by  rapid  running  on  the  stage, 
cracking  his  whip,  and  saying  afterwards,  *'  I  have  arrived." 
The  dialogue  is  written  partly  in  verse  and  partly  in  prose,  and 
the  poetry  is  sometimes  sung  and  sometimes  recited.  Many  of 
then*  dramas  are  full  of  bustle  and  abound  in  incident.     They 


56  CHINESE   LITERATLTRE. 

often  contain  the  life  and  adventures  of  an  individual,  some  great 
sovereign  or  general,  a  history,  in  fact,  thrown  into  action. 
Two  thousand  volumes  of  dramatic  compositions  are  known,  and 
the  best  of  these  amount  to  five  hundred  pieces.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  the  "  Orphan  of  the  House  of  Tacho,"  and  the 
"  Heir  in  old  Age,"  which  have  much  force  and  character,  and 
vividly  describe  the  habits  of  the  people. 

The  Chinese  are  fond  of  historical  and  moral  romances,  which, 
however,  are  founded  on  reason  and  not  on  imagination,  as  are 
the  Hindu  and  Persian  tales.  Their  subjects  are  not  submarine 
abysses,  enchanted  palaces,  giants  and  genii,  but  man  as  he  is 
in  his  actual  life,  as  he  lives  with  his  fellow-men,  with  all  his 
virtues  and  vices,  sufferings  and  J03's.  But  the  Chinese  novelists 
show  more  skill  in  the  details  than  in  the  conception  of  their 
works  ;  the  characters  are  finished  and  developed  in  every 
respect.  The  pictures  with  which  they  adorn  their  works  are 
minute  and  the  descriptions  poetical,  though  they  often  sacrifice 
to  these  qualities  the  unity  of  the  subjecib.  The  characters  of 
their  novels  are  principally  drawn  from  the  middle  class,  as 
governors,  literary  men,  etc.  The  episodes  are,  generally  speak- 
ing, ordinary  actions  of  common  life — all  the  quiet  incidents 
of  the  phlegmatic  life  of  the  Chinese,  coupled  with  the  regular 
and  mechanical  movements  which  distinguish  that  people. 
Among  the  numberless  Chinese  romances,  there  are  several  which 
are  considered  classic.  Such  are  the  "  Four  great  Marvels' 
Books,"  and  the  "  Stories  of  the  Pirates  on  the  coast  of  Kiang- 


nan." 


10.  Education  in  China. — Most  of  the  Chinese  people  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  education.  There  is  scarcely  a 
man  who  does  not  know  how  to  read  the  books  of  his  profession. 
Public  schools  are  everywhere  established  ;  in  the  Cities  there 
are  colleges,  in  which  pupils  are  taught  the  Chinese  literature  ; 
and  in  Pe-king  there  is  an  imperial  college  for  the  education  of 
the  mandarins.  The  offices  of  the  empire  are  only  attained  by 
scholarship.  There  are  four  literary  degrees,  which  give  title  to 
different  positions  in  the  country.  The  government  fosters  the 
higher  branches  of  education,  patronizes  the  publication  of  lite- 
rary works,  which  are  distributed  among  the  libraries,  colleges, 
and  functionaries.  The  press  is  restricted  only  from  publishing 
licentious  and  revolutionary  books. 


EGYPTIAN   LITEEATUEE. 

1.  Egyptian  Literature.— 2.  The  Language.— 3.  The  Writing.^.  The  Discovery  of 
ChampoUion. — 5.  Egyptian  Monuments. — 6.  History;  Manetho.— 7.  The  Religion  of 
Egypt. — 8.  Science. — 9.  Literary  Condition  of  Modern  Egypt. 

1.  Egyptian  Literature. — Tlie  ancient  literature  of  Egypt  i3 
enveloped  in  the  darkness  of  antiquity  and  in  the  symbols  of 
mythology.  Such  remains  of  it  as  have  been  preserved,  consist 
of  papyrus  manuscripts,  sculptures,  inscriptions  and  tablets  found 
in  the  tombs,  temples  and  in  other  ruins.  They  are  either  his- 
torical or  religious.  The  historical  papyri  are  either  records  of 
the  exploits  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  or  accounts  of  contemporary 
events.  The  religious  manuscripts  contain  portions  or  entire 
copies  of  the  Funeral  Eitual — which  was  a  collection  of  prayers 
and  instructions,  belonging,  probably,  to  different  ages,  and  re- 
lating to  the  future  state  of  the  soul.  Tlie  historical  inscriptions 
are  generally  inflated  records  of  the  successes  of  the  kings,  in 
explanation  of  the  historical  scenes  engraved  and  sculptured  on 
the  walls  of  the  temples  and  of  the  tombs.  The  religious  inscri|> 
tions  are  often  taken  from  the  funeral  ritual,  but  sometimes  they 
are  simple  prayers  to  the  gods,  or  an  enumeration  of  their  titles. 
The  history  of  the  Dynasties  of  Egypt,  by  Manetho — or,  rather, 
the  few  remaining  fragments,  though  originally  written  in  Greek, 
are  important  memorials  of  Egyptian  literature. 

According  to  the  mythological  traditions  of  the  Egyptians, 
the  god  or  demi-god  Hermes  was  the  inventor  of  letters  and 
science,  and  transmitted  his  wisdom  to  posterity  by  engraving  it 
upon  pillars  of  stone.  These  inscriptions  were  afte;'wards  col- 
lected, and  became  the  sacred  books  of  the  nation. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  of  th>i  literary  productions  of  ancient 
Egypt  were  written  in  verse. 

2.  The  Language. — -While  some  Egyptologists  consider  the 
ancient  language  of  Egypt  as  belonging  to  the  Semitic  family, 
others  regard  it  as  essentially  distinct  from  that  branch.  From 
the  earliest  times,  it  was  divided  into  three  dialects  :  The 
Memphitic  or  Coptic,  spoken  in  Memphis,  and  througli  Lower 

3*  '  57 


58  EGYPTIAX   LITERATUllE. 

Egypt  ;  the  Thchan  or  Saliiclic,  spoken  ia  Thebes  and  through 
Upper  Egypt,  and  the  Bashiimric,  a  provincial  variety,  be- 
longing to  the  oases  of  the  Libyan  Desert.  The  Coptic,  though 
afterward  mingled  witli  Greek  and  Arabic  words,  and  written 
in  the  Greek  alphabet,  was  used  in  Egypt  until  the  10th  cen- 
tury A.D.,  when  it  gave  way  to  the  Arabic.  It  is  still  in  use, 
however,  in  the  monasteries  of  the  Copts,  the  principal  sect  of 
Christians  in  Egypt,  who  preserve  it  in  their  worship,  and  in 
their  translation  of  the  Bible. 

By  rejecting  all  the  foreign  elements  of  the  Coptic,  Egyptolo- 
gists have  been  enabled  to  study  this  ancient  language  in  its 
purity,  and  to  establish  its  grammar  and  construction.  Though 
the  spoken  and  written  language  of  Egypt  was  originally  the 
same,  a  vulgar  dialect  made  its  appearance  about  the  7  th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  which,  at  a  later  age,  was  written  in  the  demotic 
alphabet. 

3.  The  Writing. — Three  different  modes  of  writing  prevailed 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  characters  used  in  the  first 
were  the  hieroglyphic;  in  the  second  the  hieratic;  and  in  the 
third  the  demotic.  The  hieroglyphics  expressed  words  partly  by 
representation  of  objects,  or  by  symbols  of  ideas,  and  partly  by 
phonetic  signs,  indicating  the  letters  of  a  word.  At  first,  these 
characters  were  a  combination  of  picture-writing  with  signs 
indicating  sounds  ;  but  soon  more  simple  forms  and  outlines  of 
objects  were  introduced,  and  formed  with  one  or  two  strokes. 
The  hieroglyphics  are  written  either  horizontally,  or  vertically 
downward,  from  right  to  left,  or  from  left  to  right.  The 
earliest  hieroglyphic  writings  found  in  Egypt  date  2440  B.C., 
and  the  latest,  250  a.d.  The  hieroglyphic  signs  were  used 
chiefly  for  inscriptions.  The  hieratic  characters  present  a  flow- 
ing and  abbreviated  form  of  hieroglyphic  writing,  and  are  usually 
written  in  horizontal  lines,  from  right  to  left.  They  were  used 
more  particularly  in  the  papyri.  The  hieratic  system  must  have 
been  invented  soon  after  the  hieroglyphic.  Its  latest  remains 
extant  date  1220  b.c,  though  it  was  probably  employed  as  late 
as  the  2d  century  a.d.  The  demotic  characters  were  formed  from 
tlie  hieratic,  and  composed  of  fewer  signs,  more  rude  and  simple, 
and  more  easily  written,  and  among  them  the  phonetic  pre- 
dominated. This  wTiting  arose  from  the  necessity  of  new  char- 
acters adapted  to  express  the  vulgar  dialect,  which  had  long 
before,  as  we  have  seen,  arisen  from  the  corruption  of  the  ancient 
language.  It  was  written  in  horizontal  lines,  from  right  to  left, 
and  used  especially  in  legal  documents  and  religious  manuscripts. 


EGYPTIAN   LITEEATURE.  59 

This  system  did  not  come  into  c-eneral  use  until  the  2d  or  3d 
century  e.g.,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  abandoned  about  the 
close  of  the  od  century  a.d.,  when  the  Coptic  borrowed  from 
the  Greek  its  alphabet,  using,  however,  demotic  signs  for  those 
sounds  which  had  no  equivalent  letters  in  the  Greek  language. 
In  these  three  forms  of  Egyptian  writing,  the  characters  are 
iigurative,  symbolical,  or  phonetic.  The  figurative  signs  repre- 
sent the  visible  objects  which  they  are  intended  to  indicate. 
Thus,  the  idea  of  a  horse,  a  crown,  etc.,  is  expressed  by  a  draw- 
ing of  these  objects,  either  entirely,  or  by  some  contraction. 
The  symbolic  signs  express  abstract  ideas  by  the  figure  of  a 
physical  object  whose  qualities  bear  some  analogy  with  the  idea 
to  be  expressed,  and  the  phonetic  signs  represent  the  sounds  of 
the  spoken  language. 

4.  The  Discovery  of  Champollion. — During  the  expedition 
into  Egypt,  in  1799,  in  throwing  up  some  earthworks  near  Ro- 
setta,  a  town  on  tlie  western  arm  of  the  Nile,  an  officer  of 
the  French  army  discovered  a  block  or  tablet  of  black  basalt, 
upon  which  were  engraved  inscriptions  in  Egyptian  and  Greek 
characters.  This  tablet,  called  the  Rosetta  iStone,  was  sent  to 
Erance  and  submitted  to  the  orientalists  for  interpretation.  The 
inscription  was  found  to  be  a  decree  of  the  Egyptian  priests  in 
honor  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  (196  e.g.)  which  was  ordered  to 
be  engraved  on  stone  in  sacred  (hieroglyphic),  common  (demotic), 
and  Greek  characters.  Through  this  interpretation,  Champol- 
lion  (1190-1832),  after  much  study,  discovered  and  established 
the  alphabetic  system  of  Egyptian  writing,  and  applying  his 
discovery  more  extensively,  he  was  able  to  decipher  the  names 
of  the  kings  of  Egypt  from  the  Roman  emperors  back, 
throusxh  the  Ptolemies,  to  the  Pharaohs  of  the  elder  dynasties. 
The  opinion  which  had  previously  prevailed  among  scholars, 
that  this  writing  was  only  intelligible  to  the  priests  and  to  those 
initiated  into  their  mysteries,  was  thus  overthrown.  This  discov- 
ery was  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  all  the  ancient  monu- 
ments of  Egypt ;  by  it  the  history  of  the  country  was  thrown 
open  for  a  period  of  twenty-six  centuries,  the  annals  of  the  neigh- 
boring nations  were  rendered  more  intelligible,  the  religion,  arts, 
sciences,  life,  and  manners  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  re- 
vealed to  the  modern  world,  and  the  obehsks,  the  innumerable 
papyri,  and  the  walls  of  the  temples  and  tombs  were  transformed 
into  inexhaustible  mines  of  historical  and  scientific  knowledge. 

5.  Egyptian  Monuments. — The  literary  remains  of  ancient 


60  EGYPTIAN    LITERATURE. 

Egypt  consist  of  inscriptions  painted  or  engraved  on  monuments, 
or  of  written  manuscripts  buried  in  the  tombs,  or  beneath  the 
ruins  of  temples.  The  inscriptions  and  manuscripts,  both  histor- 
ical and  rehgious,  have  either  a  sepulchral  or  a  votive  character, 
as  they  generally  refer  to  the  dead  or  to  the  deities,  most  fre- 
quently to  both.  The  inscriptions  which  relate  to  the  triumphs 
of  the  kings  have  also  a  votive  character,  ascribing  their  exploits 
to  the  gods.  The  papyri,  frequently  found  in  the  sarcophagi  of 
monuments,  contain  prayers  to  certain  gods  expressed  in  the  name 
of  the  deceased  ;  the  upper  part  of  each  manuscript  is  occupied  by 
a  series  of  pictured  tablets,  and  under  them  are  vertical  columns 
of  hieroglyphics,  divided  into  paragraphs  with  a  tablet  between 
each  ;  the  lirst  words  are  written  in  red  ink,  the  others  in  black. 
Names  of  the  gods,  and  symbolical  signs  representing  their  dif- 
ferent powers  and  the  reverence  due  to  them,  are  almost  always 
found  in  these  manuscripts. 

The  monuments  of  Egypt  are  religious,  as  the  temples ;  sepul- 
chral, as  the  necropoles  ;  or  triumphal,  as  the  obelisks.  The 
temples  were  the  principal  structures  of  the  Egyptian  cities, 
Memphis,  Thebes,  and  other  localities  present  splendid  remahis 
of  these  edifices,  covered  with  inscriptions  relating  to  the  history 
and  to  the  religion  of  the  country.  In  the  vicinity  of  all  the 
principal  cities,  there  are  necropoles,  or  catacombs,  excavated 
into  the  mountains  or  hillsides,  or  constructed  within  the 
pyramids  ;  they  consist  of  rows  of  chambei*s  with  halls  supported 
l)y  columns,  which,  with  the  walls,  are  often  covered  with  paint- 
ings in  fresco,  or  with  painted  reliefs,  partly  historical  and  partly 
monumental,  representing,  for  the  most  part,  scenes  from  domes- 
tic or  civil  life.  The  most  splendid  necropoles  of  Egypt  are 
those  of  Memphis  and  Thebes,  and  to  the  necropolis  of  the  for- 
mer the  pyramids  of  El-Geezeh,  near  Cau'o,  are  especially 
related.  The  Egyptian  pyramids  are  gigantic  quadrangular 
structures,  having  a  broad  base,  contracting  gradually  toward 
the  top,  sometimes  terminating  in  a  point,  sometimes  in  a  plane 
surface.  They  are  generally  built  of  large  limestones,  with  the 
four  sides  placed  so  as  to  face  the  four  cardinal  points.  Their 
interior  is  divided  into  various  chambers,  in  which  are  found  sar- 
cophagi of  granite.  The  great  pyramids  were  probably  built 
for  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  and  their  families,  and  the  smal- 
ler ones  for  the  tombs  of  inferior  persons — their  walls  are  cov- 
ered with  painted  sculptures.  The  great  pyramids  of  El-Geezeh 
were  probably  erected  during  the  four  centuries  which  preceded 
the  invasion  of  the  Shepherd  Kings,  from  the  year  2200  to 
1800  B.C. 


EGYPTIAX    LITERATURE.  Gl 

Of  the  triumphal  monuments  the  most  magnificent  are  the 
obeUsks,  which  are  gigantic  monohths  of  red  or  white  granite, 
some  more  than  200  feet  in  height,  covered  with  inscriptions,  on 
which  the  image  of  the  triumphant  king  was  engraved  or 
painted.  The  splendid  obelisk,  which  adorns  the  Place  de  la 
Concorde  in  Paris,  was  removed  from  the  portal  of  the  temple  of 
El-Uksur,  of  Thebes,  and  placed  where  it  now  stands  in  1836. 
It  has  on  each  side  three  vertical  lines  of  hieroglyphics,  beauti- 
fully cut,  which  celebrate  the  glories  of  llameses  II. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  of  the  Egyptian  monuments 
is  the  enigmatic  statue  of  the  Sphinx,  so  frequently  found  in  the 
temples  and  the  necropoles  of  Egypt.  It  is  a  recumbent  figure 
formed  of  a  human  head  and  breast  and  the  body  of  a  lion,  with 
the  fore  paws  stretched  forward.  Whatever  idea  the  Egyptians 
may  have  attached  to  tliis  symbol,  the  sphinx  represents  most 
truly  the  character  of  that  people,  and  the  struggle  of  mind  to 
free  itself  from  the  instincts  of  brutal  nature. 

6.  History. — All  the  literary  remains  of  ancient  Egjrpt  relate 
either  to  its  history  or  to  its  rehgion.  The  Egyptian  priests, 
from  the  earMest  times,  must  have  preserved  the  annals  of  their 
country,  though  obscured  by  myths  and  symbols.  These,  how- 
ever, were  entirely  destroyed  by  Cambyses  (500  e.g.),  who  during 
his  invasion  of  Egypt,  burned  the  temples  where  they  were  pre- 
served. They  were  doubtless  soon  composed  agani  by  the  priests, 
as  Herodotus,  in  visiting  Egypt  450  years  e.g.,  was  shown  a  fist 
of  330  kings  who  had  been  the  predecessors  of  Moeris,  who 
reigned  in  the  17  th  century  e.g.  The  history  of  the  succession 
of  the  kings  of  Egypt  was  written  in  the  Greek  language  by 
JSIanetho,  a  priest  and  librarian  of  Heliopohs,  who  hved  in  the 
3d  century  e.g.,  and  who  numbered  thirty  dynasties  from  Mencs, 
the  founder  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy,  to  Nectanebes  II.,  the 
last  native  king.  Though  the  original  work  of  Manetho  was  lost, 
important  fragments  of  it  have  been  preserved  by  other  writers. 

Archaeologists  do  not  agree  as  to  the  antiquity  of  the  history  of 
Egypt,  according  to  the  dynasties  of  Manetho.  Some  suppose 
these  dynasties  to  have  ruled  consecutively  ;  and  assign  to  the 
Egyptian  monarchy,  from  its  origin  to  its  fall  (350  e.g.),  a  dura- 
tion of  upward  of  5,000  years.  Others  maintain  that  many  of 
them  were  contemporaneous  in  different  parts  of  Egypt,  and  thus 
reduce  the  period.  Whatever  be  the  true  solution  of  this  ques- 
tion, the  duration  of  the  monarchy  cannot  have  been  less  than 
2,700  years,  and  its  history,  founded  on  the  computations  of 
Manetho,  may  be  divided  into  four  periods,  each  of  which  was 


62  EGYPTIAX   LITERATURE. 

marked  b}^  great  changes  in  the  social  and  pohtical  constitution 
of  the  country.  In  the  first  epoch,  when,  according  to  Manetho, 
Egypt  was  under  the  rule  of  the  gods,  demi-gods  and  heroes,  the 
country  was  probably  colonized,  and  ruled  by  the  priests  in  the 
name  of  the  gods.  The  second  period  extends  from  Menes,  the 
founder  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy,  to  the  invasion  of  the  Shepherd 
Kings,  probably  from  2200  to  1800  b.c.  In  this  era,  hereditary 
monarchy  took  the  place  of  theocracy.  On  the  extinction  of 
each  dynasty,  the  election  of  the  succeeding  one  was  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  the  priests.  The  third  period  (1800-1580  b.c.)  em- 
braces the  invasion  and  the  dominion  of  the  country  by  foreign 
tribes,  probably  Phoenicians,  who,  under  the  title  of  Shepherd 
Kings,  ruled  Egypt  for  three  centuries,  and  established  in  the 
country  a  kind  of  feudal  system.  It  was  one  of  these  kings  or  Pha- 
raohs, of  whom  Joseph  was  the  prime  minister.  They  were  at  last 
expelled  by  the  native  inhabitants  and  the  Egyptian  rule  restored. 
The  fourth  period  (1580 — 350  b.c.)  comprises  the  history  of  the 
other  dynasties  to  Nectanebes  II.,  when  Egypt  fell  under  the 
power  of  Persia.  This  period  is  perhaps  the  richest  in  historical 
materials,  and  to  it  belong  the  most  numerous  and  important 
inscriptions,  sculptures  and  papyri.  The  dynasties  of  Manetho 
embrace  the  whole  range  of  these  periods,  which  contain  the 
entire  history  of  ancient  Eg3'pt.  From  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century  b.c.  to  the  present  time,  a  period  of  twenty-two  centu- 
ries, no  native  ruler  has  sat  on  the  throne  of  that  country.  It 
was  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  left  it  under  the 
sway  of  the  Ptolemies  ;  it  was  then  conquered  by  the  Romans  ; 
it  became  a  province  of  the  Byzantine  emi)ire  ;  then  the  prey  of 
the  Saracens,  next  of  tlie  Mamelukes,  afterwards  of  the  Turks  ; 
and  since  1841  it  has  been  governed  by  a  viceroy,  under  a  nomi- 
nal dependence  on  the  sultan. 

*I.  The  Heligion  of  Egypt. — Though  the  popular  religion  of 
Egypt,  by  confounding  symbols  with  realities,  early  degenerated 
into  materialism  and  idolatry,  the  secret  doctrines  of  the  priests 
were  more  elevated  ;  they  were  founded  on  a  personification  of 
the  forces  of  nature  identified  and  centred  in  a  mysterious  unity. 
According  to  their  belief,  Kum,  under  various  names,  was  the 
soul  of  the  univ^erse,  the  pro-creator  of  the  material  world,  of 
divinities  and  of  men.  Primitive  matter  sprang  from  his  mouth, 
a  sphere,  the  ogg  of  the-  universe.  Athor,  the  goddess  of  daik- 
ness,  generated  the  seed  of  all  things  ;  and  matter,  united  to  the 
liglit  which  flashed  from  Num,  produced  Phtha,  the  god  of  fire  and 
of  life,  the  creator  of  the  sun  and  moon,  symbohzed  by  Osiris  and 


I    I 


EGYPTIAN   LITEKATUEE.  C3 

Isis,  a  god  and  goddess  who  in  turn  produced  Horus  and  other 
divinities.  Osiris  instructed  mankind  in  the  useful  arts,  and 
was  more  highly  revered  than  the  other  gods  of  Egypt.  He  was 
slain  by  Typhon,  his  adversary,  but  rose  again,  and  became  the 
judge  of  the  dead.  Isis,  the  consort  of  Osiris,  presided  over 
funeral  rites,  and  was  present  with  Horus  and  assisted  in  the 
judgment  of  men  after  death.  The  gods  of  Egypt,  like  those  of 
India,  were  grouped  in  trinities,  which  presided  over  all  things. 
Osiris,  Isis,  and  Horus  composed  the  trinity  to  which  the  govern- 
ment of  our  world  was  intrusted,  and  they  formed  the  last  link 
in  the  great  theogonic  chain  that  encircled  the  universe,  and  that 
from  trinity  to  trinity  extended  at  last  to  Num,  the  great  original 
source  of  all  thing's. 

The  worship  of  animals  and  reverence  for  the  dead  formed 
the  two  principal  features  of  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians. 
Their  innumerable  divinities,  doubtless,  in  the  minds  of  the  priests, 
originally  personified  attributes  of  the  one  supreme  deity,  and 
these  attributes  they  represented  under  the  form  of  such  animals 
as  were  endowed  with  like  qualities.  Every  god  was  symbolized 
by  some  animal,  which  thus  became  an  object  of  worship.  But 
the  immaterial  was  soon  lost  sight  of  in  the  material,  and  this 
worship  sunk  into  a  degrading  idolatry. 

Among  the  Egyptians,  a  belief  in  the  humortality  of  the  soul, 
and  in  metempsychosis,  was,  doubtless,  connected  with  their 
reverence  for  the  dead.  The  judgment  after  death  is  frequently 
represented  on  the  sarcophagi.  The  deceased  is  brought  before 
Osiris,  and  his  heart  weighed  against  the  feather  of  truth.  If 
he  is  found  guiltless,  he  takes  the  form  of  Osiris,  and  lives  in  a 
state  of  happiness  among  the  gods,  in  a  region  of  perpetual  day. 
If  guilty,  he  is  changed  into  the  form  of  an  animal,  or  is  con- 
signed to  a  fiery  place  of  punishment,  in  perpetual  night. 

8.  Egyptian  Science. — The  priests  of  Egypt  were  the  scien- 
tific and  literary  men  of  the  country  ;  and  whatever  written 
knowledge  they  possessed,  was  engraved  on  stone,  or  transcribed 
on  papyrus,  and  jealously  concealed  in  subterranean  parts  of 
their  temples.  Their  science  or  philosophy  was  secret  and  sym- 
bolical, while  that  which  they  imparted  to  the  people  was  of  a 
more  material  and  sensuous  character.  The  Greek  philoso- 
phers, many  of  whom  visited  Egypt,  borrowed  freely  from  their 
doctrines. 

Geometry  originated  with  the  Egyptians,  who,  from  remote 
ages,  must  have  been  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  this 
science  as  well  as  with  those  of  hydrostatics  and  mechanics,  as 


64  EGYPTIAN    LITERATURE. 

is  proved  by  their  immense  structures,  and  by  those  great  "works 
which  still  speak  of  the  past  grandeur  of  the  country.  As- 
tronomy was  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times  by  them,  and 
history  has  transmitted  to  us  their  observations  on  the  move- 
ments of  the  stars  and  planets.  The  obelisks  served  them  as 
sun-dials,  and  the  pyramids  as  astronomical  observatories.  They 
had  great  skill  in  medicine,  and  much  knowledge  of  anatomy, 
and  they  possessed  the  art  of  preparing  mummies,  many  of 
which  have  remained  perfect  four  thousand  years. 

Egypt,  in  its  flourishing  period,  having  contributed  to  the 
civilization  of  Greece,  became,  in  its  turn,  the  pupil  of  that 
country.  In  the  century  following  the  age  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  under  the  rnle  of  the  Ptolemies,  the  philosophy  and  lit- 
erature of  Athens  were  transfered  to  Alexandria.  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  in  the  3d  century  b.c,  completed  the  celebrated 
Alexandrian  Library,  formed,  for  the  most  part,  of  Greek 
books,  and  presided  over  by  Greek  librarians.  The  school  of 
Alexandria  had  its  poets,  its  grammarians  and  philosophers  ; 
but  its  poetry  lacked  the  fire  of  genius,  and  its  grammatical  pro- 
ductions were  more  remarkable  for  sophistry  and  subtility,  than 
for  soundness  and  depth  of  research.  In  the  philosophy  of 
Alexandria  the  Eastern  and  Western  systems  combined,  and  this 
school  had  many  distinguished  disciples. 

In  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  Egypt  passed  from 
the  Greek  kings  to  the  Roman  emperors,  and  the  Alexandrian 
school  continued  to  be  adorned  by  the  first  men  of  the  age. 
This  splendor,  more  Grecian  than  Egyptian,  was  extinguished  in 
the  tth  century  ]3y  the  Saracens,  who  conquered  the  country,  and, 
it  is  believed,  burned  the  great  Alexandrian  Library.  After  the 
wars  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Mohammed,  the  Arabian 
princes  protected  literature,  Alexandria  recovered  its  schools, 
and  other  institutions  of  learning  were  established  ;  but  in  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Turks,  in  the  13th  century,  all 
literary  light  was  extinguished. 

9.  Literary  Condition  of  Modern  Egypt. — AVhen  Moham- 
med Ali  was  confirmed  as  viceroy  of  Egypt  under  the  sultan  of 
Turkey,  in  1841,  he  endeavored  to  improve  the  means  of  educa- 
tion by  establishing  common  and  special  schools,  and  by  sending 
young  men  to  Europe  for  scientific  study.  He  founded, 
besides  elementary  schools,  schools  of  language  and  medicine, 
and  established  a  printing  press,  which  has  been  used  for  the 
jmblication  of  valuable  works  ;  but  at  his  death  in  1848,  his  re- 
forms had  not  produced  all  the  anticipated  results. 


EGYPTIAN   LITERATURE.  65 

At  tlie  ancient  Arabic  university  of  Cairo,  students  receive 
free  instruction  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  versification,  logic,  the- 
ology, religious,  moral  and  civil  law,  and  devote  much  time  to 
the  study  and  interpretation  of  the  Koran.  The  number  of 
students  is  from  1,500  to  2,000. 

The  middle  and  higher  classes  of  Egypt  speak  Arabic  with 
more  or  less  correctness — the  mass  of  the  people  are  entkely 
ignorant,  particularly  the  women,  for  whose  education  no  pro- 
vision is  made. 


GEEEK  LITEEATUEE. 

Introduction. — 1.  Greek  Literature  and  its  Divisions.— 2.  The  Language. — 3.  The 
Religion. 

Period  First.— 1.  Ante-IIomeric  Songs  and  Bards.— 2.  Poems  of  Homer  ;  the  Iliad  ; 
the  Odj'ssey.— 3.  The  Cyclic  Poets  and  the  Homeric  Hymns. — 4.  Poems  of  Ilesiod ; 
the  Worlvs  and  Days  ;  the  Theogony.— 5.  Elegy  and  Epigram  ;  Tyrtaeus  ;  Archilochus  ; 
Simonides.— 6.  Iambic  Poetry,  the  Fable  and  Parody  ;  yEsop. — 7.  Greek  Music  and 
Lyric  Poetry ;  Terpander. — 8.  iEolic  Lyric  Poets ;  Alcaeus  ;  Sappho  ;  Anacreon. — 
9.  Doric,  or  Choral  Lyric  Poets  ;  Alcman ;  Stesichorus  ;  Pindar. — 10.  The  Orphic 
Doctrines  and  Poems.— 11.  Pre-Socratic  philosophy  ;  Ionian,  Eleatic,  Pythagorean 
Schools. — 12.  History  ;  Herodotus. 

Period  Second. — 1.  Literary  predominance  of  Athens.— 2.  Greek  Drama.— 3.  Trage- 
dy.— i.  The  Tragic  Poets  ;  /Eschylus  ;  Sophocles ;  Euripides. — 5.  Comedy  ;  Aristo- 
phanes ;  Menander.— 6.  Oratory,  Pthetoric  and  History ;  Pericles ;  the  Sophists ; 
Lysias  ;  Isocrates  ;  Demosthenes ;  Thucydides  ;  Xenophon. — 7.  Socrates  and  the  So- 
cratic  Schools ;  Plato  ;  Aristotle. 

Period  Third.— 1.  Origin  of  the  Alexandrian  Literature.— 2.  The  Alexandrian 
Poets  ;  Philetas  ;  Callimachus  ;  Theocritus  ;  Dion  ;  Moschus. — 3.  The  Prose  Writers 
of  Alexandria;  Zenodotus  ;  Aristophanes;  Aristarchus  ;  Eratosthenes  ;  Euclid;  Archi- 
medes.— 4.  Philosophy  of  Alexandria  ;  Neo-Platonism. — 5.  Anti-Neo-Platonic  Tenden- 
cies ;  Epictetus  ;  Lucian  ;  Longinus — 6.  Greek  Literature  in  Rome  ;  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus  ;  Flavius  Josephus  ;  Polybius";  Diodorus  ;  Strabo  ;  Plutarch. — 7.  Continued 
decline  of  Greek  Literature.  S  Last  Echoes  of  the  Old  Literature ;  Hypatia  ;  Nonnus  ; 
Musteus;  Byzantine  Literature.— 9.  The  New  Testament  and  the  Greek  Fathers. 

IXTRODUCTIOX. 

1.  Greek  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — The  literary  his- 
tories thus  far  sketched,  with  tlie  exception  of  the  Hebrew, 
occupy  a  subordinate  position,  and  constitute  but  a  small  part 
of  the  general  and  continuous  history  of  literature.  As  there 
are  States  whose  interests  are  so  detached  from  foreign  nations 
and  so  centred  in  themselves,  that  their  history  seems  to  form 
no  link  in  the  great  chain  of  political  events — so  there  are 
bodies  of  literature  cut  off  from  all  connection  with  the  course 
of  general  refinement,  and  bearing  no  relation  to  the  develop- 
ment of  mental  power  in  the  most  civilized  portions  of  the  globe. 
Thus,  the  literature  of  India — with  its  great  antiquity — its  laii"- 
guage,  whicli,  in  fulness  of  expression,  sweetness  of  tone,  and 
regularity  of  structure,  rivals  the  most  perfect  of  those  western 
tongues  to  which  it  bears  such  an  affinity,  with  all  its  aflluence 
of  imagery  and  its  treasm'cs  of  thought,  has  hitherto  been  desti- 


GREEK    LITEKATUEE.  67 

tute  of  any  direct  influence  on  the  progress  of  general  literature; 
and  China  has  contributed  still  less  to  its  advancement.  Other 
branches  of  Oriental  literature,  as  the  Persian  and  Arabian, 
were  equally  isolated,  until  they  were  brought  into  contact  with 
the  European  mind  through  the  medium  of  the  Crusaders  and 
of  the  Moorish  empire  in  Spain. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  the  literature  of  the  Greeks  ;  a 
literature  whose  continuous  current  has  rolled  down  from  remote 
ages  to  our  own  day,  and  whose  influence  has  been  more  exten- 
sive and  lasting  than  that  of  any  other  nation  of  the  ancient  or 
modern  world.  Endowed  with  profound  sensibility  and  a  lively 
imagination,  surrounded  by  all  the  circumstances  that  could  aid 
in  perfecting  the  physical  and  intellectual  powers,  the  Greeks 
early  acquh'ed  that  essentially  literary  and  artistic  character, 
which  became  the  source  of  the  greatest  productions  of  literature 
and  art.  This  excellence  was,  also,  in  some  measure,  due  to 
their  institutions  ;  free  from  the  system  of  castes  which  prevailed 
in  India  and  Egypt,  and  which  confined  all  learning  by  a  sort 
of  hereditary  right  to  the  priests,  the  tendency  of  the  Greek 
mind  was,  from  the  first,  liberal,  diffusive  and  aesthetic.  The 
manifestation  of  their  genius,  from  the  first  dawn  of  their  intel- 
lectual culture,  was  of  an  original  and  pecuhar  character,  and 
their  plastic  minds  gave  a  new  shape  and  value  to  whatever 
materials  they  drew  from  foreign  sources.  The  ideas  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Orientals  which  they  adopted  into  their  mytho- 
logy, they  cast  in  new  moulds,  and  reproduced  in  more  beautiful 
forms.  The  monstrous  they  subdued  into  the  vast,  the  gro- 
tesque they  softened  into  the  graceful,  and  they  diffused  a  line 
spirit  of  humanity  over  the  rude  proportions  of  the  primeval 
figures.  So  with  the  dogmas  of  their  philosophy  borrowed  from 
the  same  sources  ;  all  that  could  beautify  the  meagre,  harmonize 
the  iuconoTuous,  enliven  the  dull  or  convert  the  crude  materials 
of  metaphysics  into  an  elegant  department  of  literature,  belongs 
to  the  Greeks  themselves.  The  Grecian  mind  became  the 
foundation  of  the  Roman  and  of  all  modern  literatures,  and  its 
master-pieces  afford  the  most  splendid  examples  of  artistic 
beauty  and  perfection  that  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

The  history  of  Greek  literature  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods.  The  first,  extending  from  remote  antiquity  to  the  age 
of  Herodotus  (484  b.c),  includes  the  earliest  poetry  of  Greece, 
the  ante-Homeric  and  the  Homeric  eras,  the  origin  of  Greek 
elegy,  epigram,  iambic  and  I^tIc  poetry,  and  the  first  develop- 
ment of  Greek  philosophy. 

The  second,  or  Athenian  period,  the  golden  age  of  Greek 


68  GREEK    LITERATURE. 

literature,  extends  from  the  age  of  Herodotus  (484  b.c.)  to  the 
death  of  Alexauder  the  Great  (323  b.c),  and  comprehends  the 
development  of  the  Greek  drama  in  the  works  of  ^schylus, 
Sophocles  and  Euripides,  of  political  oratory,  history  and  phi- 
losophy, in  the  works  of  Demosthenes,  Thucydides,  Xenoj^hon, 
Plato  and  Aristotle. 

The  third,  or  the  period  of  the  decline  of  Greek  literature, 
extending-  from  tlie  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (323  b.c.) 
to  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine  empire  (1453  a.d.),  is  characterized 
by  the  removal  of  Greek  learning  and  literature  from  Athens  to 
Alexandria,  and  by  its  gradual  dechne  and  extinction. 

2.  The  Language. — Of  all  known  lanQ-uaires,  none  has 
attained  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection  as  that  of  the  Greeks. 
Belonging  to  the  great  Indo-European  family,  it  is  rich  in  sig- 
nificant words,  strong  and  elegant  in  its  combinations  and 
phrases,  and  extremely  musical,  not  only  in  its  poetry,  but  in  its 
prose.  The  Greek  language  must  have  attained  great  excel- 
lence at  a  very  early  period,  for  it  existed  in  its  essential  perfec- 
tion in  the  time  of  Homer.  It  was,  also,  earlv  divided  into  dia- 
lects,  as  spoken  by  the  various  Hellenic  tribes  that  inhabited  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  The  principal  of  these  found  in  writ- 
ten composition  are .  the  ^olic,  Doric,  Ionic  and  Attic, of  which 
the  ^olic,  the  most  ancient,  was  spoken  north  of  the  Isthmus, 
in  the  .iEolic  colonies  of  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  northern  islands 
of  the  ^gean  Sea.  It  was  chiefly  cultivated  by  the  lyric  poets. 
The  Doric,  a  variety  of  the  JEolic,  characterized  by  its  strength, 
was  spoken  in  Peloponnesus,  and  in  the  Doric  colonies  of  Asia 
Minor,  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily.  The  Ionic,  the  most  soft  and 
liquid  of  all  the  dialects,  belonged  to  the  Ionian  colonies  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  It  was  the 
language  of  Homer,  Hesiod  and  Herodotus.  The  Attic,  which 
was  the  Ionic  developed,  enriched  and  refined,  was  spoken  in  At- 
tica, and  prevailed  in  the  flourishing  period  of  Greek  literature. 

After  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  in  1453,  the  Greek  language, 
which  had  been  gradually  declining,  became  entirely  extinct,  and 
a  dialect,  which  had  long  before  sprung  up  among  the  common 
people,  took  the  place  of  the  ancient,  majestic  and  refined 
tongue.  This  popular  dialect  in  turn  continued  to  degenerate 
until  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Recently,  institutions 
of  learning  have  been  established,  and  a  new  impulse  given  to 
improvement  in  Greece.  Great  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  language,  and  great  care  is  taken  by  modern 
Greek  writers  to  avoid  the  use  of  foreign  idioms  and  to  preserve 


GKEEK   LITERATUEE.  69 

the  ancient  orthography.  Many  newspapers,  periodicals,  origi- 
nal works  and  translations  are  published  every  year  in  Greece. 
The  name  Romaic,  which  has  been  applied  to  modern  Greek,  is 
now  almost  superseded  by  that  of  Xeo-Hellenic. 

3.  The  Religion. — In  the  development  of  the  Greek  religion 
two  periods  may  be  distinguished,  the  ante-Homeric  and  the 
Homeric.  As  the  heroic  age  of  the  Greek  nation  was  preceded 
by  one  in  which  the  cultivation  of  the  land  chiefly  occupied  the 
attention  of  the  inhabitants,  so  there  are  traces  and  remnants  of 
a  state  of  the  Greek  religion,  in  which  the  gods  were  considered 
as  exhibiting  their  power  chiefly  in  the  changes  of  the  seasons, 
and  in  the  operations  and  phenomena  of  outward  nature. 
Imagination  led  these  early  inhabitants  to  discover,  not  only  in 
the  general  phenomena  of  vegetation,  the  unfolding  and  death  of 
the  leaf  and  flower,  and  in  the  moist  and  dry  seasons  of  the  year, 
but  also  in  the  peculiar  physical  character  of  certain  districts,  a 
sign  of  the  alternately  hostile  or  peaceful,  happy  or  ill-omened 
interference  of  certain  deities.  There  are  still  preserved  in  the 
Greek  mythology  many  legends  of  charming  and  touching  sim- 
plicity, which  had  then*  origin  at  this  period,  when  the  Greek 
religion  bore  the  character  of  a  worship  of  the  powers  of  nature. 

Though  founded  on  the  same  ideas  as  most  of  the  religions  of 
the  East,  and  particularly  of  Asia  Minor,  the  earhest  religion 
of  the  Greeks  was  richer  and  more  various  in  its  forms,  and  took 
a  loftier  and  a  wider  range.  The  Grecian  worship  of  nature,  in 
all  the  various  forms  which  it  assumed,  recognized  07ie  deity,  as 
the  highest  of  all,  the  head  of  the  entire  system,  Zeus,  the  god 
of  heaven  and  light ;  with  him,  and  dwelHng  in  the  pure  expanse 
of  ether,  is  associated  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  who,  in  different 
temples,  was  worshipped  under  different  names,  as  Hera,  Devieter 
and  Dioiie.  Besides  this  goddess,  other  beings  are  united  with 
the  supreme  god,  who  are  personifications  of  certain  of  his  ener- 
gies ;  powerful  deities  who  carry  the  influence  of  light  over  the 
earth,  and  destroy  the  opposing  powers  of  darkness  and  confu- 
sion ;  as  Athena,  born  from  the  head  of  her  father,  and  Apollo, 
the  pure  and  shining  god  of  light.  There  are  other  deities  allied 
with  earth  and  dwelling  in  her  dark  recesses  ;  and  as  life  appears 
not  only  to  spring  from  the  earth  but  to  return  whence  it 
sprung,  these  deities  are,  for  the  most  part,  also  connected  with 
death  ;  as  Hermes,  who  brings  up  the  treasures  of  fruitfulness 
from  the  depths  of  the  earth,  and  Coro^,  the  child,  now  lost  and 
now  recovered  by  her  mother  Demeter,  the  goddess  both  of 
reviving  and  of  decaying  nature.    The  element  of  water,  Poseidon, 


70  GREEK   LITERATURE. 

was  also  introduced  into  tliis  assemblage  of  the  jiersonified 
powers  of  nature,  and  peculiarly  connected  with  the  goddess  of 
the  earth  ;  fire,  Hephaestus,  Avas  represented  as  a  powerful  prin- 
ciple derived  from  heaven,  having  dominion  over  the  earth,  and 
closely  allied  with  the  goddess,  who  sprang  from  the  head  of 
the  supreme  god.  Other  deities  form  less  important  parts  of  this 
system,  as  Dionysus,  whose  alternate  joys  and  sufferings  show  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  form  which  religious  notions  assumed 
in  Asia  Minor.  Though  not,  like  the  gods  of  Olympus,  recog- 
nized by  all  the  races  of  the  Greeks,  Dionysus  exerted  an 
important  influence  on  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  nation,  and  in 
sculpture  and  poetry  gave  rise  to  bold  flights  of  imagination, 
and  to  powerful  emotions,  both  of  joy  and  sorrow. 

These  notions  concerning  the  gods  must  have  undergone  many 
changes  before  they  assumed  the  form  under  which  they  appear 
in  the  poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod.  The  Greek  religion,  as  mani- 
fested through  them,  reached  the  second  period  of  its  develop- 
ment, belonging  to  that  time  when  the  most  distinguished  and 
prominent  part  of  the  people  devoted  their  lives  to  the  affairs  of 
the  state  and  the  occupation  of  arms,  and  in  which  the  heroic 
spirit  was  manifested  according  to  these  ideas.  On  Olympus,  ly- 
ing near  the  northern  boundary  of  Greece,  the  highest  mountain 
of  that  country,  whose  summit  seems  to  touch  the  heavens,  there 
rules  the  assembly  or  family  of  tlie  gods  ;  the  chief  of  which, 
Zeus,  summons  at  his  pleasure  the  other  gods  to  council,  as  Aga- 
memnon summons  the  other  princes.  He  is  acquainted  with  the 
decrees  of  fate,  and  able  to  control  them,  and  being  himself 
king  among  the  gods,  he  gives  the  kings  of  the  earth  their 
powers  and  dignity.  By  his  side  is  his  wife,  Hera,  whose  station 
entitles  her  to  a  larore  share  of  his  rank  and  dominion  :  and  a 
daughter  of  masculine  character,  Athena,  a  leader  of  battles  and 
a  protectress  of  citadels,  who,  by  her  wise  counsels,  deserves  the 
confidence  which  her  father  bestows  on  her  ;  besides  these,  there 
is  a  number  of  gods,  with  various  degrees  of  kindred,  who  have 
each  their  proper  place  and  allotted  duty  on  Olympus.  The 
attention  of  this  divine  councfl  is  chiefly  turned  i6  the  fortunes 
of  nations  and  cities,  and  especially  to  the  adventures  and  enter- 
prises of  the  heroes,  who,  being  themselves,  for  the  most  part, 
sprung  from  the  blood  of  the  gods,  form  the  connecting  link 
between  them  and  the  ordinary  herd  of  mankind.  At  this 
stage  the  ancient  religion  of  nature  had  disappeared,  and  tlie 
gads,  who  dwelt  on  Olympus,  scarcely  manifested  any  connection 
with  natural  phenomena,  Zeus  exercises  his  power  as  a  ruler 
and  a  king  ;  Hera,  Athena  and  Apollo    no  longer  symbolize 


GREEK   LITERATURE.  71 

the  fertility  of  the  earth,  the  clearness  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
arrival  of  the  serene  spring  ;  Hephaestus  has  passed  from  the 
powerful  god  of  fire  in  heaven  and  earth  into  a  laborious  smith 
and  worker  of  metals  ;  Hermes  is  transformed  into  the  messen- 
ger of  Zeus  ;  and  the  other  deities  which  stood  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  afifaurs  of  men,  are  entirely  forgotten,  or  scarcely 
mentioned  in  the  Homeric  mythology. 

These  deities  are  known  to  us  chiefly  through  the  names 
given  to  them  by  the  Komans,  who  adopted  them  at  a  later 
period,  or  identified  them  with  deities  of  their  own.  Zeus  was 
called  by  them  Jupiter  ;  Hera,  Juno  ;  Athena,  Minerva  ;  Ares, 
jMars  ;  Artemis,  Diana  ;  Hermes,  Mercury  ;  Cora,  Proserpine  ; 
Hephcestus,  Yulcan  ;  Poseidon,  IS'eptune  ;  Aphrodite,  Tenus  ; 
Dio^iysus,  Bacchus. 

TERIOD  FIRST. 

FROii  Remote  Antiquity  to  Herodotus  (484  B.C.). 

1.  AxTE-HoMERic  Songs  and  Bards. — Many  centuries  must 
have  elapsed  before  the  poetical  language  of  the  Greeks  could 
have  attained  the  splendor,  copiousness  and  fluency  found  in  the 
poems  of  Homer.  The  first  outpourings  of  poetical  enthusiasm 
were,  doubtless,  songs  describing,  in  few  and  simple  verses,  events 
which  powerfully  affected  the  feelings  of  the  hearers.  It  is 
probable  that  the  earliest  were  those  that  referred  to  the  seasons 
and  their  phenomena,  and  that  they  were  sung  by  the  peasants 
at  their  corn  and  wine  harvests,  and  had  their  origin  in  times  of 
ancient  rural  simplicity.  Songs  of  this  kind  had  often  a  plaintive 
and  melancholy  character.  Such  as  the  song  Linus  mentioned  by 
Homer,  which  was  frequently  sung  at  the  grape-picking.  This 
Linus  evidently  belongs  to  a  class  of  heroes  or  demi-gods,  of 
which  many  instances  occur  in  the  religions  of  Asia  Minor. 
Boys  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  in  the  flower  of  youth  were 
supposed  to  have  been  drowned,  or  devoured  by  raging  dogs, 
and  their  death  was  lamented  at  the  harvests  and  other  periods 
of  the  hot  season.  According  to  the  tradition,  Linus  sprang 
from  a  divine  origin,  grew  up  with  the  shepherds  among  the 
lambs,  and  was  torn  in  pieces  by  wild  dogs,  whence  arose  the 
festival  of  the  lambs,  at  which  many  dogs  were  slahi.  The  real 
object  of  lamentation  was  the  tender  beauty  of  spring  destroyed 
by  the  summer  heat,  and  other  phenomena  of  the  same  kind, 
which  the  imagination  of  those  times  invested  with  a  personal 
form,  and  represented  as  beings  of  a  divine  nature.     Of  similar 


72  GPvEEK    LITERATURE. 

meaning  are  many  other  songs,  which  were  sung  at  the  time  of 
the  summer  heat  or  at  the  cutting  of  the  corn.  Such  was  the 
song  called  Bormus  from  its  subject,  a  beautiful  boy  of  that 
name,  who,  having  gone  to  fetch  water  for  the  reapers,  was, 
while  drawing  it,  borne  down  by  the  nymphs  of  the  stream. 
Such  were  the  cries  for  the  youth  Hylas,  swallowed  up  by  the 
waters  of  a  fountain,  and  the  lament  for  Adonis,  whose  untimely 
death  was  celebrated  by  Sappho. 

The  Paans  were  songs  originally  dedicated  to  Apollo,  and 
afterwards  to  other  gods  ;  their  tune  and  words  expressed  hope 
and  confidence  to  overcome,  by  the  help  of  the  god,  great  and 
imminent  danger,  or  gratitude  and  thanksgiving  for  victory  and 
safety.  To  this  class  belonged  the  vernal  Pecans,  which  were 
sung  at  the  termination  of  winter,  and  those  sung  in  war  before 
the  attack  on  the  enemy.  The  Threnos,  or  lamentations  for  the 
dead,  were  songs  containing  vehement  expressions  of  grief,  sung 
by  professional  singers  standing  near  the  bed  upon  which  the 
body  was  laid,  and  accompanied  by  the  cries  and  groans  of 
women.  The  Hyinen(Eos  was  the  joyful  bridal  song  of  the  wed- 
ding festivals,  in  which  there  were  ordinarily  two  choruses,  one 
of  boys  bearing  burning  torches  and  singing  the  hymenoios  to 
the  clear  sound  of  the  pipe,  and  another  of  young  girls  dancing 
to  the  notes  of  the  harp.  The  Chorus  originally  referred  chiefly 
to  dancing.  The  most  ancient  sense  of  the  word  is  a  jilace,  for 
dancing,  and  in  these  choruses  young  persons  of  both  sexes 
danced  together  in  rows,  holding  one  another  by  the  hand,  while 
the  citharist,  or  the  player  on  the  lyre,  sitting  in  their  midst, 
accompanied  the  sound  of  his  instrument  with  songs,  which  took 
their  name  from  the  choruses  in  which  they  were  sung. 

Besides  these  popular  songs,  there  were  the  religious  and 
heroic  poems  of  the  bards,  who  were,  for  the  most  part,  natives 
of  that  portion  of  the  country  which  surrounds  the  mountains  of 
Helicon  and  Parnassus,  distinguished  as  the  home  of  the  Muses. 
Among  the  bards  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  other 
deities,  were  Marsyas,  the  inventor  of  the  flute,  Musa3us  and  Or- 
pheus. Many  names  of  these  ancient  poets  are  recorded,  but  of 
their  poetry,  previous  to  Homer,  not  even  a  fragment  remains. 

The  bards  or  chanters  of  epic  poetry  were  called  Rhapsodists, 
from  the  manner  in  which  they  delivered  their  compositions  ; 
this  name  was  applied  equally  to  the  minstrel  who  recited  his 
own  poems,  and  to  him  who  declaimed  anew  songs  that  had 
been  heard  a  thousand  times  before.  The  form  of  these  heroic 
songs,  probably  settled  and  fixed  by  tradition,  was  the  hexame- 
ter, as  this  metre  gave  to  the  epic  poetry  repose,  majesty,  a 


GREEK    LITERATURE.  73 

lofty  and  solemn  tone,  and  rendered  it  equally  adapted  to  the 
pythoness  who  announced  the  decrees  of  the  deity,  and  to  the 
rhapsodist  who  recited  the  battles  of  heroes.  The  bards  held 
an  important  post  in  the  festal  banquets,  where  they  flattered  the 
pride  of  the  princes  by  singing  the  exploits  of  their  forefathers. 

2.  PoEiis  OF  Homer. — Although  seven  cities  contended  for 
the  honor  of  giving  birth  to  Homer,  it  was  the  prevalent  belief, 
in  the*  flourishing  times  of  Greece,  that  he  was  a  native  of 
Smyrna.  He  was  probably  born  in  that  city  about  1000  b.c. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life,  but  the  power  of  his  transcendent 
genius  is  deeply  impressed  upon  his  works.  He  was  called  by 
the  Greeks  themselves,  the  poet ;  and  the  Ihad  and  the  Odyssey 
were  Avith  them  the  ultimate  standard  of  appeal  on  all  matters 
of  religious  doctrine  and  early  history.  They  were  learned  by 
boys  at  school,  and  became  the  study  of  men  in  their  riper  years, 
and  in  the  time  of  Socrates  there  were  Athenians  who  could 
repeat  both  poems  by  heart.  In  whatever  part  of  the  world  a 
Greek  settled,  he  carried  with  him  a  love  for  the  great  poet, 
and  long  after  the  Greek  people  had  lost  their  independence, 
the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  continued  to  maintain  an  undiminished 
hold  upon  their  affections.  The  pecuhar  excellence  of  these 
poems  lies  in  their  sublimity  and  pathos,  in  their  tenderness  and 
simplicity,  and  they  show  in  their  author  an  inexhaustible  vigor, 
that  seems. to  revel  in  an  endless  display  of  prodigious  energies. 
The  universaUty  of  the  powers  of  Homer  is  their  most  astonish- 
ing attribute.  He  is  not  great  in  any  one  thing  ;  he  is  greatest 
in  all  things.  He  imagines  with  equal  ease  the  terrible,  the 
beautiful,  the  mean,  the  loathsome,  and  he  paints  them  all 
with  equal  force.  In  his  descriptions  of  external  nature,  in  his 
exhibitions  of  human  character  and  passion,  no  matter  what  the 
subject,  he  exhausts  its  capabiUties.  His  pictures  are  true  to 
tlie  minutest  touch  ;  his  men  and  women  are  made  of  flesh  and 
blood.  They  lose  nothing  of  their  humanity  for  being  cast  in  a 
heroic  mould.  He  transfers  himself  into  the  identity  of  those 
whom  he  brings  into  action  ;  masters  the  interior  springs  of 
their  spiritual  mechanism  ;  and  makes  them  move,  look,  speak 
and  do  exactly  as  they  would  in  real  life. 

In  the  legends  connected  with  the  Trojan  war,  the  anger  of 
Achilles  and  the  return  of  Ulysses,  Homer  found  the  subjects  of 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  The  former  relates  that  Agamemnon 
had  stolen  from  Achilles,  Briseis,  his  beloved  slave,  and  describes 
the  fatal  consequences  which  the  subsequent  anger  of  Achilles 
brought  upon  the   Greeks  ;  and  how  the  loss  of  his  dearest 

4 


Y4  GREEK    LITEllATUKE. 

friend,  Patroclus,  suddenly  clianged  his  liostile  attitude,  and 
brought  about  the  destruction  of  Troy  and  of  Hector,  its  mag- 
nanimous defender.  The  Odygsey  is  composed  on  a  more  arti- 
ficial and  comphcatcd  plan  than  the  Iliad.  The  subject  is  the 
return  of  Ulysses  from  a  land  beyond  the  range  of  human  know- 
ledge to  a  home  invaded  by  bands  of  insolent  intruders,  who 
seek  to  kill  his  son  and  rob  him  of  his  wife.  The  poem  begins 
at  that  point  where  the  hero  is  considered  to  be  furthest  from 
his  home,  in  the  central  portion  of  the  sea,  where  the  iiymph 
Calypso  has  kept  him  hidden  from  all  mankind  for  seven  years. 
Having  by  the  help  of  the  gods  passed  through  innumerable 
dangers,  after  many  adventures  he  reaches  Ithaca,  and  is  finally 
introduced  into  his  own  house  us  a  beggar,  where  he  is  made  to 
suffer  the  harshest  treatment  from  the  suitors  of  his  wife,  in 
order  that  he  may  afterwards  appear  with  the  stronger  right  as 
a  terrible  avenger.  In  this  simple  story  a  second  was  interwoven 
by  the  poet,  which  renders  it  richer  and  more  complete,  though 
more  intricate  and  less  natural.  It  is  probable  that  Homer, 
after  having  sung  the  Ihad  in  the  vigor  of  his  youthful  years, 
either  composed  the  Odyssey  in  his  old  age,  or  communicated 
to  some  devoted  disciple  the  plan  of  this  poem. 

In  the  age  immediately  succeeding  Homer,  his  great  poems 
were  doubtless  recited  as  complete  wholes,  at  the  festivals  of 
the  princes  ;  but  when  the  contests  of  the  rhapsodists  became 
more  animated,  and  more  weight  was  laid  on  the  .  art  of  the 
reciter  than  on  the  beauty  of  the  poem  he  recited,  and  when 
other  musical  and  poetical  performances  claimed  a  place,  then 
they  were  permitted  to  repeat  separate  parts  of  poems,  and  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  as  they  had  not  yet  been  reduced  to  writing, 
existed  for  a  time  only  as  scattered  and  unconnected  fragments  ; 
and  we  are  still  indebted  to  the  regulator  of  the  poetical  con- 
tests (either  Solon  or  Pisistratus),  for  haviug  compelled  the 
rhapsodists  to  follow  one  another  according  to  the  order  of  the 
poem,  and  for  having  thus  restored  these  great  works  to  their  pris- 
tine integrity.  The  poets,  who  either  recited  the  poems  of  Homer 
or  imitated  him  in  their  compositions,  were  called  Homeridcs. 

3.  The  Cyclic  Poets  and  the  Homeric  Hyjixs. — The  poems 
of  Homer,  as  they  became  the  foundation  of  all  Grecian  litera- 
ture, are  likewise  the  central  point  of  the  epic  poetry  of  Greece. 
All  that  is  most  excellent  in  this  line  originated  from  them,  and 
was  connected  with  them  in  the  way  of  completion  or  continua- 
tion. After  the  time  of  Homer,  a  class  of  poets  arose  who. 
from  their  constant  endeavor  to  connect  their  poems  with  those 


GREEK   LITERATUEE.  75 

cf  this  master,  so  that  they  might  form  a  great  cycle,  were  called 
the  Cyclic  Pods.  They  were  probably  Homeric  rhapsoclists  by 
profession,  to  whom  the  constant  recitation  of  the  ancient  Ho- 
meric poems  would  natm-ally  suggest  the  idea  of  continuing  them 
by  essays  of  their  own.  The  poems  known  as  Homeric  hymns 
formed  an  essential  part  of  the  epic  style.  They  were  hymns  to 
the  gods,  bearing  an  epic  character,  and  were  called  jprocmia,  or 
preludes,  and  served  the  rhapsodists  either  as  introductory  strains 
for  then*  recitation,  or  as  a  transition  from  the  festivals  of  the 
gods  to  the  competition  of  the  singers  of  heroic  poetry. 

•  4.  Poems  of  Hesiod. — Nothing  certain  can  be  affirmed 
respectmg  the  date  of  Hesiod  ;  a  Boeotian  by  bh'th,  he  is  con- 
sidered by  some  ancient  authorities  as  contemporary  with  Homer, 
while  others  suppose  him  to  have  flourished  two  or  three  genera- 
tions later.  The  poetry  of  Hesiod  is  a  faithful  transcript  of  the 
whole  condition  of  Boeotian  life.  It  has  nothing  of  that  youth- 
ful and  inexhaustible  fancy  of  Homer,  which  lights  up  the  sub- 
lime images  of  a  heroic  age,  and  moulds  them  into  forms  of 
surpassing  beauty.  The  poetry  of  Hesiod  appears  struggling 
to  emerge  out  of  the  narrow  bounds  of  common  life,  which  he 
strives  to  ennoble  and  to  render  more  endurable.  It  is  purely 
didactic,  and  its  object  is  to  disseminate  knowledge,  by  which 
life  may  be  improved,  or  to  diffuse  certain  religious  notions  as  to 
the  influence  of  a  superior  destiny.  His  poem  entitled  ''  Works 
and  Days "  is  so  entirely  occupied  with  the  events  of  connnon 
life,  that  the  author  would  not  seem  to  have  been  a  poet  by  pro- 
fession, but  some  Boeotian  husbandman  whose  mind  had  been 
moved  by  circumstances  to  give  a  poetical  tone  to  the  course  of 
his  thoughts  and  feelings.  The  unjust  claim  of  Perses,  the 
brother  of  Hesiod,  to  the  small  portion  of  their  father's  land 
which  had  been  allotted  to  him,  called  forth  this  poem,  in  which 
he  seeks  to  improve  the  character  and  habits  of  Perses,  to  deter 
him  from  acquiring  riches  by  litigation,  and  to  incite  him  to  a 
life  of  labor,  as  the  only  source  of  permanent  prosperity.  He 
points  out  the  succession  in  which  his  labors  must  follow  if  he 
determines  to  lead  a  life  of  industry,  and  gives  wise  rules  of 
economy  for  the  management  of  a  family  ;  and  to  illustrate  and 
enforce  the  principal  idea,  he  ingeniously  combines  with  his  pre- 
cepts mythical  narratives,  fables  and  descriptions.  The  "  The- 
ogony  "  of  Hesiod  is  a  production  of  the  highest  importance,  as 
it  contains  the  religious  faith  of  Greece,  It  was  through  it 
that  Greece  first  obtained  a  reliaious  code,  which,  althono-h 
without  external  sanction  or  priestly  guardians  and  interpreters. 


1Q  GREEK   LITERATURE. 

must  have  produced   the   greatest   influence   on  the  religious 
condition  of  the  Greeks. 

5.  Elegy  axd  Epigram. — Until  the  beginning  of  the  1th. 
century  e.g.,  the  epic  was  the  only  kind  of  poetry  cultivated  in 
Greece,  with  the  exception  of  the  early  songs  and  hymns,  and 
the  hexameter  the  only  metre  used  by  the  poets.  This  exclusive 
prevalence  of  epic  poetry  was  doubtless  connected  with  the 
pohtical  state  of  the  country.  The  ordinary  subjects  of  these 
poems  must  have  been  highly  acceptable  to  the  princes  who 
derived  their  race  from  the  heroes,  as  was  the  case  with  all  the 
royal  families  of  early  times.  The  republican  movements,  which 
deprived  these  families  of  their  privileges,  were  favorable  to  the 
stronger  development  of  each  man's  individuality,  and  the  poet, 
who  in  the  most  perfect  form  of  the  epos  was  completely  lost 
in  his  subject,  now  came  before  the  people  as  a  man  with 
thoughts  and  objects  of  his  own,  and  gave  free  vent  to  the  emo- 
tions of  his  soul  in  elegiac  and  iambic  strains.  The  word 
degeion  means  nothing  more  than  the  combination  of  a  hexame- 
ter and  a  pentameter,  making  together  a  distich,  and  an  elegy 
is  a  poem  of  such  verses.  It  was  usually  sung  at  the  Symposia 
or  literary  festivals  of  the  Greeks  ;  in  most  cases  its  main  sub- 
ject was  political ;  it  afterwards  assumed  a  plaintive  or  amatory 
tone.  The  elegy  is  the  first  regularly  cultivated  branch  of  Greek 
poetry,  in  which  the  flute  alone  and  neither  the  cithara  nor  lyre 
was  employed.  It  was  not  necessary  that  lamentations  should 
form  the  subject  of  it,  but  emotion  was  essential,  and  excited  by 
events  or  circumstances  of  the  time  or  place  the  poet  poured  forth 
his  heart  in  the  unreserved  expression  of  his  fears  and  hopes. 

Tyrtffius  (fl.  694  b.c.)  who  went  from  Athens  to  Sparta,  com- 
posed the  most  celebrated  of  his  elegies  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Messenian  war,  and  when  the  Spartans  were  on  a  campaign,  it 
was  their  custom  after  the  evening  meal,  when  the  posan  had 
been  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods,  to  recite  these  poems.  From 
this  time  we  find  a  union  between  the  elegiac  and  iambic  poetry ; 
the  same  poet,  who  employs  the  elegy  to  express  his  joyous  and 
melancholy  emotions,  has  recourse  to  the  iambus  when  his  cool 
sense  prompts  him  to  censure  the  follies  of  mankind.  The  rela- 
tion l)etween  these  two  metres  is  observable  in  Archilochus 
(11.  G88  B.C.)  and  Simonides  (fl.664  e.g.).  The  elegies  of  Archi- 
lochus, of  which  many  fragments  are  extant  (while  of  Simonides 
we  only  know  that  he  composed  elegies),  had  nothing  of  that 
spirit  of  which  his  iambics  were  full,  but  they  contain  the  frank 
expression  of  a  mind  powerfully  affected  by  outward  circum' 


GEEEK   LITERATUKE.  77 

stances.  With  the  Spartans,  wme  and  the  pleasures  of  the 
feast  became  the  subject  of  the  elegy,  and  it  was  also  recited  at 
the  solemnities  held  in  honor  of  all  who  had  fallen  for  their 
country.  The  elegies  of  Solon  (592-559  B.C.)  were  pure  expres- 
sions of  his  political  feelings.  Simonides  of  Scios,  the  renowned 
lyric  poet,  the  contemporary  of  Phidar  and  ^Eschylus,  was  one 
of  the  great  masters  of  elegiac  song. 

The  epigram  was  originally  an  inscription  on  a  tombstone,  or 
a  Yotive  offering  in  a  temple,  or  on  any  other  thing  which 
required  explanation.  The  unexpected  turn  of  thought  and 
pointedness  of  expression,  which  the  moderns  consider  the  essence 
of  this  species  of  composition,  were  not  requmed  in  the  ancient 
Greek  epigram,  where  nothing  was  wanted  but  that  the  entire 
thought  should  be  conveyed  within  the  hmit  of  a  few  distichs, 
and  thus,  in  the  hands  of  the  early  poets,  the  epigram  was 
remarkable  for  the  conciseness  and  expressiveness  of  its  language 
and  differed  in  this  respect  from  the  elegy,  in  which  full  expres- 
sion was  given  to  the  feelings  of  the  poet. 

It  was  Simonides  that  first  gave  to  the  epigram  all  the  per- 
fection of  which  it  was  capable,  and  he  was  frequently  employed 
by  the  States  which  fought  against  the  Persians,  to  adorn  with 
inscriptions  the  tombs  of  their  fallen  warriors.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  these  is  the  inimitable  inscription  on  the  Spartans 
who  died  at  Thermopylae:  "  Foreigner,  tell  the  Lacedaemonians 
that  we  are  lying  here  in  obedience  to  their  laws."  On  the 
Rhodian  lyric  poet,  Timocreon,  an  opponent  of  Simonides  in  his 
art,  he  wrote  the  following  in  the  form  of  an  epitaph  :  "  Having 
eaten  much  and  drank  much  and  said  much  evil  of  other  men, 
here  I  lie,  Timocreon  the  Khodian." 

G.  Iambic  Poetry,  the  Fable  and  Parody. — The  kind  of 
poetry  known  by  the  ancients  as  Iambic  was  created  among  the 
Athenians  by  Archilochus  at  the  same  time  as  the  elegy.  It 
arose  at  a  period  when  the  Greeks,  accustomed  only  to  the 
calm,  unimpassioned  tone  of  the  epos,  had  but  just  found  a  tem- 
perate expression  of  lively  emotion  in  the  elegy.  It  was  a  light, 
tripping  measure,  sometimes  loosely  constructed,  or  purposely 
halting  and  broken,  well  adapted  to  vituperation,  unrestrained 
by  any  regard  to  morality  and  decency.  At  the  public  tables 
of  Sparta  keen  and  pointed  raillery  was  permitted,  and  some  of 
the  most  venerable  and  sacred  of  their  religious  rites  afforded 
occasion  for  their  unsparing  and  audacious  jests.  Tliis  raillery 
was  so  ancient  and  inveterate  a  custom,  that  it  had  given  rise 
to  a  peculiar  word,  which  originally  denoted  nothing  but  the 


78  GKEEK    LITEEATUKE. 

jests  and  banter  used  at  tlicse  festivals,  namely  lamlus.  All 
the  wauion  extravagance  which  was  elsewhere  repressed  by  law 
or  custom,  here,  under  the  protection  of  religion,  burst  forth  with 
boundless  license,  and  these  scurrilous  effusions  were  at  length  re- 
duced by  Archilochus  into  the  systematic  form  of  iambic  metre. 

Akin  to  the  iambic  are  two  sorts  of  poetry,  the  fable  and  the 
parody,  which,  though  differing  widely  from  each  other,  have 
both  their  source  in  the  turn  for  the  delineation  of  the  ludicrous, 
and  both  stand  in  close  historical  relation  to  the  iambic.  The 
fable  in  Greece  originated  in  an  intentional  travesty  of  human 
affairs.  It  is  probable  that  the  taste  for  fables  of  beasts  and 
numerous  similar  inventions  found  its  way  from  the  East,  since 
this  sort  of  symbolical  narrative  is  more  in  accordance  with  the 
oriental  than  with  the  Greek  character. 

JEsop  (fl.  5T2  B.C.)  was  very  far  from  being  regarded  by  the 
•  Greeks  as  one  of  their  poets,  and  still  less  as  a  writer.  They 
considered  him  merclv  as  an  ino-enious  fabulist,  to  whom,  at  a 
later  period,  nearly  all  fables,  that  were  invented  or  derived 
from  any  other  source,  were  attributed.  He  was  a  slave,  whose 
wit  and  pleasantry  procured  him  his  freedom,  and  who  finally 
perished  in  Delphi,  where  the  people,  exasperated  by  his  sar- 
castic fables,  put  him  to  death  on  a  charge  of  robbing  the 
temple.  No  metrical  versions  of  these  fables  are  known  to  have 
existed  in  earlv  times. 

The  word  jparody  means  an  adoption  of  the  form  of  some 
celebrated  poem  with  such  changes  as  to  produce  a  totally 
different  effect,  and  generally  to  substitute  mean  and  ridiculous 
for  elevated  and  poetical  sentiments.  The  "Battle  of  the  Frogs 
and  Mice,"  attributed  to  Homer,  but  bearing  evident  traces  of  a 
later  age,  belongs  to  this  species  of  jooetry. 

'1.  Greek  jNIusic  axd  LyPwIc  Poetry. — It  was  not  until  the 
minds  of  the  Greeks  had  been  elevated  by  the  productions  of  the 
epic  muse,  that  the  genius  of  original  ])oets  broke  loose  from  the 
dominion  of  the  epic  style,  and  invented  new  forms  for  express- 
ing the  emotions  of  a  mind  profoundly  agitated  by  passing- 
events  ;  with  few  innovations  in  the  elegy,  but  with  greater 
boldness  in  the  iambic  metre.  In  these  two  forms,  Greek  poetry 
entered  the  domain  of  real  life.  The  Elegy  and  Iambus  contain 
the  germ  of  the  lyric  style,  though  they  do  not  themselves  come 
under  that  head.  The  Greek  lyric  poetry  was  characterized  by 
the  expression  of  deeper  and  more  impassioned  feeling,  and  a 
more  impetuous  tone  than  the  Elegy  and  Iambus,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  effect  was  heightened  by  appropriate  Tocal  and 


GREEK   LITERATUrwE.  79 

instrumental  music,  and  often  by  the  figures  of  the  dance.  In 
this  union  of  the  sister  arts,  poetry  was  indeed  predominant,  yet 
music,  in  its  turn,  exercised  a  reciprocal  influence  on  poetry,  so 
that  as  it  became  more  cultivated,  the  choice  of  the  musical 
measure  decided  the  tone  of  the  whole  poem. 

The  history  of  Greek  music  begins  with  Terpander  the  Les- 
bian (fl.  GtO  B.C.),  who  was  many  times  the  victor  in  the  musical 
contests  at  the  Pythian  temple  of  Delphi.  He  added  three  new 
strings  to  the  cithara  which  had  consisted  only  of  four,  and  this 
heptachord  was  employed  by  Pindar,  and  remained  long  in  high 
repute;  he  was  also  the  first  who  marked  the  different  tones  in 
music.  With  other  musicians,  he  united  the  music  of  Asia 
Minor  with  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  founded  on  it  a 
system  in  which  each  style  had  its  appropriate  character.  By 
the  efforts  of  Terpander  and  one  or  two  other  masters,  music 
was  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  and  adapted  to 
express  any  feeling  to  which  the  poet  could  give  a  more  definite 
character  and  meaning,  and  thus  they  had  solved  the  great 
problem  of  their  art.  It  was  in  Greece  the  constant  endeavor 
of  the  great  poets,  thinkers  and  statesmen  who  interested  them- 
selves in  the  education  of  youth,  to  give  a  good  direction  to 
this  art;  they  all  dreaded  the  increasing  prevalence  of  a  luxuriant 
style  of  instrumental  music  and  an  unrestricted  flight  into  the 
boundless  realms  of  harmonv. 

The  lyric  poetry  of  the  Greeks  was  of  two  kinds,  and 
cultivated  by  two  different  schools  of  poets.  One,  called  the 
JEolic,  flourished  among  the  J^olians  of  Asia  Minor,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  island  of  Lesbos  ;  the  other,  the  Doric,  which, 
although  diffused  over  the  whole  of  Greece,  was  at  first  prin- 
cipally cultivated  by  the  Dorians.  These  two  schools  diflered 
essentially  in  the  subjects,  as  in  the  form  and  style  of  their 
poems.  The  Doric  was  intended  to  be  executed  by  choruses, 
and  to  be  sung  to  choral  dances  ;  while  the  JEolic  was  recited  by 
a  single  person,  who  accompanied  his  recitation  with  a  stringed 
instrument,  generally  the  lyre. 

8.  ^OLic  Lyric  Poets. — Alciieus  (G.  611  b.c),  born  in 
Mytilene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  being  driven  out  of  his  native 
city  for  poUtical  reasons,  wandered  about  the  world,  and,  in  the 
midst  of  troubles  and  perils,  struck  the  lyre  and  gave  utterance 
to  the  ixissiouate  emotions  of  his  mind.  Ilis  war-songs  express 
a  stirring,  martial  spirit ;  and  a  noble  nature,'  accompanied  with 
strong  passions,  appears  in  all  his  poems,  especially  in  those 
in  which  he  sings  the  praises  of  love  and  wine,  though  little  of 


80  GREEK    LITERATURE. 

Lis  erotic  poetry  has  reached  our  time.  It  is  evident  that  poetry 
was  not  with  him  a  mere  pastime  or  exercise  of  skill,  but  a 
means  of  pouring  out  the  inmost  feelings  of  the  soul. 

Sappho  (11.  600  B.C.),  the  other  leader  of  the  ^olic  school  of 
poetr}^,  was  the  object  of  the  admiration  of  all  antiquity.  She 
was  contemporary  with  Alcaeus,  and  in  her  verses  to  him  we 
plainly  discern  the  feeling  of  unimpeached  honor  proper  to  a 
free-born  and  well-educated  maiden.  Alca^us  testifies  that  the 
attractions  and  loveliness  of  Sappho  did  not  derogate  from  her 
moral  worth  when  he  calls  her  'Wiolet-crowned,  pure,  sweetly 
smihng  Sappho."  This  testimony  is,  indeed,  opposed  to  the 
accounts  of  later  writers,  but  the  probable  cause  of  the  false 
imputations  in  reference  to  Sappho  seems  to  be  that  the  refined 
Athenians  were  incapable  of  appreciating  the  frank  simplicity 
with  which  she  poured  forth  her  feelings,  and  therefore  they 
confounded  them  with  unblushing  immodesty.  While  the  men 
of  Athens  were  distinguished  for  their  perfection  in  every  branch 
of  art,  none  of  their  women  emerged  from  the  obscurity  of 
domestic  hfe.  "That  woman  is  the  best,"  says  Pericles,  "of 
whom  the  least  is  said  among  men,  whether  for  good  or  for  evil." 
But  the  ^olians  had  in  some  degree  preserved  the  ancient 
Greek  manners,  and  their  women  enjoyed  a  distinct  individual 
existence  and  moral  character.  They  doubtless  participated  in 
the  general  high  state  of  civilization,  which  not  only  fostered 
poetical  talents  of  a  high  order  among  women,  but  produced  in 
them  a  turn  for  philosophical  reflection.  This  was  so  utterly 
inconsistent  with  Athenian  manners,  that  we  cannot  wonder 
that  women,  who  had  in  any  degree  overstepped  the  bounds  pre- 
scribed to  their  sex  at  Athens,  should  be  represented  by  the 
Licentious  pen  of  Athenian  comic  writers  as  lost  to  every  sense 
of  shame  and  decency.  Sappho,  in  her  odes,  made  frequent 
mention  of  a  youth  to  whom  she  gave  her  whole  heart,  while  he 
requited  her  love  with  cold  indifference  ;  but  there  is  no  trace 
of  her  having  named  the  object  of  her  passion.  She  may  have 
celebrated  the  beautiful  and  mythical  Phaon  in  such  a  manner, 
that  the  verses  were  supposed  to  refer  to  a  lover  of  her  own. 
The  account  of  her  leap  from  the  Leucadian  rock  is  rather  a 
poetical  image,  tlian  a  real  event  in  the  life  of  the  poetess. 
The  true  conception  of  the  erotic  poetry  of  Sappho  can  only  be 
drawn  from  the  fragments  of  her  odes,  which,  though  numerous, 
are  for  the  most  part  very  short.  Among  them,  we  must  dis- 
tinguish the  Epithalamia  or  hymeneals,  which  were  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  poetess  from  the  exquisite  perce}> 
tion  she  seems  to  have  had  of  whatever  was  attractive  in  either 


GREEK   LITERATURE.  81 

sex.  From  the  numerous  fragments  that  remain,  these  poems 
appear  to  have  had  great  beauty  and  much  of  that  expression 
which  the  simple  and  natural  manners  of  the  times  allowed,  and  the 
warm  and  sensitive  heart  of  the  poetess  suggested.  That 
Sappho's  fame  was  spread  throughout  Greece,  may  be  seen  from 
the  history  of  Solon,  who  was  her  contemporary.  Hearhig  his 
nephew  recite  one  of  her  poems,  he  said  that  he  would  not 
willingly  die  until  he  had  learned  it  by  heart.  And,  doubtless, 
from  that  circle  of  accomplished  women,  of  whom  she  formed  the 
brilliant  centre,  a  flood  of  poetic  light  was  poured  forth  on  every 
side.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  names  of  Damophila, 
and  Erinna,  whose  poem,  the  ''  Spindle,"  was  highly  esteemed  by 
the  ancients. 

The  genius  of  Anacreon  (fl.  540  e.g.),  though  akin  to  that  of 
Alcaeus  and  Sappho,  had  an  entirely  different  bent.  He  seems 
to  consider  life  as  valuable  only  so  far  as  it  can  be  spent  in  wine, 
love  and  social  enjoyment.  The  Ionic  softness  and  departure 
from  strict  rule  may  also  be  perceived  in  his  versification.  The 
different  odes  preserved  under  his  name  are  the  productions 
of  poets  of  a  much  later  date.  With  Anacreon  ceased  the 
species  of  lyric  poetry  in  which  he  excelled  ;  indeed  he  stands 
alone  in  it,  and  the  tender  softness  of  his  soug:  was  soon  drowned 
by  the  louder  tones  of  the  choral  poetry. 

The  Scol'm  were  a  kind  of  lyric  songs  sung  at  social  meals, 
when  the  spirit  was  raised  by  wine  and  conversation  to  a  lyrical 
pitch.  The  lyre  or  a  sprig  of  myrtle  was  handed  round  the 
table  and  presented  to  any  one  who  could  amuse  the  company 
by  a  song  or  even  a  good  sentence  in  a  lyrical  form. 

9.  Doric,  or  Choral  Lyric  Poets. — The  chorus  was  in  general 
use  in  Greece  before  the  time  of  Homer,  and  nearly  every 
variety  of  the  choral  poetry,  which  was  afterwards  so  brilliantly 
developed,  existed  at  that  remote  period  in  a  rude,  unfinished 
state.  After  the  improvements  made  by  Terpander  and  others 
in  musical  art,  choral  poetry  rapidly  progressed  towards  perfec- 
tion. The  poets  during  the  period  of  progress  were  Alcman  and 
Stesichorus,  while  finished  lyric  poetry  is  represented  by  Ibycus, 
Simouides,  his  disciple  Bacchylides  and  Pindar.  These  great 
poets  were  only  the  representatives  of  the  fervor  with  v»^hich 
the  religious  festivals  inspired  all  classes.  Choral  dances  were 
performed  by  the  whole  people  with  great  ardor  and  enthusiasm ; 
every  considerable  town  had  its  poet,  who  devoted  his  whole  life 
to  the  trainins:  and  exhibition  of  choruses. 

Alcman  (b.  660  e.g.)  was  a  Lydian  of  Sardis,  and  an  eman- 

4^ 


82  GREEK   LITEKATURE. 

cipated  slave.  His  poems  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  metre,  of 
dialect  and  of  poetic  tone.  He  is  regarded  as  having  overcome 
the  difficulties  jn-escnted  bv  the  rougli  dialect  of  Sparta,  and  as 
having  succeeded  in  investing  it  with  a  certain  grace.  He  is 
one  of  the  poets  whose  image  is  most  effaced  by  time,  and  of 
whom  we  can  obtain  little  accurate  knowledge.  The  admiration 
awarded  him  by  antiquity  is  scarcely  justified  by  the  extant  re- 
mains of  his  poems. 

Stesichorus  (fl.  611  e.g.)  lived  at  a  time  when  the  predominant 
tendency  of  the  Greek  mind  was  towards  lyric  poetry.  His 
sj^ecial  business  was  the  training  and  dii'ection  of  the  choruses, 
and  he  assumed  the  name  of  Stesichorus,  or  leader  of  choruses, 
his  real  name  being  Tesias.  His  metres  approach  more  nearly  to 
the  Epos  than  those  of  Alcman.  As  Quintiliau  says,  he  sustained 
the  weight  of  epic  poetr}'  with  the  lyre.  His  language  accorded 
with  the  tone  of  his  poetry,  and  he  is  not  less  remarkable  in  him- 
self, than  as  the  precursor  of  the  perfect  lyric  poetry  of  Pindar. 

Arion  (025-585  e.g.)  was  chiefly  known  in  Greece  as  the 
perfecter  of  the  "  Dithyramb,"  a  song  of  Bacchanalian  festivals, 
douljtless  of  great  antiquity.  Its  character,  like  the  vrorship  to 
which  it  belonged,  was  always  impassioned  and  enthusiastic;  the 
extremes  of  feeling,  rapturous  pleasure  and  wild  lamentation, 
were  both  expressed  in  it. 

Ibycus  (b.  528  e.g.)  v\"as  a  wandering  poet,  as  is  attested  by 
the  story  of  his  death  having  been  avenged  by  the  cranes.  His 
poetical  style  resembles  that  of  Stesichorus,  as  also  his  subjects. 
The  erotic  poetry  of  Ibycus  is  most  celebrated,  and  breathes  a 
fervor  of  passion  far  exceeding  that  of  any  similar  production  of 
Greek  literature. 

Simonides  (556-408  e.g.)  has  already  been  described  as  one 
of  the  great  masters  of  the  Elegy  and  Epigram.  In  depth  and 
novelty  of  ideas,  and  in  the  fervor  of  poetic  feeling,  he  was  far 
inferior  to  his  contemporary  Pindar,  but  he  was  probably  the 
most  prolific  lyric  poet  of  Greece.  According  to  the  frequent 
reproach  of  the  ancients,  he  was  the  first  that  sold  his  poems 
for  money.  His  style  was  not  as  lofty  as  that  of  Pindar,  but 
what  he  lost  in  subhmity  he  gained  in  pathos. 

Bacchylides  (fl.  450  e.g.),  the  nephew  of  Simonides,  devoted  his 
genius  chiefly  to  the  pleasures  of  private  life,  love  and  wine,  and 
his  productions,  when  compared  with  those  of  Simonides,  are 
marked  by  less  moral  elevation. 

Timocreon  the  Rhodian  (fl.  471  e.g.)  owes  his  chief  celebrity 
among  the  ancients  to  the  hate  he  bore  to  Themistoclcs  in  politi- 
cal life,  and  to  Simonides  on  the  field  of  poetry. 


GREKK    LITEllATURE.  83 

Pindnr  (522-435  b.c.)  was  the  contemporary  of  jEscliylus, 
but  as  the  causes  which  deterramed  his  poetical  character  are  to 
be  sought  ill  an  carher  age,  and  in  the  Doric  and  J^ohc  parts 
of  Greece,  he  may  properly  be  placed  at  the  close  of  the  early 
period,  while  JEschylus  stands  at  the  head  of  the  new  epoch  of 
literature.  Like  Hesiod,  Pindar  was  a  native  of  Boeotia,  and 
that  there  was  still  much  love  for  music  and  poetry  there,  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  two  women,  Myrtis  and  Corinna,  had 
obtained  great  celebrity  in  these  arts  during  the  youth  of  this 
poet.  Myrtis  (fl.  490  b.c.)  strove  with  him  for  the  prize  at  the 
public  games,  and  Corinna  (fl.  490  b.c.)  is  said  to  have  gained 
the  victory  over  him  five  times.  Too  little  of  the  poetry  of 
Corinna  has  been  preserved  to  allow  a  judgment  on  her  style  of 
composition.  Pindar  made  the  arts  of  poetry  and  music  the 
business  of  his  life,  and  his  fame  soon  spread  throughout  Greece 
and  the  neighboring  countries.  He  excelled  in  all  the  known 
varieties  of  choral  poetry,  but  the  only  class  of  poems  that  enables 
us  to  judge  of  his  general  style  are  his  triumphal  odes.  When  a 
victory  was  gained  in  a  contest  at  a  festival  by  the  speed  of 
horses,  the  strength  and  dexterity  of  the  human  body,  or  by 
skill  in  music,  such  a  victory,  which  shed  honor  not  only  on  the 
victor,  but  also  on  his  family,  and  even  on  his  native  city,  de- 
manded a  public  celebration.  An  occasion  of  this  kind  had 
always  a  religious  character,  and  often  began  with  a  procession 
to  an  altar  or  temple,  where  a  sacrifice  was  offered,  followed  by 
a  banquet,  and  the  solemnity  concluded  with  a  merry  and  bois- 
terous revel.  At  this  sacred  and  at  the  same  time  joyous 
festival,  the  chorus  appeared  and  recited  the  triumphal  hymn, 
which  was  considered  the  fairest  ornament  of  the  triumph.  Such 
an  occasion,  a  victory  in  the  sacred  games  and  its  end,  the 
ennobling  of  a  ceremony  connected  with  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  required  that  the  ode  should  be  composed  in  a  lofty 
and  dignified  style.  Pindar  does  not  content  himself  with 
celebrating  the  bodily  prowess  of  the  victor  alone,  but  he  usu- 
ally adds  some  moral  virtue  which  he  has  shown,  and  which 
he  recommends  and  extols.  Sometimes  this  virtue  is  modera- 
tion, wisdom,  or  filial  love,  more  often  piety  to  the  gods,  and 
he  expounds  to  the  victor  his  destiny,  by  showing  him  the 
dependence  of  his  exploits  on  the  higher  order  of  things. 
Mythical  narratives  occupy  much  space  in  these  odes,  for  in 
the  time  of  Pindar  the  mythical  past  was  invested  with  a 
splendor  and  sublimity,  of  which  even  the  faint  reflection  was 
sufficient  to  embellish  the  present. 


84  GREEK    LITERATLUIE. 

10.  Orphic  Doctrines  and  Poems. — The  interval  between 
Homer  and  Pindar  is  an  important  period  in  the  history  of 
Greek  civihzation.  In  Homer  we  perceive  tliat  infancy  of 
the  mind  which  hves  in  seeing  and  imagining,  and  whose 
moral  judgments  are  determined  Ijy  impulses  of  feeling  rather 
than  by  rules  of  conduct,  while  with  Pindar  the  chief  elfort 
of  his  genius  is  to  discover  the  true  standard  of  moral  gov- 
ernment. This  great  change  of  opinion  must  have  been  effected 
by  the  efforts  of  many  sages  and  poets.  All  the  Greek  religious 
poetry,  treating  of  death  and  of  the  world  beyond  the  grave, 
refers  to  the  deities  whose  influence  was  supposed  to  be  exer- 
cised in  the  dark  regions  at  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  who  had 
little  connection  with  the  political  and  social  relations  of  human 
life.  They  formed  a  class  apart  from  the  gods  of  Olympus;  the 
mysteries  of  the  Greeks  were  connected  with  their  worship 
alone,  and  the  love  of  immortality  first  found  support  in  a  belief 
in  these  deities.  The  mysteries  of  Demcter,  especially  those 
celebrated  at  Eleusis,  inspired  the  most  animating  hopes  with 
regard  to  the  soul  after  death.  These  mysteries,  however,  had 
little  inQuence  on  the  literature  of  the  nation ;  but  there  "was  a 
society  of  persons  called  the  followers  of  Orpheus,  who  published 
their  notions  and  committed  them  to  literary  works.  Under  the 
guidance  of  the  ancient  mystical  poet,  Orpheus,  they  dedicated 
themselves  to  the  worship  of  Bacchus  or  Dionysus,  in  which  they 
sought  satisfaction  for  an  ardent  longing  after  the  soothing  and 
elevating  influences  of  religion,  and  upon  the  worship  of  this 
deity  they  founded  their  hopes  of  an  ultimate  immortality  of  the 
soul.  Unlike  the  popular  worshippers  of  Bacchus,  they  did  not 
indulge  in  unrestrained  pleasure  or  frantic  enthusiasm,  but 
rather  aimed  at  an  ascetic  purity  of  life  and  manners.  It  is 
difficult  to  tell  when  this  association  was  formed  in  Greece,  but 
we  find  in  Hcsiod  something  of  the  Orphic  spirit,  ajid  the  begin- 
ning of  higher  and  more  hopeful  view^s  of  death. 

The  endeavor  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  divine  and  human 
things  was  in  Greece  slowly  and  with  difficulty  evolved  from 
their  religious  notions,  and  it  was  for  a  long  time  confined  to  the 
refining  and  rationalizing  of  their  mythology.  An  extensive 
Orphic  literature  first  appeared  at  the  time  of  the  Persian 
war,  when  the  remains  of  the  Pythagorean  order  hi  jSIaii'na 
Gra3cia  united  themselves  to  the  Orphic  associations.  The  phi- 
losophy of  Pythagoras,  however,  had  no  analogy  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Orphic  mysteries,  in  which  the  worship  of  Dionysus  w^as 
the  centre  of  all  religious  ideas,  while  the  Pythagorean  philoso- 
phers preferred  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses.     In  the 


GKEEK   LITERATURE.  85 

Orpliic  theogouy  we  find,  for  the  first  time,  the  idea  of  creation. 
Another  diflerence  between  the  notions  of  the  Orphic  poets  and 
those  of  the  early  Greeks  was  that  the  former  did  not  Hmit 
their  views  to  the  present  state  of  mankind,  still  less  did  they 
acquiesce  in  Hesiod's  melancholy  doctrine  of  successive  ages, 
each  one  worse  than  tlie  preceding;  but  they  looked  for  a  cessa- 
tion of  strife,  a  state  of  happiness  and  beatitude  at  the  end  of 
all  things.  Their  hopes  of  this  result  were  founded  on  Dionysus, 
from  the  worship  of  whom  all  their  pecuhar  rehgious  ideas  were 
derived.  This  god,  the  son  of  Zeus,  is  to  succeed  him  in  the 
government  of  the  world,  to  restore  the  Golden  Age,  and  to  libe- 
rate human  souls,  who,  according  to  an  Orphic  notion,  are  pun- 
ished by  being  confined  in  the  body  as  in  a  prison.  The  suffer- 
ings of  the  soul  in  its  prison,  the  steps  and  transitions  by  which 
it  passes  to  a  higher  state  of  existence,  and  its  gradual  purifica- 
tion and  enlightenment,  were  all  fully  described  in  these  poems. 
Thus,  in  the  poetry  of  the  first  five  centuries  of  Greek  literature, 
especially  at  the  close  of  this  period,  we  find,  instead  of  the  calm 
enjoyment  of  outward  nature  which  characterized  the  early  epic 
poetry,  a  profound  sense  of  the  misery  of  human  hfe,  and  an 
ardent  longing  for  a  condition  of  greater  happiness.  This  feel- 
ing, indeed,  was  not  so  extended  as  to  become  common  to  the 
whole  Greek  nation,  but  it  took  deep  root  in  individual  minds, 
and  was  connected  with  more  serious  and  spiiitual  views  of 
human  nature. 

11.  Pre-Socratig  Philosophy. — Philosophy  was  early  culti- 
vated bv  the  Greeks,  who  first  among-  all  nations  distiuf^uished  it 
from  religion  and  mythology.  For  some  time,  however,  after  its 
origin,  it  was  as  far  removed  from  the  ordinary  thoughts  and 
occupations  of  the  people,  as  poetry  was  intimately  connected 
with  them.  Poetry  idealizes  all  that  is  most  characteristic  of  a 
nation  ;  its  rehgion,  mythology,  political  and  social  institutions 
and  manners.  Philosophy,  on  the  other  hand,  begins  by  de- 
taching the  mind  from  the  opinions  and  habits  in  which  it  has 
been  bred  up,  from  the  national  conceptions  of  the  gods  and  the 
universe,  and  from  traditionary  maxims  of  ethics  and  politics. 
The  philosophy  of  Greece,  antecedent  to  the  time  of  Socrates,  is 
contained  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Ionic,  Eleatic  and  Pythagorean 
schools.  Thales  of  Miletus  (639-5-18  e.g.)  was  the  first  in  the 
series  of  the  Ionic  philosophers.  He  was  one  of  the  Seven  Sages, 
who  by  their  practical  wisdom  nobly  contributed  to  the  flourishing 
condition  of  Greece.  Thales,  Solon,  Bion  (fl.  5*10  e.g.),  Cleobulus 
(fl.  542  E.G.),  Periander  (fl.  598   e.g.),   Pittacus  of  Mytilene 


8G  GKEEK    LITERATURE. 

(5T9    B.C.),    and   Chiloii    (fl.   542   b.c),    were  the   seven    phi- 
losopliev*  called  the  seven  sages  bj  their  countrymen.     Thales 
is    said   to   have   foretold   aji   eclipse   of  the    sun,    for    which 
lie    doubtless   employed   astronomical  formula?,  which   he    Lad 
obtained   from   the    Chaldeans.     His   tendency   was   practical, 
and  where  his  own  knowledge  was  insufficient,  he  applied  the 
discoveries  of  other  nations  more  advanced  than  his  own.     He 
considered  all  natures  as  endowed  with  life,  and  sought  to  dis- 
cover the  principles  of  external  forms  in  the  powers  which  lie 
beneath  ;  he  taught  that  water  was  the  principle  of  things. 
Anaximander  (fl.  547  b.c),  and  Anaximenes  (fl.  543  e.g.)  were 
the  other  two  most  distinguished  representatives  of  the  Ionic 
school.     The  former  believed  that  chaotic  matter  was  the  prin- 
ciple of  all  things,  the  latter  taught  that  it  was  air.     The  Ele- 
atic  school  is  represented  by  Xenophanes,  Parmenides  and  Zeno. 
As  the  philosophers  of  the  first  school  were  called  lonians  from 
the  country  in  which  they  resided,  so  these  were  named  from 
Elea,  a  Greek  colony  of  Italy.     Xenophanes  (fl.  538  b.c),  the 
founder  of  this  school,  adopted  a  different  principle  from  that 
of  the  Ionic  philosophers,  and  proceeded  upon  an  ideal  system, 
while  that  of  the  latter  was  exclusively  founded  upon  experience. 
He  began  with  the  idea  of  the  godhead,  and  showed  the  neces- 
sity of  considering  it  as  an  eternal  and  unchanging  existence, 
and  represented  the  anthropomorphic  conceptions  of  the  Greeks 
concerning  their  gods  as  mere  prejudices.     In  his  works  he  re- 
tained the  poetic  form  of  composition,  some  fragments  of  which 
he  himself  recited  at  public  festivals,  after  the  mauner  of  the 
rhapsodists.     Parmenides  flourished  504  years  b.c     His  philoso- 
phy rested  upon  the  idea  of  existence  which  excluded  the  idea 
of    creation,    and   thus   fell    into    pantheism.      His   poem    on 
*'Xature"  was  composed  in  the  epic  metre,  and  in  it  he  ex- 
pressed in  beautiful  forms  the  most  abstract  ideas.     Zeno  of  Elea 
(fl.  500  B.C.)    was  a  pupil  of  Parmenides,  and  the  earliest  prose 
writer  among  the  Greek  philosophers.     He  developed  the  doc- 
trines of  his  master,  by  showing  the  absurdities  involved  in  the 
ideas  of  variety  and  of  creation,  as  opposed  to  one  and  universal 
substance.      Other   philosophers   belonging   to  Ionia  or  Elea 
may  be  referred  to  these  schools,   as  Heraclitus,  Empedocles, 
Democritus,     and     Auaxagoras,     vrhose     doctrines,     however, 
vary  from  those  of  the  representatives  of  the  philosophical  sys- 
tems above  named.     Heraclitus  (fl.  505  b.c)    dealt  rather  in 
intimations  of  important  truths  than  in  popular  exposition  of 
them  ;  his  cardinal  doctrine  seems  to  have  been  that  cvervthinc: 
is  in  perpetual  motion,  that  nothing  has  any  permanent  existence, 


GREEK    LITER ATUKE.  ,        87 

and  that  everything  is  assuming  a  new  form  or  perishing  :  the 
principle  of  this  perpetual  motion  he  supposed  to  be  fire,  though 
probably  he  did  not  mean  material  lire,  but  some  higher  and 
more  universal  agent.  Like  nearly  all  the  philosophers,  he  de- 
spised the  popular  rehgion.  Empedocles  (fl.  440  b.c.)  wrote  a 
doctrinal  poem  concerning  nature,  fragments  of  which  have  been 
preserved.  He  denied  the  possibility  of  creation,  and  held 
the  doctrine  of  an  eternal  and  imj^erishable  existence  ;  but  he 
considered  this  existence  as  having  diiferent  natures,  and  ad- 
mitted that  fire,  earth,  air,  and  water  were  the  four  elements  of 
all  things.  These  elements  he  supposed  to  be  governed  by  two 
principles,  one  positive  and  one  negative,  that  is  to  say,  connecting 
love  and  dissolving  discord.  Democritus  (fl.  460  b.c.)  embodied 
his  extensive  knowledge  in  a  series  of  writings,  of  Y\diich  only  a 
few  fragments  have  been  preserved.  Cicero  compared  him  with 
Plato  for  rhythm  and  elegance  of  language.  He  derived  the 
manifold  phenomena  of  the  world  from  the  different  form,  dis- 
position and  arrangement  of  the  innumerable  elements  or  atoms 
as  they  become  united.  He  is  the  founder  of  the  atomic  doctrine. 
Anaxagoras  (fl.  456  e.g.)  rejected  all  popular  notions  of  religion, 
excluded  the  idea  of  creation  and  destruction,  and  taught  that 
atoms  were  unchangeable  and  imj^crishable;  that  spirit,  the  purest 
and  subtlest  of  all  things,  gave  to  these  atoms  the  impulse 
by  which  they  took  the  forms  of  individual  things  and  beings  ; 
and  that  this  impulse  was  given  in  circular  motion,  which  kept 
the  heavenly  bodies  in  their  courses.  But  none  of  his  doctrines 
gave  so  much  offence  or  was  considered  so  clear  a  proof  of  his 
atheism,  as  his  opinion  that  the  sun,  the  bountiful  god  Hehos, 
who  shines  both  upon  mortals  and  immortals,  was  a  mass  of  red- 
hot  iron.  His  doctrines  tended  powerfully  by  their  rapid  diffu- 
sion to  undermine  the  principles  on  which  the  worship  of  the 
ancient  gods  rested,  and  they  therefore  prepared  the  way  for  the 
subsequent  triumph  of  Christianity. 

The  Pythagorean  or  Italic  School  was  founded  by  Pythagoras, 
who  is  said  to  have  flourished  between  540  and  500  b.c.  Pytha- 
goras was  probably  an  Ionian  who  emigrated  to  Italy,  and  there 
established  his  school.  His  principal  efforts  were  directed  to 
practical  life,  especially  to  the  regulation  of  political  institutions, 
and  his  influence  was  exercised  by  means  of  lectures,  or  sayings, 
or  by  the  estabhshment  and  direction  of  the  Pythagorean  asso^ 
ciations.  He  encouraged  the  study  of  mathematics  and  music, 
and  considered  singing  to  the  cithara  as  best  fitted  to  produce 
that  mental  repose  and  harmony  of  soul,  which  he  regarded  as 
the  highest  ol^ject  of  education. 


88  GREEK    LITER ATUEE. 

12.  History. — It  is  remarkable,  that  a  people  so  cultivated  as 
the  Greeks  should  have  been  so  long  without  feeliug  the  want 
of  a  correct  record  of  their  transactions  in  war  and  peace.  The 
difference  between  this  nation  and  the  Orientals,  in  this  respect, 
is  very  great.  But  the  division  of  the  country  into  numerous 
small  States,  and  the  republican  form  of  the  governments,  pre- 
vented a  concentration  of  interest  on  particular  events  and  per- 
sons, and  owing  to  the  dissensions  between  the  republics,  their 
historical  traditions  could  not  but  offend  some  while  they  flat- 
tered others  ;  it  was  not  until  a  late  period,  that  the  Greeks  con- 
sidered contemporary  events  as  worthy  of  being  thought  or 
written  of.  But  for  this  absence  of  authentic  history,  Greek 
literature  could  never  have  become  what  it  was.  By  the 
purely  lictitious  character  of  its  poetry,  and  its  freedom  from  the 
shackles  of  particular  truths,  it  acquired  that  general  probability, 
which  led  Aristotle  to  consider  poetry  as  more  philosophical  than 
history.  Greek  art,  likewise,  from  the  lateness  of  the  period  at 
which  it  descended  from  the  representation  of  gods  and  heroes 
to  the  portraits  of  real  men,  acquired  a  nobleness  and  beauty 
of  form,  which  it  could  not  otherwise  have  obtained.  This  poet- 
ical basis  gave  the  literature  of  the  Greeks  a  noble  and  liberal 
turn. 

Writing  was  probably  known  in  Greece  some  centuries  before 
the  time  of  Cadmus  of  Miletus  (fl.  522  e.g.),  but  it  had  not 
been  employed  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  any  detailed  histo- 
rical record,  and  even  when,  towards  the  end  of  the  age  of  the 
Seven  Sages  (550  b.c),  some  writers  of  historical  narratives  be- 
gan to  appear,  they  did  not  select  recent  historical  events,  but 
those  of  distant  times  and  countries ;  so  entirely  did  they  believe, 
that  oral  tradition  and  the  daily  discussions  of  common  life  were 
sufficient  records  of  the  events  of  their  own  time  and  country 
Cadmus  of  Miletus  is  mentioned  as  the  first  historian,  but 
his  works  seem  to  have  been  early  lost.  To  him,  and  other 
Greek  historians  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  scholars  have 
given  the  name  of  Logograjphers,  from  Logos,  signifying  any  dis- 
course in  prose. 

The  first  Greek,  to  whom  it  occurred  that  a  narrative  of  facts 
might  be  made  intensely  interesting,  was  Herodotus  (484-432 
B.C.),  a  native  of  Halicarnassus  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Homer  of 
Greek  history.  Obliged,  for  political  reasons,  to  leave  his  native 
Land,  he  visited  many  countries,  such  as  Egypt,  Babylon  and 
Persia,  and  spent  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  one  of  the  Gre- 
cian settlements  in  Italy,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  com- 
position of  his  work.     His  travels  were  undertaken  from  the 


GREEK    LITERATURE.  89 

pure  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  for  that  age  they  were  very  extensive 
and  important.     It  is  probable  that  his  great   and   intricate 
plan,  hitherto  unknown  in  the  historical  writings  of  the  Greeks, 
did  not  at  first  occur  to  him,  and  that  it  was  only  in  his  later 
years  that  he  conceived  the  complete  idea  of  a  work  so  far  be- 
yond those  of  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries.     It  is  stated 
that  he  recited  his  history  at  different  festivals,  which  is  quite 
credible,  though  there  is  little  authority  for  the  story  that  at  one 
of  these  Thucydides  was  present  as  a  boy,  and  shed  tears,  drawn 
forth  by  his  own  desire  for  knowledge  and  his  intense  interest  in 
the  narrative.     His  work  comprehends  a  history  of  nearly  all 
the  nations  of  the  world  at  that  time  kno\\Ti.     It  has  an  epic 
character,  not  only  from  the  equable  and  uninterrupted  flow  of 
the  narrative,  but  also  from  certain  pervading  ideas  which  give  a 
tone  to  the  whole.     The  principal  of  these  is  the  idea  of  a  fixed 
destiny,  of  a  wise  arrangement  of  the  world,  which  has  pre- 
scribed to  every  being  his  path,  and  which  allots  ruin  and  de- 
struction not  only  to  crime  and  violence,  but  to  excessive  power 
and  riches  and  the  overweening  pride  which  is  their  companion. 
In  this  consists  the  envy  of  the  gods  so  often  mentioned  by  He- 
rodotus, and  usually  called  by  the  other  Greeks  the  divine  Kc- 
Tuesis.     He  constantly  adverts  in  his  narrative  to  the  influence  of 
this  divine  power,  the  Dannonion,  as  he   calls   it.      He  shows 
how  the  Deity  visits  the  sins  of  the  ancestors  upon  then*  de- 
scendants, how  man  rushes,  as  it  were,  wilfully  upon  his  own 
destruction,  and  how  oracles  mislead  by  their  ambiguity,  when 
interpreted  by  blind  passion.     He  shows  his  awe  of  the  divine 
Xemesis  by  his  moderation  and  the  firmness  with  which  he  keeps 
down  the  ebullitions  of  national  pride.     He  points  out  traits 
of  greatness  of  character  in  the  hostile  kings  of  Persia,  and 
shows  his  countrymen  how  often  they  owed  their  successes  to 
Providence  and  external  advantages  rather  than  to  their  own 
valor  and  ability.     Since  Herodotus  saw   the    working   of    a 
divine  agency  in  all  human  events,  and  considered  the  exhibition 
of  it  as  the  main  object  of  his  history,  his  aim  is  totally  difierent 
from  that  of  a  historian  who  regards  the  events  of  life  merely 
with  reference  to  men.     He  is,  in  truth,  a  theologian  and  a  poet 
as  well  as  a  historian.     It  is,  however,  vain  to  deny  that  when 
Herodotus  did  not  see  himself  the  events  which  he  describes,  he 
is  often  deceived  by  the  misrepresentations  of  others  ;  yet,  with- 
out his  single-hearted  simplicity,  his  disposition  to  listen  to  every 
remarkable  account,  and  his  admiration  for  the  wonders  of  the 
eastern   world,  Herodotus  would   never  have  imparted   to   us 
many  valuable  accounts.     Modern  travellers,  naturalists   and 


90  GREEK   LITER ATUKE. 

geographers  have  often  had  occasion  to  admire  the  truth  and 
correctness  of  the  information  contained  in  his  simple  and  mar- 
vellous narratives.  But  no  dissertation  on  this  writer  can  con- 
vey any  idea  of  the  impression  made  by  reading  his  work;  his  lan- 
guage closely  approximates  to  oral  narration  ;  it  is  like  hearing 
a  person  speak  who  has  seen  and  lived  through  a  variety  of  re- 
markable things,  and  whose  greatest  delight  consists  in  recalhng 
these  images  of  the  past.  Though  a  Dorian  by  birth,  he  adopted 
the  Ionic  dialect,  with  its  uncontracted  terminations,  its  accu- 
mulated vowels,  and  its  soft  forms.  These  various  elements  con- 
spire to  render  the  work  of  Herodotus  a  production  as  perfect 
in  its  kind  as  any  human  work  can  be. 


PERIOD   SECOXD. 

The  Epoch  of  the  Athenian  Literature  (48-4-322  b.c.) 

1.  Literary  Predominance  of  Athens. — Among  the  Greeks 
a  national  literature  was  early  formed.  Every  literary  work  in 
the  Greek  language,  in  whatever  dialect  it  might  be  composed, 
was  enjoyed  by  the  whole  nation,  and  the  fame  of  remarkable 
writers  soon  spread  throughout  Greece.  Certain  cities  were 
considGrcd  almost  as  theatres,  where  the  poets  and  sages  could 
Ijring  their  powers  and  acquirements  into  public  notice.  Among 
these,  Sparta  stood  highest  down  to  the  time  of  the  Persian  war. 
But  when  Athens,  raised  by  her  political  power  and  the  mental 
qualities  of  her  citizens,  acquired  the  rank  of  the  capital  of 
Greece,  literature  assumed  a  different  form,  and  there  is  no  more 
important  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  intellect,  tlian  the 
time  when  she  obtained  this  preeminence  over  her  sister  States. 
The  character  of  the  Athenians  peculiarly  fitted  them  to  take 
this  lead;  they  were  lonians,  and  the  boundless  resources  and 
mobiUty  of  the  Ionian  spirit  are  shown  by  their  astonishing  pro- 
ductions in  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  islands,  in  the  two  centuries 
previous  to  the  Persian  war  ;  in  their  iambic  and  elegiac  poetry, 
and  in  the  germs  of  pliilosophic  inquiry  and  historical  composi- 
tion. The  literature  of  those  who  remained  in  Attica  seemed 
poor  and  meagre  when  compared  with  that  luxuriant  outburst; 
nor  did  it  appear,  till  a  later  period,  that  the  progress  of  the 
Athenian  intellect  was  the  more  sound  and  lasting.  The  lonians 
of  Asia  Minor,  becoming  at  length  enfeebled  and  corrupted  by 
the  luxuries  of  the  East,  passed  easily  under  the  power  of  the 
Persians,    while   the  inhabitants  of  Attica,  encompassed   and 


GREEK   LITERATURE.  91 

oppressed  by  the  manly  tribes  of  Greece,  aucl  forced  to  keep  tbe 
sword  constantly  in  their  hands,  exerted  all  their  talents  and 
thus  developed  all  then*  extraordinary  powers. 

Solon,  the  great  lawgiver,  arose  to  combine  moral  strictness 
and  order  w^ith  freedom  of  action.  After  Solon  came  the  do- 
minion of  the  Pisistratids,  which  lasted  from  about  560  to 
510  B.C.  Thev  showed  a  fondness  for  art,  diffused  a  taste  for 
poetry  among  the  Athenians,  and  naturalized  at  Athens  the 
best  literary  productions  of  Greece.  They  were  unquestionably 
the  first  to  introduce  the  entire  recital  of  the  Ihad  and  Odyssey; 
they  also  brought  to  Athens  the  most  distinguished  lyric  poets 
of  the  time,  Anacreon,  Simonides  and  others.  But,  notwith- 
standing their  patronage  of  literature  and  art,  it  was  not  till 
after  the  fall  of  their  dynasty  that  Athens  shot  up  with  a  vigor, 
that  can  only  be  derived  from  the  consciousness  of  every  citizen 
that  he  has  a  share  in  the  common  weal. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  Athens  produced  her  most  excel- 
lent works  in  literature  and  art  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest 
pohtical  convulsions,  and  of  her  utmost  efforts  for  conquest  and 
self-preservation.  The  long  dominion  of  the  Pisistratids  produced 
nothing  more  important  than  the  first  rudiments  of  the  tragic 
drama,  for  the  origin  of  comedy  at  the  country  festivals  of  Bac- 
chus falls  in  the  time  before  Pisistratus.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  thirty  years  between  the  expulsion  of  Hippias,  the  last  of  the 
Pisistratids,  and  the  battle  of  Salamis  (b.c.  510-480),  was  a 
period  marked  by  great  events  both  in  politics  and  literature. 
Athens  contended  with  success  ac^ainst  her  warlike  neighbors, 
supported  the  lonians  in  their  revolt  against  Persia,  and  warded 
t)ff  the  first  powerful  attack  of  the  Persians  upon  Greece.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period,  the  pathetic  tragedies  of  Phrynichus  and 
the  lofty  tragedies  of  ^schylus  appeared  on  the  stage,  political 
eloquence  was  awakened  in  Themistocles,  and  everything  seemed 
to  give  proraise  of  future  greatness. 

The  political  events  which  followed  the  Persian  war  gradu- 
ally gave  to  Athens  the  dommion  over  her  alUes,  so  that  she 
became  the  sovereign  of  a  large  and  flourishing  emph'e,  compre- 
hendiug  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  ^Egean  and  a  part  of 
the  Euxine  sea.  In  this  manner  was  gained  a  wide  basis  for 
the  lofty  edifice  of  political  glory,  which  vras  raised  by  her  states- 
men. The  completion  of  this  splendid  structure  vras  due  to 
Pericles  (500-429  b.c.)  Through  his  influence  Athens  be- 
came a  dominant  communitv,  whose  chief  business  it  was  to 
administer  the  afluirs  of  an  extensive  empire,  flourishing  in  agri- 
culture, industry  aud   commerce.     Pericles,   how^ever,   did  not 


92  GREEK   LITERATURE. 

make  the  acquisition  of  power  the  highest  object  of  his  exertions; 
his  aim  was  to  reahze  in  Atliens  the  idea  which  he  had  con- 
ceived of  human  greatness,  that  great  and  noble  thoughts 
should  pervade  the  whole  mass  of  the  ruling  people  ;  and  this 
was,  in  fact,  the  case  as  long  as  his  influence  lasted,  to  a  greater 
degree  than  has  occurred  in  any  other  period  of  history. 
The  objects  to  which  Pericles  directed  the  people,  and  for 
which  he  accumulated  so  much  power  and  wealth  at  Athens, 
may  be  best  seen  in  the  still  extant  works  of  architecture  and 
sculpture  which  originated  under  his  administration.  He  induced 
the  Athenian  people  to  expend  on  the  decoration  of  Athens  a 
larger  part  of  its  ample  revenues  than  was  ever  applied  to 
this  purpose  in  any  other  State,  either  republican  or  monarchical. 
Of  the  surpassing  skill  with  which  he  collected  into  one  focus  the 
rays  of  artistic  genius  at  Athens,  no  stronger  proof  can  be 
afforded,  than  the  fact  that  no  subsequent  period,  through  the 
patronage  of  Macedonian  or  Koman  princes,  produced  works  of 
equal  excellence.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  creations  of 
the  age  of  Pericles  are  the  only  works  of  art  which  completely 
satisfy  the  most  refined  and  cultivated  taste. 

But  this  brilliant  exhibition  of  human  excellence  was  not 
without  its  dark  side,  nor  the  flourishing  state  of  Athenian 
civilization  exempt  from  the  elements  of  decay.  The  political 
position  of  Athens  soon  led  to  a  conflict  between  the  patriotism 
and  moderation  of  her  citizens,  and  their  interests  and  passions. 
From  the  earliest  times,  this  city  had  stood  in  an  unfriendly 
relation  to  the  rest  of  Greece,  and  her  policy  of  compelling  so 
many  cities  to  contribute  their  wealth  in  order  to  make  her  the 
focus  of  art  and  civilization  was  accompanied  with  offensivj:) 
pride  and  selfish  patriotism.  The  energy  in  action,  which  dis- 
tinguished the  Athenians,  degenerated  into  a  restless  love  of 
adventure  ;  and  that  dexterity  in  the  use  of  words,  which  they 
cultivated  more  than  the  other  Greeks,  induced  them  to  subject 
everything  to  discussion,  and  destroyed  the  habits  founded  on 
unreasoning  faith.  The  principles  of  the  policy  of  Pericles  were 
closely  connected  with  the  demoralization  which  followed  his 
administration.  By  founding  the  power  of  the  Athenians  on  the 
dominion  of  the  sea,  he  led  them  to  aloandon  land  war  and  the 
military  exercises  requisite  for  it,  which  had  hardened  the  old 
warriors  at  Marathon.  As  he  made  them  a  dominant  people, 
w^iose  time  was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  business  of  governhig 
their  widely-extended  empire,  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  pro- 
vide that  the  common  citizens  of  Athens  should  be  able  to  gain 
a  livelihood  by  their  attention  to  public  business,  and  accord- 


GREEK   LITERATURE.  93 

inglj,  a  large  revenue  was  distributed  among  them  in  the  form 
of  wages  for  attendance  in  the  courts  of  justice  and  other  pubUc 
asseml3lies.  These  payments  to  citizens  for  their  share  in  the 
pubhc  business  were  quite  new  in  Greece,  and  many  considered 
the  sitting  and  hstening  in  these  assemblies  as  an  idle  life  in 
comparison  with  the  labor  of  the  ploughman  and  vine-grower  in 
the  country,  and  for  a  long  time  the  industrious  cultivators,  the 
brave  warriors,  and  the  men  of  old-fashioned  morality,  were 
opposed,  among  the  citizens  of  Athens,  to  the  loquacious, 
luxurious  and  dissolute  generation,  who  passed  their  whole  time 
in  the  market-place  and  courts  of  justice.  The  contests 
between  these  two  parties  is  the  main  subject  of  the  early  Attic 
comedy. 

Literature  and  art,  however,  were  not,  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  affected  by  the  corruption  of  morals.  The  works  of 
this  period  exhibit  not  only  a  perfection  of  form  but  also  an  ele- 
vation of  soul  and  a  grandeur  of  conception,  which  fill  us  with 
admiration  not  only  for  those  who  produced  them,  but  for  those 
who  could  enjoy  such  works  of  art.  A  step  further,  and  the  love 
of  genuine  beauty  gave  place  to  a  desu'e  for  evil  pleasures,  and 
the  love  of  wisdom  degenerated  into  an  idle  use  of  words. 

2.  The  Drama. — The  spirit  of  an  age  is  more  completely 
represented  by  its  poetry  than  by  its  prose  composition,  and 
accordingly  we  may  best  trace  the  character  of  the  three 
different  stages  of  civihzation  among  the  Greeks  in  the  three 
grand  divisions  of  their  poetry.  The  epic  belongs  to  the 
monarchical  period,  when  the  minds  of  the  j^eople  were  impreg- 
nated and  swayed  by  legends  handed  down  from  antiquity. 
Elegiac,  iambic  and  lyric  poetry  arose  in  the  more  stirring  and 
agitated  times  which  accompanied  the  development  of  republican 
governments,  times  in  which  each  individual  gave  vent  to  his 
personal  aims  and  wishes,  and  all  the  depths  of  the  human 
breast  were  unlocked  by  the  insph'ations  of  poetry.  And  now, 
when  at  the  summit  of  Greek  civilization,  in  the  very  jOTme  of 
Athenian  power  and  freedom,  we  see  dramatic  poetry  spring  up 
as  the  organ  of  the  prevailing  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  time, 
we  are  naturally  led  to  ask,  how  it  comes  that  this  style  of  poetry 
agreed  so  well  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  so  far  outstripped 
its  competitors  in  the  contest  for  public  favor. 

Dramatic  poetry,  as  its  name  implies,  represents  actions,  which 
are  not  as  in  the  epos  merely  narrated,  but  seem  to  take  place 
before  the  eyes  of  the  spectator.  The  epic  poet  appears  to  regard 
the  events,  which  he  relates  from  afar,  as  objects  of  calm  con- 


94  GEEEK   LITEKATURE. 

templation  and  admiration,  and  is  always  conscious  of  tlie  great 
interval  between  him  and  them,  -while  tiie  dramatist  plunges  with 
his  entire  soul  into  the  scenes  of  human  life,  and  seems  himself 
to  experience  the  events  which  he  exhibits  to  our  view.  The 
drama  comprehends  and  develops  the  events  of  human  life  with 
a  force  and  depth,  which  no  otlier  style  of  poetry  can  reach. 

If  we  carry  ourselves  in  imagination  back  to  a  time  wlien 
dramatic  composition  was  unknown,  we  must  acknowledge  that 
its  creation  required  great  boldness  of  mind.  Hitherto  the  bard 
had  only  sung  of  gods  and  Iieroes  ;  it  was,  therefore,  a  great 
change  for  the  poet  himself  to  come  forward  all  at  once  in  the 
character  of  the  god  or  hero,  in  a  nation  which,  even  in  its 
amusements,  had  always  adhered  closely  to  established  usages. 
It  is  true  that  there  is  much  in  human  nature  which  impels  it  to 
dramatic  representations,  such  as  the  universal  love  of  imitating 
other  persons,  and  the  child-like  liveliness  with  wdiich  a  narrator, 
strongly  impressed  with  his  subject,  delivers  a  speech  vvdiich  he 
has  heard  or  perhaps  only  imagined.  Yet  there  is  a  wide  step 
from  these  disjointed  elements  to  the  genuine  drama,  and  it 
seems  that  no  nation,  except  the  Greeks,  ever  made  this  step. 
The  dramatic  poetry  of  the  Hindus  belongs  to  a  time  when  there 
had  been  much  intercourse  betw^een  Greece  and  India  :  even  in 
ancient  Greece  and  Italy,  dramatic  poetry,  and  especially 
tragedy,  attained  to  perfection  only  in  Athens,  and  here  it  was 
only  exhibited  at  a  fe^v  festivals  of  a  single  god,  Dionysus,  while 
epic  rhapsodies  and  lyric  odes  were  recited  on  various  occasions. 
All  this  is  incomprehensible,  if  ^ve  suppose  dramatic  poetry  to 
have  originated  in  causes  independent  of  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  time  and  place.  If  a  love  of  imitation  and  a  delight 
in  disguising  the  real  person  under  a  mask,  were  the  basis  upon 
which  this  style  of  poetry  was  raised,  the  drama  w'ould  have 
Ijeen  as  natural  and  as  universal  among  men,  as  these  qualities 
are  common  to  their  nature. 

A  more  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  Greek 
drama  may  be  found  in  its  connection  with  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  and  particularly  that  of  Bacchus.  The  gods  were 
supposed  to  dwx41  in  their  temples  and  to  participate  in  their 
festivals,  and  it  was  not  considered  presumptuous  or  unbecoming 
to  represent  them  as  acting  like  human  beings,  as  was  frequently 
done  by  mimic  representations.  The  worsliip  of  Bacchus  had 
one  quality,  which  was  more  than  any  other  calculated  to  give 
birth  to  the  drama,  and  particularly  to  tragedy,  namely,  the 
enthusiasm  which  formed  an  essential  part  of  it,  and  which 
proceeded    from   an    impassioned    sympathy   with   the    events 


GREEK   LITERATURE.  05 

of  nature  in  connection  with  the  course  of  the  seasons.  The 
original  participators  in  these  festivals  beheyecl  that  they  per- 
ceived the  god  to  be  really  affected  by  the  changes  of  nature, 
killed  or  dyhig,  flying  and  rescued,  or  reanimated,  victorious  and 
dortiinaut.  Although  the  great  changes,  which  took  place  in 
the  religion  and  cultivation  of  the  Greeks,  banished  from  their 
minds  the  conviction  that  these  events  really  occurred,  yet  an 
enthusiastic  sympathy  with  the  god  and  his  fortunes,  as  with 
real  events,  always  remained.  The  swarm  of  subordinate  beings 
by  whom  Bacchus  was  surrounded — satyrs,  nymphs,  and  a 
variety  of  beautiful  and  grotesque  forms — were  ever  present  to 
the  fancy  of  the  Greeks,  and  it  was  not  necessary  to  depart  very 
widely  from  the  ordinary  course  of  ideas,  to  imagine  them  visible 
to  human  eyes  among  the  solitary  woods  and  rocks.  The  custom, 
so  prevalent  at  the  festivals  of  Bacchus,  of  taking  the  disguise  of 
satyrs,  doubtless  originated  in  the  desire  to  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  presence  of  then-  divinity.  The  desire  of  escaping 
from  self  into  somethino:  new  and  strans-e,  of  livino:  in  an 
imaginary  world,  broke  forth  in  a  thousand  instances  in  those 
festivals.  It  was  seen  in  the  coloring  of  the  body,  the  wearing 
of  skins  and  masks  of  wood  or  bark,  and  in  the  complete  costume 
belonoing  to  the  character. 

The  learned  writers  of  antiquity  agree  in  stating  that  tragedy, 
as  well  as  comedy,  was  originally  a  choral  song.  The  action, 
the  adventure  of  the  gods,  was  presupposed  or  only  symbolically 
indicated;  the  chorus  expressed  then*  feelings  upon  it.  This 
choral  song  belonged  to  the  class  of  the  dithyramh,  an  enthusiastic 
ode  to  Bacchus,  capable  of  expressing  every  variety  of  feeling 
excited  by  the  worship  of  that  god.  It  was  first  sung  by 
revellers  at  convivial  meetings,  afterwards  it  was  regularly 
executed  by  a  chorus.  The  subject  of  these  tragic  choruses 
sometimes  changed  from  Bacchus  to  other  heroes  distinguished 
for  their  misfortunes  and  suffering.  The  reason  why  the 
dithyramb  and  afterwards  tragedy  was  transferred  from  that 
god  to  heroes  and  not  to  other  gods  of  the  Greek  Olympus,  was 
that  the  latter  were  elevated  above  the  chances  of  fortune  and 
the  alternations  of  joy  and  grief,  to  which  both  Bacchus  and  the 
heroes  were  subject. 

It  is  stated  by  Aristotle,  that  tragedy  originated  with  the 
chief  singers  of  the  dithyramb.  It  is  probable  that  they  repre- 
sented Bacchus  himself  or  his  messengers,  that  they  came  for- 
ward and  naiTated  his  perils  and  escapes,  and  that  the  chorus 
then  expressed  their  feeling,  as  at  passing  events.  The  chorus 
thus  naturally  assumed  the  character  of  satellites  of  Bacchus, 


96  GREEK   LITERATURE. 

whence  they  easily  fell  into  the  parts  of  satyrs,  who  were  his  com- 
panions in  sportive  adventures,  as  well  as  in  combats  and  misfor- 
tunes. The  name  of  tragedy,  ovgoafs  song,  was  derived  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  sinirers,  in  their  character  of  satvrs,  to  c'oats. 

Thus  far  tragedy  had  advanced  among  the  Dorians,  who, 
therefore,  considered  themselves  the  inventors  of  it.  All  its 
further  development  belongs  to  the  Athenians.  In  the  time  of 
Pisistratus,  Thespis  (506  b.c.)  first  caused  tragedy  to  become  a 
drama,  though  a  very  simple  one.  He  connected  with  the 
choral  representation  a  regular  dialogue,  by  joining  one  person 
to  the  chorus  who  was  the  first  actor.  He  introduced  linen 
masks,  and  thus  the  one  actor  might  appear  in  several  charac- 
ters. In  the  drama  of  Thespis  we  find  the  satyric  drama  con- 
founded with  tragedy,  and  the  persons  of  the  chorus  frequently 
representing  satyrs.  The  dances  of  the  chorus  were  still  a  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  performance ;  the  ancient  tragedians,  in  general, 
were  teachers  of  dancing,  as  well  as  poets  and  musicians. 

In  Phrynichus  (fl.  612  b.c.)  the  lyric  predominated  over  the 
dramatic  element.  Like  Thespis,  he  had  only  one  actor,  but  he 
used  this  actor  for  different  characters,  and  he  was  the  first  who 
brought  female  parts  upon  the  stage,  which,  according  to  the 
manners  of  the  ancients,  could  be  acted  only  by  men.  In  seve- 
ral instances  it  is  remarkable  that  Phrynichus  deviated  from 
mythical  subjects  to  those  taken  from  contemporary  history. 

3.  Tragedy. — The  tragedy  of  antiquity  was  entirely  different 
from  that  which,  in  progress  of  time,  arose  among  other  nations; 
a  picture  of  human  life,  agitated  by  the  passions,  and  corre- 
sponding as  accurately  as  possible  to  its  original  in  all  its  fea- 
tures. Ancient  tragedy  departs  entirely  from  ordinary  life;  its 
character  is  in  the  highest  degree  ideal,  and  its  development 
necessary,  and  essentially  directed  by  the  fate  to  which  gods 
and  men  were  subjected.  As  tragedy  and  dramatic  exhibitions, 
generally,  were  only  seen  at  the  festivals  of  Bacchus,  they  re- 
tained a  sort  of  Bacchic  coloring,  and  the  extraordinary  excite- 
ment of  all  minds  at  these  festivals,  by  raising  them  above  the 
tone  of  everv-dav  existence,  c-ave  l3oth  to  the  trao:ic  and  comic 
muse  unwonted  energy  and  fire. 

The  Bacchic  festal  costume,  which  the  actors  wore,  consisted 
of  long  striped  garments  reaching  to  the  ground,  over  which 
were  thrown  upper  garments  of  some  brilliant  color,  with  gay 
trimmings  and  gold  ornaments.  The  choruses  also  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  splendor  of  their  dress,  as  well  as  in  the  excel- 
lence of  their  sinu-ino*  and  dancin"*.     The  chorus,  which  alwavs 


GREEK  LITEEATUEE.  97 

bore  a  subordiuate  part  in  the  action  of  tlie  tragedy,  was  in  no 
respect  distinguished  from  the  stature  and  appearance  of  ordinary 
men,  while  the  actor,  who  represented  the  god  or  hero,  required  to 
be  raised  above  the  usual  dimensions  of  mortals.  A  tragic  actor 
was  a  strange,  and,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  ancients  them- 
selves at  a  later  period,  a  very  monstrous  being.  His  person 
was  lengthened  out  considerably  beyond  the  proportions  of  the 
human  figure  by  the  very  high  soles  of  the  tragic  shoe,  and  by 
the  length  of  the  tragic  mask,  and  the  chest,  body,  legs  and 
arms  were  stuffed  and  padded  to  a  corresponding  size;  the  body 
thus  lost  much  of  its  natural  flexibility,  and  the  gesticulation 
consisted  of  stiff,  angular  movements,  in  which  little  was  left  to 
the  emotion  or  the  inspiration  of  the  moment.  Masks,  which 
had  originated  in  the  taste  for  mumming  and  disguises  of  all 
sorts,  prevalent  at  the  Bacchic  festivals,  were  an  indispensable 
accompaniment  to  tragedy.  They  not  only  concealed  the  indi- 
vidual features  of  well-known  actors,  and  enabled  the  spectators 
entirely  to  forget  the  performer  in  his  part,  but  gave  to  his 
whole  aspect  that  ideal  character  which  the  tragedy  of  antiquity 
demanded.  The  tragic  mask  was  not  intentionally  ugly  and 
caricatured  like  the  comic,  but  the  half  open  mouth,  the  large 
eye-sockets,  and  sharply-defined  features,  in  which  every  charac- 
teristic was  presented  in  its  utmost  strength,  and  the  bright  and 
hard  coloring  were  calculated  to  make  the  impression  of  a  being 
agitated  by  the  emotions  and  passions  of  human  nature  in  a  de- 
gree far  above  the  standard  of  common  life.  The  masks  could, 
however,  be  changed  between  the  acts,  so  as  to  represent  the 
necessary  changes  in  the  state  or  emotions  of  the  persons. 

The  ancient  theatres  were  stone  buildings  of  enormous  size, 
calculated  to  accommodate  the  whole  free  and  adult  population 
of  a  great  city  at  the  spectacles  and  festal  games.  These  the- 
atres were  not  designed  exclusively  for  dramatic  poetry ;  choral 
dances,  processions,  and  revels,  all  sorts  of  representations  were 
held  in  them.  We  find  theatres  in  every  part  of  Greece,  though 
dramatic  poetry  was  the  peculiar  growth  of  Athens. 

The  whole  structure  of  the  theatre,  as  well  as  the  drama  itself, 
may  be  traced  to  the  chorus,  whose  station  was  the  original 
ceiisre  of  the  whole  performance.  The  orchestra,  which  occu- 
pied a  circular  level  space  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  grew 
out  of  the  chorus  or  dancing  place  of  the  Homeric  times.  The 
altar  of  Bacchus,  around  which  the  dithyrambic  chorus  danced 
in  a  circle,  had  given  rise  to  a  sort  of  raised  platform  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  orchestra,  which  served  as  a  resting-place  for  the 
chorus. 


98  GREEK    LITEIIATURE. 

The  chorus  sang  alouc  when  the  actors  had  quitted  the  stage, 
or  alternately  with  the  persons  of  the  drama,  and  sometimes  en- 
tered into  dialogues  with  them.  These  persons  represented 
heroes  of  the  mythical  world,  whose  whole  aspect  bespoke  some- 
thing mightier  and  more  subhme  than  ordinary  humanity,  and  it 
was  the  part  of  the  chorus  to  show  the  impression  made  by  the 
incidents  of  the  drama  on  lower  and  feebler  minds,  and  thus,  as 
it  were,  to  interpret  them  to  the  audience,  with  whom  they 
owned  a  more  kindred  nature.  The  ancient  stage  was  remark- 
ably long,  and  of  little  depth;  it  was  called  the  proscenium,  be- 
cause it  was  in  front  of  the  scene.  Scene  properly  means  tent  or 
hut,  such  as  originally  marked  the  dwelhng  of  the  principal  per- 
son. This  hut  at  length  gave  place  to  a  stately  scene,  enriched 
with  architectural  decorations,  yet  its  purpose  remained  the  same. 

We  have  seen  how  a  single  actor  was  added  to  the  cho- 
rus by  Thespis,  who  caused  him  to  represent  in  succession  all 
the  persons  of  the  drama.  iEschylus  added  a  second  actor  in 
order  to  obtain  the  contrast  of  two  acting  persons  on  the  stage; 
even  Sophocles  did  not  venture  beyond  the  introduction  of  a 
third.  I3ut  the  ancients  laid  more  stress  upon  the  precise  num- 
ber and  mutual  relations  of  these  actors,  than  can  here  be  ex- 
plained, 

4.  The  Tragic  Poets. — ^Eschylus  (525-477  B.C.),  like 
almost  all  the  great  masters  of  poetry  in  ancient  Greece,  was  a 
jioet  by  profession,  and  from  the  great  improvements  which  he 
introduced  into  tragedy,  he  was  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as 
its  founder.  Of  the  seventy  tragedies  which  he  is  said  to  have 
written,  only  seven  are  extant.  Of  these,  the  ''  Prometheus"  is 
beyond  all  question  his  greatest  work.  The  genius  of  ^schylus 
inclined  rather  to  the  awful  and  sublime,  than  to  the  tender  and 
pathetic.  He  excels  in  representing  the  superhuman,  in  depict- 
ing demigods  and  heroes,  and  in  tracing  the  irresistible  march  of 
fate.  The  depth  of  poetical  feeling  in  him  is  accompanied  with 
intense  and  philosophical  thought;  he  does  not  merely  represent 
individual  tragical  events,  but  he  recurs  to  the  greater  elements 
of  tragedy — the  subjection  of  the  gods  and  Titans,  and  the 
original  dignity  and  greatness  of  nature  and  of  man.  He  de- 
lights to  portray  this  gigantic  strength,  as  in  his  Prometheus 
chained  and  tortured,  but  invincible ;  and  these  representations 
have  a  moral  sublimity  far  above  mere  poetic  beauty.  His  tra- 
gedies were  at  once  political,  patriotic  and  religious. 

Sophocles  (495-40 G  e.g.),  as  a  poet,  is  universally  allowed  to 
have  brought  the  drama  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  of 


GREEK   LITER ATUKE.  99 

which  it  was  susceptible.  Indeed,  the  Greek  mind  may  be  said 
to  have  cuhniuated  in  him;  his  writings  Overflow  with  that  inde- 
scribable charm,  which  only  flashes  through  those  of  other  poets. 
Ilis  plots  are  worked  up  with  more  skill  and  care  than  those  of 
either  of  his  great  rivals,  J^schylus  or  Euripides,  and  he  added 
the  last  improvement  to  the  form  of  the  drama  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  third  actor — a  change  which  greatly  enlarged  the  scope 
of  the  action.  Of  the  manv  trao:edies  which  he  is  said  to  have 
Avritten,  only  seven  are  extant.  Of  these,  the  "  Oedipus  Tyran- 
nns  "  is  particularly  remarkable  for  its  skillful  development,  and 
for  the  manner  in  which  the  interest  of  the  piece  increases 
through  each  succeeding  act.  Of  all  the  poets  of  antiquity, 
Sophocles  has  penetrated  most  deeply  into  the  recesses  of  the 
human  heart.  His  tragedies  appear  to  us  as  pictures  of  the 
mind,  as  poetical  developments  of  the  secrets  of  our  souls,  and 
of  the  laws  to  which  their  nature  makes  them  amenable. 

In  Euripides  (480-407  B.C.),  we  discover  the  first  traces  of 
decline  in  the  Greek  tragedy.  He  diminished  its  dignity  by 
depriving  it  of  its  ideal  character,  and  by  bringing  it  down  to 
the  level  of  every-day  life.  All  the  characters  of  Euripides  have 
that  loquacity  and  dexterity  in  the  use  of  words  which  distin- 
guished the  Athenians  of  his  day;  yet  in  spite  of  all  these  faults 
he  has  many  beauties,  and  is  particularly  remarkable  for  pathos, 
so  that  Aristotle  calls  him  the  most  tragic  of  poets.  Eighteen 
of  his  trao'edies  are  still  extant. 

The  contemporaries  of  the  three  great  tragic  poets,  JEschylus, 
Sophocles  and  Euripides,  must  be  regarded  for  the  most  part  as 
far  from  insignificant,  since  they  maintained  their  place  on  the 
stage  beside  them,  and  not  unfrequently  gained  the  tragic  prize 
in  competition  with  them;  yet  the  general  character  of  these 
poets  must  have  been  deficient  in  that  depth  and  pecuhar  force 
of  genius,  by  which  these  great  tragedians  were  distinguished.  If 
this  had  not  been  the  case,  their  works  would  assuredly  have 
attracted  greater  attention,  and  would  have  been  read  more  fre- 
quently in  later  times. 

5.  Comedy. — Greek  comedy  was  distinguished  as  the  Old,  the 
Middle  and  the  Xew.  As  tragedy  arose  from  the  winter  feast 
of  Bacchus,  which  fostered  an  enthusiastic  sympathy  with  the 
apparent  sorrows  of  the  god  of  nature,  comedy  arose  from  the 
concluding  feast  of  the  vintage,  at  which  an  exulting  joy  over 
the  inexhaustible  riches  of  nature,  manifested  itself  in  wantonness 
of  every  kind.  In  such  a  feast,  the  Comus,  or  Bacchanalian 
procession,  was  a  principal  ingredient.     This  was  a  tumultuous 


100  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

mixture  of  the  wild  carouse,  the  noisy  song  and  the  drunken 
dance  ;  and  the  meaning  of  the  word  comedy  is  a  comus  song. 
It  was  from  this  lyric  comedy  that  the  dramatic  comedy  was 
gradually  produced.  It  received  its  full  development  from  Cra- 
tinus,  who  lived  in  the  age  of  Pericles.  Cratinus  and  his 
younger  contemporaries,  Eupolis  (431  e.g.)  and  Aristophanes 
(452-380  B.C.),  were  the  great  poets  of  the  old  Attic  comedy. 
Of  their  works,  only  eleven  dramas  of  Aristophanes  are  extant. 
The  chief  object  of  these  comedies  was  to  excite  laughter  by  the 
boldest  and  most  ludicrous  caricature,  and,  provided  that  end 
was  obtained,  the  poet  seems  to  have  cared  little  about  the  jus- 
tice of  the  picture.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  imagine  the  un- 
measured and  unsparing  license  of  attack  assumed  by  these  com- 
edies upon  the  gods,  the  institutions,  the  politicians,  philoso- 
phers, poets,  private  citizens  and  women  of  Athens.  With  this 
universal  liberty  of  subject  there  is  combined  a  poignancy  of  de- 
rision and  satire,  a  fecundity  of  imagination,  and  a  richness  of 
poetical  expression,  such  as  cannot  be  surpassed.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  career  of  Aristophanes,  however,  this  unrestricted 
license  of  the  comedy  began  gradually  to  disappear. 

The  Old  comedy  was  succeeded  by  the  Micldle  Attic  comedy, 
in  wdiich  the  satire  was  no  longer  du'ccted  against  the  influential 
men  or  rulers  of  the  people,  but  was  rich  in  ridicule  of  the  Pla- 
tonic Academy,  of  the  newly  revived  sect  of  the  Pythagoreans, 
and  of  the  orators,  rhetoricians  and  poets  of  the  day.  In  this  tran- 
sition from  the  Old  to  the  Middle  comedy,  we  may  discern  at 
once  the  great  revolution  that  had  taken  place  in  the  domestic 
history  of  Athens,  when  the  Athenians,  from  a  nation  of  politi- 
cians became  a  nation  of  literary  men  ;  when  it  was  no  longer 
the  opposition  of  political  ideas,  but  the  contest  of  opposing 
schools  of  philosophers  and  rhetoricians,  which  set  all  heads  in 
motion.     Tiie  poets  of  this  comedy  were  very  numerous. 

The  last  poets  of  the  Middle  comedy  were  contemporaries  of 
the  writers  of  the  New,  who  rose  up  as  their  rivals,  and  who 
were  only  distinguished  from  them  by  following  the  new  ten- 
dency more  decidedly  and  exclusively.  Menander  (342-293  n.c.) 
was  one  of  the  first  of  these  poets,  and  he  is  also  the  most  per- 
fect of  them.  The  Athens  of  his  day  differed  from  that  of  the 
time  of  Pericles,  in  the  same  way  as  an  old  man,  weak  in  body 
but  fond  of  life,  good-humored  and  self-indulgent,  differs  from 
the  vigorous,  middle-aged  man  at  the  summit  of  his  mental 
strength  and  bodily  energy.  Since  there  was  so  little  hi  politics 
to  interest  or  to  employ  the  mind,  the  Athenians  found  an  ob- 
ject in  the  occurrences  of  social  life  and  the  charm  of  dissolute 


GREEK   LITERATURE.  101 

enjoyment.  Dramatic  poetry  now,  for  tlie  first  time,  centred  in 
love,  as  it  lias  since  done  among  all  nations  to  whom  the  Greek 
cultivation  has  descended.  But  it  certainly  was  not  love  in 
those  nobler  forms  to  which  it  has  shace  elevated  itself.  Menan- 
der  painted  truly  the  degenerate  world  in  which  he  lived,  actu- 
ated by  no  mighty  impulses,  no  noble  aspirations.  He  was  con- 
temporary with  Epicurus,  and  their  characters  had  much  in  com- 
mon ;  both  were  deficient  in  the  inspiration  of  high  moral  ideas. 
The  comedy  of  Menander  and  his  contemporaries  completed 
what  Euripides  had  begun  on  the  tragic  stage  a  hundred  years 
before  then*  time.  They  deprived  then-  characters  of  that  ideal 
grandeur  which  had  been  most  conspicuous  in  the  creations  of 
^schylus  and  the  earlier  poets,  and  thus  tragedy  and  comedy, 
which  had  started  from  such  different  beginnings,  here  met  as  at 
the  same  point.  The  comedies  of  Menander  may  be  considered 
as  almost  the  conclusion  of  Attic  literature  ;  he  was  the  last 
original  poet  of  Athens;  those  who  arose  at  a  later  period  were 
but  gleaners  after  the  rich  harvest  of  Greek  poetry  had  been 
gathered. 

G,  Oratory,  Rhetoric  and  History. — ^We  may  distinguish 
three  epochs  in  the  history  of  Attic  prose  from  Pericles  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great  :  first,  that  of  Pericles  and  Thucydides; 
second,  that  of  Lysias,  Socrates  and  Plato  ;  and,  third,  that 
of  Demosthenes  and^schines.  Public  speaking  had  been  com- 
mon in  Greece  from  the  earliest  times,  but  as  the  works  of  Athe- 
nian orators  alone  have  come  down  to  us,  we  may  conclude  that 
oratory  was  cultivated  in  a  much  higher  degree  at  Athens  than 
elsewhere.  No  speech  of  Pericles  has  been  preserved  in  writ- 
ing; only  a  few  of  his  emphatic  and  nervous  expressions  were 
kept  in  remembrance;  but  a  general  impression  of  the  grandeur 
of  his  oratory  long  prevailed  among  the  Greeks,  from  which  we 
may  form  a  clear  conception  of  his  style.  The  sole  object  of  the 
oratory  of  Pericles  was  to  produce  conviction  ;  he  did  not  aim 
to  excite  any  sudden  or  transient  burst  of  passion  by  working  on 
the  emotions  of  the  heart  ;  nor  did  he  use  any  of  those  means 
employed  by  the  orators  of  a  later  age  to  set  in  motion  the  un- 
ruly impulses  of  the  multitude.  His  manner  was  tranquil,  with 
hardly  any  change  of  feature  ;  his  garments  were  undisturbed  by 
any  oratorical  gesticulations,  and  his  voice  was  equable  and  sus- 
tained. He  never  condescended  to  flatter  the  people,  and  his 
dignity  never  stooped  to  merriment.  Although  there  was  more 
of  reasoning  than  imagination  in  his  speeches,  he  gave  a  vivid 
and  impressive  coloring  to  his  language  by  the  use  of  striking 


102  GREEK    LITERATURE. 

metaphors  and  comparisons,  as  when,  at  the  funeral  of  a  number 
of  young  persons  who  had  fallen  in  battle,, he  used  the  beautiful 
figure,  that  "  the  year  had  lost  its  spring," 

The  cultivation  of  the  art  of  oratory  among  the  Athenians  was 
due  to  a  combination  of  the  natural  eloquence  displayed  by  the 
Athenian  statesmen,  and  especially  by  Pericles,  with  the  rhetori- 
cal studies  of  the  sophists,  who  exercised  a  greater  influence  on  the 
culture  of  the  Greek  mind  than  any  other  class  of  men,  the  poets 
excepted.  The  sophists,  as  their  name  indicates,  were  persons  w^ho 
made  knowledge  their  profession,  and  undertook  to. impart  it  to 
every  one  whowas  willing  to  place  himself  under  their  guidance; 
they  were  reproached  with  being  the  first  to  sell  knowledge  for 
money,  for  they  not  only  demanded  it  from  those  who  came  to 
hear  their  lectures,  but  they  undertook,  for  a  certain  sum,  to  give 
young  men  a  complete  sophistical  education.  Pupils  flocked  to 
them  in  crowds,  and  they  acquired  such  riches  as  neither  art  nor 
science  had  ever  before  earned  among  the  Greeks.  If  we  con- 
sider their  doctrines  philosophically,  they  amounted  to  a  denial 
or  renunciation  of  all  true  science.  They  were  able  to  speak 
w4th  equal  plausibility  for  and  against  the  same  position  ;  not  in 
order  to  discover  the  truth,  but  to  show  the  nothingness  of  truth. 
In  the  improvement  of  written  composition,  however,  a  high 
value  must  be  set  on  their  services.  They  made  language  the 
object  of  their  study  ;  they  aimed  at  correctness  and  beauty  of 
style,  and  they  laid  the  foundation  for  the  polished  diction  of 
Plato  and  Demosthenes.  They  taught  th.at  the  sole  aim  of  the 
orator  is  to  turn  the  minds  of  his  hearers  into  such  a  train  as  may 
best  suit  his  own  interest  ;  that,  consequently,  rhetoric  is  the 
agent  of  persuasion,  the  art  of  all  arts,  because  the  rhetorician 
is"  able  to  speak  well  and  convincingly  on  every  subject,  though 
he  may  have  no  accurate  knowledge  respecting  it. 

The  Peloponnesian  war,  which  terminated  in  the  downfall  of 
Athens,  was  succeeded  by  a  period  of  exhaustion  and  repose. 
The  fine  arts  were  checked  in  their  progress,  and  poetry  degene- 
rated into  empty  bombast.  Yet,  at  this  very  time,  prose 
literature  began  a  new  career,  which  led  to  its  fairest  develop- 
ment. 

Lysias  and  Isocrates  gave  an  entirely  new  form  to  oratory  by 
the  happy  alterations  which  they  in  diflerent  ways  introduced 
into  the  old  prose  style.  Lysias  (fl.  359  e.g.),  in  the  50th  year 
of  his  age,  began  to  follow  the  trade  of  writing  speeches  for 
such  private  individuals  as  could  not  trust  their  own  skill  hi 
addressing  a  court ;  for  this  object,  a  plain,  unartificial  style  was 
best  suited,  because  citizens  who  called  in  the  aid  of  the  speech* 


GREEK   LITERATUEE.  103 

writer  had  no  knowledge  of  rhetoric,  and  thus  Lysias  was 
obliged  to  originate  a  style,  which  became  more  and  more  con- 
firmed by  habit.  The  consequence  was,  that  for  his  contem- 
poraries and  for  all  ages,  he  stands  forth  as  the  first  and  in 
many  respects  the  perfect  pattern  of  a  plain  style.  The  narrative 
part  of  the  speech,  for  which  he  was  particularly  famous,  is 
always  natural,  interesting  and  lively,  and  often  relieved  by 
mimic  touches  which  give  it  a  wonderful  air  of  reality.  The 
proofs  and  confutations  are  distinguished  by  a  clearness  of 
reasoning  and  a  boldness  of  argument  which  leave  no  room  for 
doubt;  in  a  word,  the  speeches  are  just  what  they  ought  to  be 
in  order  to  obtain  a  favorable  decision,  an  object  in  which,  it 
seems,  he  often  succeeded.  Of  his  many  orations,  thirty-five 
have  come  down  to  us. 

Isocrates  (fl.  338  e.g.)  established  a  school  for  political 
oratory,  which  became  the  first  and  most  flourishing  in  Greece. 
His  orations  were  mostly  destined  for  this  school.  Though 
neither  a  great  statesman  nor  philosopher  in  himself,  Isocrates 
constitutes  an  epoch  as  a  rhetorician  or  artist  of  language.  His 
influence  extended  far  beyond  the  limits  of  his  own  school,  and 
without  his  reconstruction  of  the  style  of  Attic  oratory,  we 
could  have  had  no  Demosthenes  and  no  Cicero  ;  through  these, 
the  school  of  Isocrates  has  extended  its  influence  even  to  the 
oratory  of  our  own  day. 

The  verdict  of  his  contemporaries,  ratified  by  posterity,  has 
pronounced  Demosthenes  (380-322  e.g.)  the  greatest  orator  that 
has  ever  lived,  yet  he  had  no  natural  advantages  for  oratory. 
A  feeble  frame  and  a  weak  voice,  a  shy  and  awkward  manner, 
the  ungraceful  gesticulations  of  one  whose  limbs  had  never  been 
duly  exercised,  and  a  defective  articulation,  would  have  deterred 
most  men  from  even  attempting  to  address  an  Athenian  assem- 
bly; but  the  amliition  and  perseverance  of  Demosthenes  enabled 
him  to  triumph  over  every  disadvantage.  He  improved  his 
bodily  powers  by  running,  his  voice  by  speaking  aloud  as  he 
walked  up  hill,  or  declaimed  against  the  roar  of  the  sea  ;  he 
practised  graceful  delivery  before  a  looking-glass,  and  controlled 
his  unruly  articulation  by  speaking  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth. 
His  want  of  fluency  he  remedied  by  diligent  composition  and  by 
copying  and  committing  to  memory  the  works  of  the  best 
authors.  By  these  means,  he  came  forth  as  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  assembly,  and,  even  by  the  confession  of  his 
deadliest  enemies,  the  first  orator  of  Greece.  His  harangues 
to  the  people,  and  his  speeches  on  public  and  private  causes, 
which  have  been  preserved,  form  a  collection  of  sixty-one  orations. 


10-4  GREEK    LITEKATUEE. 

The  most  important  efforts  of  Demosthenes,  however,  were  the 
series  of  public  speeches  referring  to  PhiHp  of  Macedon,  and 
known  as  the  twelve  Philippics,  a  name  which  has  become  a 
general  designation  for  spirited  invectives.  The  main  charac- 
teristic of  his  eloquence  consisted  in  the  use  of  the  common 
language  of  his  age  and  country.  He  took  great  pains  in  the 
choice  and  arrangement  of  his  words,  and  aimed  at  the  utmost 
conciseness,  making  epithets,  even  common  adjectives,  do  the 
work  of  a  whole  sentence,  and  thus,  by  his  perfect  dehvery  and 
action,  a  sentence  composed  of  ordinary  terms  sometimes  smote 
with  the  weight  of  a  sledge-hammer.  In  his  orations,  there 
is  not  any  long  or  close  train  of  reasoning,  still  less  any  pro- 
found observations  or  remote  and  ingenious  allusions,  but  a  con- 
stant succession  of  remarks,  bearing  immediately  on  the  matter 
in  hand,  perfectly  plain,  and  as  readily  admitted  as  easily  under- 
stood. These  are  intermingled  with  the  most  striking  appeals 
either  to  feelings  which  all  were  conscious  of,  and  deeply  agitated 
by,  though  ashamed  to  own;  or  to  sentiments  which  every  man 
was  panting  to  utter  and  delighted  to  hear  thundered  forth, — 
bursts  of  oratory,  which  either  overwhelmed  or  relieved  the 
audience.  Such  characteristics  constituted  the  principal  glory 
of  the  great  orator. 

The  most  eminent  of  the  contemporaries  of  Demosthenes, 
were  Isa:us  (420-348  e.g.),  an  artificial  and  elaborate  orator; 
Lycurgus  (393-328  B.C.),  a  celebrated  civil  reformer  of 
Athens;  Hypereides,  contemporary  of  Lycurgus;  and,  above  all, 
^Eschines  (389-314  b.c),  the  great  rival  of  Demosthenes,  of 
whose  numerous  speeches  only  three  have  been  preserved. 
At  a  later  period,  we  find  two  schools  of  Rhetoric,  tlie  Attic, 
founded  by  ^Eschines,  and  the  Asiatic,  established  by  Hegesias 
of  Magnesia.  The  former  proposed  as  models  of  oratory  the 
great  Athenian  orators,  the  latter  depended  on  artificial  man- 
ners, and  produced  speeches  distinguished  rather  by  rhetorical 
ornaments  and  a  rapid  flow  of  diction,  than  by  weight  and  force 
of  style. 

In  the  historical  department,  Thucydides  (471-391  b.c.)  com- 
menced an  entirely  new  class  of  historical  writing.  While 
Herodotus  aimed  at  giving  a  vivid  picture  of  all  that  fell  under 
tlie  cognizance  of  the  senses,  and  endeavored  to  represent  a 
superior  power  ruling  over  the  destinies  of  princes  and  people, 
the  attention  of  Thucydides  was  directed  to  human  action, 
as  it  is  developed  from  the  character  and  situation  of  the 
individual.  Ilis  history,  from  its  unity  of  action,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  historical  drama,  the  snlyect  being  the  Athenian 


GREEK    LITEllATUEE.  105 

domiuation  over  Greece,  and  the  parties  the  belUgerent  repub- 
lics. Clearness  in  the  narrative,  harmony  and  consistency 
of  the  details  with  the  general  history,  are  the  characteristics 
of  his  work  ;  and  in  his  style,  he  combines  the  concise  and 
pregnant  oratory  of  Pericles  with  the  vigorous  but  artificial 
style  of  the  rhetoricians.  Demosthenes  was  so  diligent  a 
student  of  Thucydides,  that  he  copied  out  his  history  eight 
times. 

Xenophon  (445-391  e.g.)  may  also  be  classed  among  the 
great  historians,  his  name  being  most  favorably  known  from  the 
"  Anabasis,"  in  which  he  describes  the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand 
Greek  mercenaries  in  the  service  of  Cyrus,  the  Persian  king, 
among  whom  he  himself  played  a  prominent  part.  The  minute- 
ness of  detail,  the  picturesque  simplicity  of  the  style,  and  the  air 
of  reality  which  pervades  it,  have  made  it  a  favorite  with  every 
ao'e.  In  his  memorials  of  Socrates,  he  records  the  conversations 
of  a  man  whom  he  had  admired  and  listened  to,  but  whom  he 
did  not  understand.  In  the  language  of  Xenophon,  we  find  the 
first  approximation  to  the  common  dialect,  which  became  after- 
wards the  universal  language  of  Greece.  He  wrote  several 
other  works,  in  which,  however,  no  develoi3ment  of  one  great  and 
pervading  idea  can  be  found;  but  in  all  of  them  there  is  a 
•singular  clearness  and  beauty  of  description. 

7.  Socrates  and  the  Socratig  Schools. — Although  Socrates 
(4G8-399  B.C.)  left  no  writings  behind  him,  yet  the  intellect  of 
Greece  was  powerfully  aftected  by  the  principles  of  his  philoso- 
phy, and  the  greatest  literary  genius  that  ever  appeared  in 
Hellas  owed  most  of  his  mental  training  to  his  early  intercourse 
with  him.  It  was  by  means  of  conversation,  by  a  searching 
process  of  question  and  answer,  that  Socrates  endeavored  to 
lead  his  pupils  to  a  consciousness  of  their  own  ignorance,  and 
thus  to  awaken  in  their  minds  an  anxiety  to  obtain  more  exact 
views.  This  method  of  questioning  he  reduced  to  a  scientific  pro- 
cess, and  "dialectics"  became  a  name  for  the  art  of  reasoning 
and  the  science  of  logic.  The  subject-matter  of  this  method 
was  moral  science  considered  with  special  reference  to  politics. 
To  him  may  be  justly  attributed  induction  and  general  defini- 
tions, and  he  applied  this  practical  logic  to  a  common  sense 
estimate  of  the  duties  of  man  both  as  a  moral  being  and  as  a 
member  of  a  community,  and  thus  he  first  treated  moral  philo- 
sophy according  to  scientific  principles.  Xo  less  than  ten  schools 
of  philosophers  claimed  him  as  their  head,  though  the  majority 
of  them  imperfectly  represented  his  doctrines.     By  his  influence 

5* 


106  GREEK    LITERATURE. 

on  Plato,  and  through  him  on  Aristotle,  he  constituted  himself 
the  founder  of  the  philosophy  which  is  still  recognized  in  the 
civilized  world. 

From  the  doctrine  held  by  Socrates,  that  virtue  was  depend- 
ent on  knowledge,  Eucleides  of  Megara  (fl.  398  e.g.),  the  founder 
of  the  Megaric  school,  submitted  moral  philosophy  to  dialectical 
reasoning  and  logical  refinements;  and  from  the  ISocratic  princi- 
ple of  the  union  between  virtue  and  happiness,  Aristippus  of 
Oyrene  (fl.  396  e.g.)  deduced  the  doctrine,  which  became  the 
characteristic  of  the  Cyrenian  school,  affirming  that  pleasure 
was  the  ultimate  end  of  life  and  the  higher  good;  while  Antis- 
thenes  (fl.  396  e.g.)  constructed  the  Cynic  philosophy,  which 
placed  the  ideal  of  virtue  in  the  absence  of  every  need,  and 
hence  in  the  disregarding  of  every  interest,  wealth,  honor  and 
enjoyment,  and  in  the  independence  of  any  restraints  of  life  and 
society.  Diogenes  of  Sinope  (fl!  300  e.g.)  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent  followers  of  this  school.  He,  like  his  master,  Antis- 
thenes,  always  appeared  in  the  most  beggarly  clothing,  with  the 
staff  and  wallet  of  mendicancy  ;  and  this  ostentation  of  self- 
denial  drew  from  Socrates  the  exclamation,  that  he  saw  the 
vanity  of  Antisthenes  through  the  holes  in  his  garments. 

Plato  (429-348  e.g.)  was  the  only  one  of  the  disciples  of 
Socrates,  who  represented  the  whole  doctrines  of  his  teacher. 
We  owe  to  him  that  the  ideas  which  Socrates  awakened  have 
been  made  the  germ  of  one  of  the  grandest  systems  of  specula- 
tion that  the  world  has  ever  seen,  and  that  it  has  been  conveyed 
to  us  in  literary  compositions  which  are  unequalled  in  rehue- 
ment  of  conception,  or  in  vigor  and  gracefulness  of  style.  At 
the  age  of  nineteen  he  became  one  of  the  pupils  and  associates 
of  Socrates,  and  did  not  leave  him  until  that  martyr  of  intellec- 
tual freedom  drank  the  fatal  cup  of  hemlock.  He  afterwards 
travelled  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Egypt,  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  made 
himself  acquainted  with  all  contemporary  philosophy.  During 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  engaged  as  a  public  lecturer  on 
philosophy.  His  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Acadcmia,  and  they  have  left  proof  of  their  celebrity  in  the 
structure  of  language,  which  has  derived  from  them  a  term  now 
common  to  all  places  of  instruction.  Of  the  importance  of  the 
Socratic  and  Pythagorean  elements  in  Plato's  philosophy  there 
can  be  no  doubt;  but  he  transmuted  all  he  touched  into  his  own 
forms  of  thought  and  language,  and  there  was  no  branch  of 
speculative  literature  which  he  had  not  mastered.  By  adopting 
the  form  of  dialogue,  in  which  all  his  extant  works  have  come 
down  to  us,  he  was  enabled  to  criticise  the  various  systems  of 


GKEEK   LITERATURE.  107 

philosophy  then  current  in  Greece,  and  also  to  gratify  his  own 
dramatic  genius,  and  his  almost  unrivalled  power  of  keeping  up 
an  assumed  character.  The  works  of  Plato  have  been  divided 
into  three  classes:  first,  the  elementary  dialogues,  or  those 
which  contain  the  germs  of  all  that  follows,  of  logic  as  the  instru- 
ment of  philosophy,  and  of  ideas  as  its  proper  object;  second, 
'  ■roo:ressive  dialogues,   which  treat  of  the  distinction  between 

J.  O  O  / 

pi  ilosophical  and  common  knowledge,  in  their  united  application 
to  the  proposed  and  real  sciences,  ethics  and  physics;  third,  the 
constructive  dialogues,  in  which  the  practical  is  completely  united 
with  the  speculative,  with  an  appendix  containing  laws,  epis- 
tles, etc. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  Plato's  philosophy  is  the  belief 
in  an  eternal  and  self-existent  cause,  the  origin  of  all  things. 
From  this  divine  Being  emanate  not  only  the  souls  of  men, 
which  are  immortal,  but  that  of  the  universe  itself,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  animated  by  a  divine  spirit.     The  material  objects 
of  our  sight,  and  other  senses,  are  mere  fleeting  emanations  of 
the  divine  idea;  it  is  only  this  idea  itself  that  is  really  existent; 
the  objects  of  sensuous  perception  are  mere  appearances,  taking 
their  forms  by  participation  in  the  idea ;  hence  it  follows,  that  in 
Plato's  philosophy  all  knowledge  is  innate,  and  acquired  by  the 
soul  before  birth,  when  it  was  able  to  contemplate  real  exist- 
ences, and  all  our  ideas  of  this  world  are  mere  reminiscences  of 
their  true  and  eternal  patterns.     The  belief  of  Plato  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  naturally  led  him  to  establish  a  high 
standard  of  moral  excellence,  and,  like  his  great  teacher,  he  con- 
stantly inculcates  temperance,  justice  and  purity  of  life.     His 
political  views  are  developed  in  the   "Ilepublic"   and  in  the 
"  Laws,"  in  which  the  main  feature  of  his  system  is  the  subor- 
dination, or  rather  the  entire  sacrifice  of  the  individual  to  the 
State. 

The  style  of  Plato  is  in  every  way  worthy  of  his  position  in 
universal  literature,  and  modern  scholars  have  confirmed  the  en- 
comium of  Aristotle,  that  all  his  dialogues  exhibit  extraordinary 
acuteness,  elaborate  elegance,  bold  originality  and  curious  specu- 
lation. In  Plato,  the  powers  of  imagination  were  just  as  con- 
spicuous as  those  of  reasoning  and  reflection;  he  had  all  the  chief 
characteristics  of  a  poet,  especially  of  a  dramatic  poet,  and  if 
his  rank  as  a  philosopher  had  been  lower  than  it  is,  he  would 
still  have  ranked  high  among  dramatic  writers  for  his  life-like 
representations  of  the  personages  whose  opinions  he  wished  to 
combat  or  to  defend. 

Aristotle    (384-322    e.g.)   occupies   a   position   among  the 


108  GREEK    LITEllATUKE. 

leaders  of  human  thought  not  inferior  to  that  of  his  teacher, 
Plato,  He  was  a  native  of  Stag:3'ra,  in  Macedonia,  and  is 
hence  often  called  the  Stagyrite.  He  early  repaired  to  Athens, 
and  became  a  pupil  of  Plato,  who  called  him  the  soul  of  his 
school.  He  was  afterwards  invited  by  Philip  of  Macedon  to 
undertake  the  literary  education  of  Alexander,  at  that  time 
thirteen  years  old.  This  charge  continued  about  three  years. 
He  afterwards  returned  to  Athens,  where  he  opened  his  school 
in  a  gymnasium  called  the  Lyceum,  and  here  he  delivered  his 
lessons  walking  to  and  fro,  and  from  these  saunters  his  scholars 
were  called  Peripatetics,  or  saunterers.  During  this  period  he 
composed  most  of  his  extant  works.  Alexander  placed  at  his 
disposal  a  large  sum  for  his  collections  in  natural  history,  and 
employed  some  thousands  of  men  in  procuring  specimens  for  his 
museum.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  he  was  accused  of 
blasphemy  to  the  gods,  and  warned  by  the  fate  of  Socrates,  he 
withdrew  from  Athens  to  Chalcis,  where  he  afterwards  died. 

In  looking  at  the  mere  catalogue  of  the  works  of  Aristotle, 
we  are  struck  with  his  vast  range  of  knowledge.  He  aimed  at 
nothing  less  than  the  completion  of  a  general  encyclopaedia  of 
philosophy.  He  was  the  author  of  the  first  scientific  cultivation 
of  each  science,  and  there  was  hardly  any  quality  distinguishing 
a  philosopher  as  such,  which  he  did  not  possess  in  an  eminent 
degree.  Of  all  the  philosophical  systems  of  antiquity,  that  of 
Aristotle  was  the  best  adapted  to  the  physical  wants  of  man- 
kind. His  works  consisted  of  treatises  on  natural,  moral,  and 
political  philosophy,  history,  rhetoric,  criticism — indeed,  there 
was  scarcely  a  branch  of  knowledge  which  his  vast  and  compre- 
hensive genius  did  not  embrace.  His  greatest  claim  to  our  ad- 
miration is  as  a  logician.  He  perfected  and  brought  into  form 
those  elements  of  the  dialectic  art  which  had  been  struck  out  by 
Socrates  and  Plato,  and  wrought  them,  by  his  additions,  hito  so 
complete  a  system,  that  he  may  be  regarded  as,  at  once,  the 
founder  and  perfecter  of  logic  as  an  art,  which  has  since,  even 
down  to  our  own  days,  been  but  very  little  improved.  The  style 
of  Aristotle  has  nothing  to  attract  those  who  prefer  the  embel- 
lishments of  a  work  to  its  subject-matter  and  the  scientific  re* 
suits  which  it  presents. 


GKEEK   LITEKATUEE.  109 


PERIOD   THIRD. 

The  epoch  of  the  Decline  of  Greek  Literature, 

322  B.C.-1453  A.D. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Alexandrian  Literature. — As  the  literary 
predominance  of  Athens  was  clue  mainly  to  the  political  impor- 
tance of  Attica,  the  downfall  of  Athenian  independence  brought 
with  it  a  deterioration,  and  ultimately  an  extinction  of  that  in- 
tellectual centralization,  which  for  more  than  a  century  had  fos- 
tered and  developed  the  highest  efforts  of  the  genius  and  culture 
of  the  Greeks.  While  the  living  literature  of  Greece  was  thus 
dying  away,  the  conquests  of  Alexander  prepared  a  new  home 
for  the  muses  on  the  coast  of  that  wonderful  country,  to  which 
all  the  nations  of  antiquity  had  owed  a  part  of  their  science  and 
religious  belief.  In  Egypt,  as  in  other  regions,  Alexander  gave 
directions  for  the  foundation  of  a  city  to  be  called  after  his  own 
name,  which  became  the  magnificent  metropolis  of  the  Hellenic 
world.  This  capital  was  the  residence  of  a  family  who  attracted 
to  their  court  all  the  living  representatives  of  the  literature  of 
Greece,  and  stored  up  in  their  enormous  library  all  the  best 
works  of  the  classical  period.  It  was  chiefly  during  the  reign 
of  the  first  three  Ptolemies  that  Alexandria  was  made  the  new 
home  of  Greek  literature.  Ptolemy  Soter  (306-285  e.g.)  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  hbrarv,  and  instituted  the  Museum,  or 
temple  of  the  muses,  where  the  literary  men  of  the  age  were 
maintained  by  endowments.  This  encouragement  of  hterature 
was  continued  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (2 85-24 1  e.g.).  He 
had  the  celebrated  Callimachus  for  his  librarian,  who  bought  up 
not  only  the  whole  of  Aristotle's  great  collection  of  works,  but 
transferred  the  native  annals  of  Egypt  and  Judea  to  the  domain 
of  Greek  literature  by  employing  the  priest  Manetho  to  trans- 
late the  hieroglyphics  of  his  own  temple-archives  into  the  lan- 
guage of  the  court,  and  by  procuring  from  the  Sanhedrim  of 
Jerusalem  the  first  part  of  that  celebrated  version  of  the  Hebrew 
sacred  books,  which  was  afterwards  completed  and  known  as  the 
Septuagint,  or  version  of  the  Seventy.  Ptolemy  Euergetes 
(247-222  E.G.)  increased  the  library  by  depriving  the  Athenians 
of  their  authentic  editions  of  the  great  dramatists.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  hbrary  founded  at  Pergamus  was  transferred 
to  Egypt,  and  thus  we  are  indebted  to  the  Ptolemies  for  pre- 
serving to  our  times  all  the  best  specimens  of  Greek  literature, 


110  GREEK   LITERATUHE. 

which  liave  come  down  to  us.  This  encouragement  of  letters, 
however,  called  forth  no  great  original  genius;  but  a  few  eminelit 
men  of  science,  many  second-rate  and  artilicial  poets,  and  a  host 
of  grammarians  and  literary  pedants. 

2.  The  Alexaxdriax  Poets. — Among  the  poets  of  the  period, 
Philetas,  Callimachus,  Lycophron,  Apollonius  and  the  writers 
of  idyls,  Theocritus,  Bion  and  Moschus  are  the  most  eminent. 
The  founder  of  a  school  of  poetry  at  Alexandria,  and  the  model 
for  imitation  with  the  Roman  writers  of  elegiac  poetry,  was  Phi- 
letas of  Cos  (fl.  260  B.C.),  whose  extreme  emaciation  of  person  ex- 
posed him  to  the  imputation  of  wearing  lead  in  the  soles  of  his 
shoes,  lest  he  should  be  blown  away.  He  was  chiefly  celebrated 
as  an  elegiac  poet,  in  whom  ingenious,  elegant,  and  harmonious 
versification  took  the  place  of  higher  poetry.  Calhmachus 
(fl.  2G0  B.C.)  was  the  type  of  an  Alexandrian  man  of  letters, 
distinguished  by  skill  rather  than  genius,  the  most  finished  speci- 
men of  what  might  be  effected  by  talent,  learning,  and  ambition, 
backed  by  the  patronage  of  a  court.  He  was  a  living  repre- 
sentative of  the  great  library  over  which  he  presided;  he  was  not 
only  a  writer  of  all  kinds  of  poetry,  but  a  critic,  grammarian, 
historian  and  geographer.  Of  his  writings,  a  few  poems  only 
are  extant.  jSext  to  Callimachus,  as  a  representative  of  the 
learned  poetry  of  Alexandria,  stands  the  dramatist  Lycophron 
(fl.  250  B.C.).  All  his  works  are  lost,  with  the  exception  of  the 
oracular  poem  called  the  **  Alexandra,"  or  "  Cassandra,"  on  the 
merits  of  which  very  opposite  opinions  are  entertained.  Apol- 
lonius, known  as  the  llhodian  (fl.  240  b.c),  was  a  native  of 
Alexandria,  and  a  pupil  of  Callimachus,  through  whose  influence 
he  was  driven  from  his  native  city,  when  he  established  himself 
in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  he  w^as  so  honored  and  distin- 
guished that  he  took  the  name  of  the  Rhodian.  On  the  death 
of  Callimachus,  he  was  appohited  to  succeed  him  as  librarian  at 
Alexandria.  His  reputation  depends  on  his  epic  poem,  the 
"  Argonautic  Expedition." 

Of  all  the  writers  of  the  Alexandrian  period,  the  bucolic  poets 
have  enjoyed  the  most  popularity.  Their  pastoral  poems  were 
called  Idyls,  from  their  pictorial  and  descriptive  character,  that 
is,  little  pictures  of  common  life,  a  name  for  which  the  later 
writers  have  sometimes  substituted  the  term  Eclogues,  i.  e.,  selec- 
tions, which  is  applicable  to  any  short  poem,  whether  com[)kte 
and  original,  or  appearing  as  an  extract.  The  name  of  Idyls, 
however,  was  afterwards  applicable  to  pastoral  poems.  Theo- 
critus (fl.  272  B.C.)  gives  his  name  to  the  most  important  of  these 


GIIEEK    LITEKATURE.  Ill 

extant  bucolics.  He  had  an  original  genius  for  poetry  of  the 
highest  kind;  the  absence  of  the  usual  affectation  of  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  constant  appeals  to  nature,  a  line  perception 
of  character,  and  a  keen  sense  of  both  the  beautiful  and  the 
ludicrous,  indicate  the  high  order  of  his  literary  talent,  and 
account  for  his  universal  and  undiminished  popularity.  The  two 
other  bucolic  poets  of  the  Alexandrian  school  were  Bion 
(fi.  275  B.C.),  born  near  Smyrna,  and  his  pupil  Moschus  of 
Syracuse  (fl.  273  e.g.).  It  appears,  from  an  elegy  by  Moschus, 
that  Bion  mis:rated  from  Asia  Minor  to  Sicily,  where  he  was 
poisoned.  He  wrote  harmonious  verses  with  a  good  deal  of 
pathos  and  tenderness,  but  he  is  as  inferior  to  Theocritus  as  he 
is  superior  to  Moschus,  whose  artificial  style  characterizes  him 
rather  as  a  learned  versifier  than  a  true  poet. 

3.  Pkose  Writers  of  Alexandria. — Many  of  the  most  emi- 
nent poets  were  also  prose  writers,  and  they  exhibited  their  ver- 
satility by  writing  on  almost  every  subject  of  literary  interest. 
The  progress  of  prose  writing  manifested  itself  from  grammar 
and  criticism  to  the  more  elaborate  and  learned  treatment  of 
history  and  chronology,  and  to  observations  and  speculations  in 
pure  and  mixed  mathematics.  Demetrius  the  Phalerian  (fl.  295 
B.C.),  Zenodotus  (fl.  279  b.c),  Aristophanes  (fl.  200  b.c),  and 
Aristarchus  (fl.  156  b.c),  the  three  last  of  whom  were  succes- 
sively intrusted  with  the  management  of  the  Library,  were  the 
representatives  of  the  Alexandrian  school  of  grammar  and  criti- 
cism. They  devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  the  revision  of  the 
text  of  Homer,  which  was  Anally  established  by  Aristarchus. 

In  the  historical  department,  may  be  mentioned  Ptolemy 
Soter,  who  wrote  the  history  of  the  wars  of  Alexander 
the  Great;  ApoUodorus  (fl.  200  b.c),  whose  "  Bibliotheca"  con- 
tains a  general  sketch  of  the  mystic  legends  of  the  Greeks  ; 
Eratosthenes  (fl.  235  b.c),  the  founder  of  scientific  chronology 
in  Greek  history  ;  Manetho  (fl.  280  b.c),  who  introduced  the 
Greeks  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Egyptian  religion  and  annals;  and 
Berosus  of  Babylon,  his  contemporary,  whose  work,  fragments 
of  which  were  preserved  by  Josephus,  was  known  as  the  "  Baby- 
lonian Annals."  While  the  Greeks  of  Alexandria  thus  gained 
a  knowledge  of  the  religious  books  of  the  nations  concpiered  by 
Alexander,  the  same  curiosity,  combined  with  the  necessities  of 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  gave  birth  to  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Greek,  known  under  the  name  of  Septuagint,  which 
has  exercised  a  more  lasting  influence  on  the  civilized  world  than 
that  of  any  book  that  has  ever  appeared  in  a  new  tongue.     The 


112  GREEK    LITERATURE. 

beginning  of  tliat  translation  was  probably  made  in  the  reigns 
of  the  first  Ptolemies  (320-249  b.c),  while  the  remainder  was 
completed  at  a  later  period. 

The  ^vonderful  advance,  which  took  place  in  pure  and  applied 
mathematics,  is  chiefly  due  to  the  learned  men  who  settled  in 
Alexandria  ;  the  greatest  mathematicians  and  the  most  eminent 
founders  of  scientific  geography  were  all  either  immediately  or 
indirectly  connected  with  the  school  of  Alexandria.  Euclid  (fl.  300 
B.C.)  founded  a  famous  school  of  geometry  in  that  city,  in  the 
reign  of  the  first  Ptolemy.  Almost  the  only  incident  of  his  hfe, 
which  is  knov»'n  to  us,  is  a  conversation  between  him  and  that 
king,  who  having  asked  if  there  was  no  easier  method  of  learning 
the  science,  Euclid  is  said  to  have  rephed,  that  "  there  was  no 
royal  path  to  geometry."  His  most  famous  work  is  his  "  Ele- 
ments of  Pure  Mathematics,"  at  the  present  time  a  manual  of  in- 
struction and  the  foundation  of  all  geometrical  treatises.  Archi- 
medes (287-212  B.C.)  was  a  native  of  Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  but  he 
travelled  to  Egypt  at  an  early  age,  and  studied  mathematics 
there  in  the  school  of  Euclid.  He  not  only  distinguished  himself 
as  a  pure  mathematician  and  astronomer,  and  as  the  founder  of 
the  theory  of  statics,  but  he  discovered  the  law  of  specific  gravity, 
and  constructed  some  of  the  most  useful  machines  in  the  mechanic 
arts,  such  as  the  pulley  and  the  hydraulic  screw.  His  works  are 
written  in  the  Doric  dialect.  Apollonius  of  Perga  (221-204  b.c.) 
distinguished  himself  in  the  mathematical  department  by  his 
work  on  "  Conic  Elements."  Eratosthenes  was  not  only  promi- 
nent in  the  science  of  chronology,  but  was  also  the  founder  of 
astronomical  geography,  and  the  author  of  many  valuable  works 
in  various  branches  of  philosophy.  Hipparchus  (fl.  150  b.c)  is 
considered  the  founder  of  the  science  of  exact  astronomy,  from 
his  great  work,  the  "  Catalogue  of  the  Fixed  Stars,"  his  disco- 
very of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  many  other  valuable 
astronomical  observations  and  calculations. 

4.  Alexandrian  Philosophy. — Athens,  which  had  been  the 
centre  of  Greek  literature  during  the  second  or  classical  period 
of  its  development,  had  now,  in  all  respects  but  one,  resigned  the 
intellectual  leadership  to  the  city  of  the  Ptolemies.  While 
Alexandria  was  producing  a  series  of  learned  poets,  scholars, 
and  discoverers  in  science,  Athenian  literature  was  mainly  repre- 
sented ])y  the  establishment  of  certain  forms  of  mental  and  moral 
philosophy  founded  on  the  various  Socratic  schools.  Two 
schools  of  philosophy  were  established  at  Athens  at  the  time  of 
the  death  of  Aristotle  :  that  of  the  Academy,  in  which  he  him- 


GREEK   LITEKATURE.  113 

self  had  studied,  and  that  of  the  Lyceum,  which  he  had  founded, 
as  the  seat  of  his  peripatetic  system.  But  the  older  schools  soon 
reappeared  under  new  names  :  the  Megarics,  with  an  infusion 
of  the  doctrines  of  Democritus,  revived  in  the  skeptic  philosophy 
of  Pyrrhon  (375-285  e.g.).  Epicurus  (342-370  e.g.)  founded 
the  school  to  which  he  gave  his  name,  by  a  similar  combination 
of  Democritean  philosophy  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Cyrenaics; 
the  Cynics  were  developed  into  Stoics  by  Zeno  (341-260  e.g.),  who 
borrowed  much  from  the  Megaric  school  and  from  the  old  Aca- 
demy; audfinalk,  the  Middle  and  New  Academy  arose  from  a  com- 
bination of  doctrines,  which  were  peculiar  to  many  of  these  sects. 
Though  these  different  schools,  which  flourished  at  Athens, 
had  early  representatives  in  Alexandria,  their  different  doctrines, 
coming  in  contact  with  the  ancient  religious  systems  of  the  Persi- 
ans, Jews  and  Hindus,  underwent  essential  modifications,  and  gave 
birth  to  a  kind  of  eclecticism,  which  became  later  an  important 
element  in  the  development  of  Christian  history.  The  rational- 
ism of  the  Platonic  school  and  the  supernaturalism  of  the  Jew- 
ish scriptures  were  chiefly  mingled  together,  and  from  this  amal- 
gamation sprang  the  system  of  Neo-Platonism.  When  the 
early  teachers  of  Christianity  at  Alexandria  strove  to  show  the 
harmony  of  the  Gospel  with  the  great  principles  of  the  Greco- 
Jewish  philosophy,  it  underwent  new  modifications,  and  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school,  which  sprang  up  in  Alexandria  three  centuries  e.g., 
was  completed  in  the  1st  and  2d  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  common  characteristic  of  the  Neo-Platonists  was  a  tendency 
to  mvsticism.  Some  of  them  believed  that  tlicv  were  the  sub- 
jects  of  divine  inspiration  and  illumination  ;  aljle  to  look  into  the 
future  and  to  work  miracles.  Philo-Judseus  (fl.  20  e.g.),  Numen- 
ius  (fl.  150  A.D.),  Ammonius  Saccas  (fl.  200  a.d.),  Plotinus 
(fl.  260  A.D.),  Porphp-y  (fl.  200  a.d,),  and  several  fathers  of  the 
Greek  Church  are  among  the  principal  disciples  of  this  school. 

5.  Axti-Xeo-Platonic  Tendencies. — While  theXeo-Platonism 
of  Alexandria  introduced  into  Greek  philosophy  oriental  ideas  and 
tendencies,  other  positive  and  practical  doctrines  also  prevailed, 
founded  on  common  sense  and  conscience  ;  first  among  these 
were  the  tenets  of  the  Stoics,  who  owed  their  system  mainly  and 
immediately  to  the  teaching  of  Epictetus  (fl.  60  a.d.),  who  op- 
posed the  oriental  enthusiasm  of  the  Xeo-Platonists.  He  v,'as 
originally  a  slave,  and  became  a  prominent  teacher  of  philosophy 
in  Rome,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  He  left  nothing  in  writ- 
ing, and  we  are  indebted  for  a  knowledge  of  his  doctrines  to 
Arrian,  who  compiled  his  lectures  or  philosophical  dissertations 


114  GREEK    LITER ATLTRE. 

in  eight  books,  of  wliicli  only  fonr  are  preserved,  and  the 
"  Manual  of  Epictetus,"  a  valuable  compendium  of  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Stoics.  The  Euiperor  Marcus  Aurelius  not  only 
lectured  at  Rome  on  the  principles  of  Epictetus,  but  he  left  us 
his  private  meditations,  composed  in  the  midst  of  a  camp,  and 
exhibiting  the  serenity  of  a  mind  which  had  made  itself  indepen- 
dent of  outward  actions  and  warring  passions  within.  Lucian 
(fl.  150  A.D.)  may  be  compared  to  Yoltaire,  whom  he  equalled 
in  his  powers  both  of  rhetoric  and  ridicule,  and  surpassed  in  his 
more  conscientious  and  courageous  love  of  truth.  Though  the 
results  of  his  efforts  against  heathenism  v^ere  merely  negative, 
he  prepared  the  way  for  Christianity  by  giving  the  death-blow 
to  declining  idolatry.  Lucian,  as  a  man  of  letters,  is  on  many 
accounts  interestino-,  and  in  reference  to  his  own  ati'e  and  to 
the  literature  of  Grreece  he  is  entitled  to  an  important  posi- 
tion both  with  regard  to  the  religious  and  philosophical  results 
of  his  works,  and  to  tlie  introduction  of  a  purer  Greek  style, 
which  he  taught  and  exemplified.  Longinus  (fl.  230  a.d.),  both 
as  an  opponent  of  Neo-Platonism  and  as  a  sound  and  sensible 
critic,  occupies  a  position  similar  to  that  of  Lucian,  in  the  de- 
clining period  of  Greek  literary  history.  During  a  visit  to  the 
East,  he  became  known  to  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  who 
adopted  the  celebrated  scholar  as  her  instructor  in  the  language 
and  literature  of  Greece,  her  adviser  and  chief  minister  ;  and 
when  Palmyra  fell  before  the  Roman  power  he  was  put  to  death  by 
the  Roman  emperor.  To  his  treatise  on  ''  The  Sublime"  he  is 
chiefly  indebted  for  his  fame.  When  France,  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIY.,  gave  a  tone  to  the  literary  judgments  of  Europe,  this 
work  was "  translated  by  Boileau,  and  received  by  the  wits  of 
Paris  as  an  established  manual  in  all  that  related  to  the  sublime 
and  beautiful. 

6.  Greek  Literature  ix  Rome. — After  the  subjugation*  of 
Greece  by  the  Romans,  Greek  authors  wrote  in  their  own  lan- 
guage and  published  their  works  in  Rome  ;  illustrious  Romans 
chose  the  idiom  of  Plato  as  the  best  medium  for  the  expression  of 
their  own  thoughts;  dramatic  poets  gained  a  reputation  by  imitat- 
ing the  tragedies  and  comedies  of  Athens,  and  every  versifier  felt 
compelled  by  fashion  to  receive  the  metres  of  ancient  Greece. 
This  naturalization  of  Greek  Kterature  at  Rome  was  due  to  the 
rudeness  and  poverty  of  the  national  literature  of  Italy,  to  the 
influence  exerted  by  the  Greek  colonies,  and  to  the  political  subju- 
gation of  Greece.  In  Rome,  Greek  libraries  were  established  by 
the  emperor  Augustus  and  his  successors ;  and  the  knowledge  of  the 


GREEK    LITEKATURE.  115 

Greek  language  was  considered  a  necessary  accomplishment. 
Cicero  made  his  countrymen  acquainted  with  the  philosophical 
schools  of  Athens,  and  Rome  became  more  and  more  the  rival  of 
Alexandria,  both  as  a  receptacle  for  the  best  Greek  writings 
and  as  a  seat  of  learning,  where  Greek  authors  found  apprecia- 
tion and  patronage.  The  Greek  poets,  who  were  fostered  and 
encouraged  at  Rome,  were  chielly  writers  of  epigrams,  and  their 
poems  are  preserved  in  the  coUectiojis  called  Anthologies.  The 
growing  demand  and  forensic  eloquence  naturally  led  the  Roman 
orators  to  find  their  examples  in  those  of  Athens,  and  to  the 
study  of  rhetoric  in  the  Grecian  writers. 

Among  the  writers  on  rhetoric,  whose  works  seem  to  have 
produced  the  greatest  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the  Roman 
period,  we  mention  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (fl.  *I  B.C.).  As 
a  critic,  he  occupies  the  first  rank  among  the  ancients.  Besides 
his  rhetorical  treatises,  he  wrote  a  work  on  "  Roman  Archaeo- 
logy," the  object  of  which  was  to  show  that  the  Romans  were 
not,  after  all,  barbarians,  as  was  generally  supposed,  but  a 
pure  Greek  race,  vrhose  institutions,  rehgion  and  manners  were 
traceable  to  an  identity  with  those  of  the  noblest  Hellenes. 

What  Dionysius  endeavored  to  do  for  the  gratification  of  his 
own  countrymen,  by  giving  them  a  Greek  version  of  Roman 
history,  an  accomplished  Jev/,  who  lived  about  a  century  later, 
attempted,  from  the  opposite  point  of  view,  for  his  own  fallen 
race,  in  a  work  which  was  a  direct  imitation  of  that  just 
described.  Flavius  Josephus  (fl.  GO  a.d.)  wrote  the  "  Jewish 
ArchiBology  "  in  order  to  show  the  Roman  conquerors  of  Jeru- 
salem that  the  Jews  did  not  deserve  the  contempt  with  which 
they  were  universally  regarded.  His  ''  History  of  the  Jewish 
Wars  "  is  an  able  and  valuable  vrork. 

At  an  earlier  period,  Polybius  (204-122  b.c.)  wrote  to 
explain  to  the  Greeks  how  the  povrer  of  the  Romans  had  estab- 
lished itself  in  Greece.  His  great  work  was  a  universal  history, 
"but  of  the  forty  books  of  which  it  consisted  only  five  have 
been  preserved  ;  perhaps  no  historical  work  has  ever  been  writ- 
ten with  such  definiteness  of  purpose  or  unity  of  plan,  or  with 
such  self-consciousness  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  The  object  to 
which  he  directs  attention  is  the  manner  in  which  fortune  or 
providence  uses  the  ability  and  energy  of  man  as  instruments  in 
carrying  out  what  is  predetermined,  and  specially  the  exempli- 
fication of  these  principles  in  the  wonderful  growth  of  the  Roman 
power  during  the  fifty-three  years  of  which  he  treats.  Taking 
his  history  as  a  whole,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  in  too  high 
terms  of  it,  though  the  style  has  many  blemishes,  such  as  endless 


116  GKEEK    LITEKATURE. 

digressions,  wearisome  repetition  of  his  own  principles  and  collo- 
qnial  vulgarisms. 

Diodorus,  a  native  of  Sicily,  generally  known  as  the  Sicilian, 
(Siculus),  flourished  in  the  time  of  the  lirst  two  Ca3sars.  In  his 
great  work,  the  "Historical  Library,"  it  was  his  object  to  write 
a  history  of  the  world  down  to  the  commencement  of  Caesar's 
Gallic  wars.  He  is  content  to  give  a  bare  recital  of  the  facts, 
which  crowded  upon  him  and  left  him  no  time  to  be  diffuse  or 
ornamental. 

The  geography  of  Strabo  (II.  10  a.d.),  which  has  made  his 
name  familiar  to  modern  scholars,  has  come  down  to  ns  very 
nearly  complete.  Its  merits  arc  literary  rather  than  scientific. 
His  object  was  to  give  an  instructive  and  readable  account  of 
the  known  world,  from  the  point  of  view  taken  by  a  Greek 
man  of  letters.  His  style  is  simple,  unadorned  and  unaf- 
fected. 

Plutarch  (40-120  a.d.)  may  be  classed  among  the  philo- 
sophers as  well  as  among  the  historians.  Though  he  has  left 
many  essays  and  works  on  different  subjects,  he  is  best  known 
as  a  biographer.  His  lives  of  celel)rated  Greeks  and  Romans 
have  made  his  name  familiar  to  the  readers  of  every  country. 
The  miiversal  popularity  of  his  biographies  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  dramatic  pictures,  in  which  each  personage  is 
represented  as  acting  according  to  his  leading  characteristics. 

Pausanias  (fl.  184  a.d.),  a  professed  dcscriber  of  countries  and 
of  their  antiquities  and  works  of  art,  in  his  "  Gazetteer  of 
Hellas  "  has  left  the  best  repertory  of  information  for  the  topo- 
graphy, local  history,  religious  observances,  architecture  and 
sculpture  of  the  different  states  of  Greece. 

Among  the  scientific  men  of  this  period  we  find  Ptolemy, 
whose  name  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  was  coextensive  with 
the  sciences  of  astronomy  and  geography.  He  was  a  native  of 
Alexandria,  and  flourished  about  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century.  The  best  known  of  his  works  is  his  "  Great  Construc- 
tion of  Astronomy."  He  was  the  first  to  indicate  the  true  shape 
of  Spain,  Gaul  and  Ireland;  as  a  writer,  he  deserves  to  be  held 
in  high  estimation.  Galen  (fl.  130  a.d.)  was  a  writer  on  philosophy 
and  medicine,  with  whom  few  could  vie  in  productiveness.  It 
was  his  object  to  combine  philosophy  with  medical  science,  and 
his  works  for  fifteen  centuries  were  received  as  oracular  authori- 
ties throughout  the  civilized  world. 

7.  ContinuedDecline  of  Greek  Literature. — The  adoption  of 
the  Christian  religion  by  Constantine,  and  his  establishment  of  the 


GREEK   LITEEATURE.  117 

seat  of  government  in  his  new  citj  of  Constantinople  concurred 
in  causing  the  rapid  decline  of  Greek  literature  in  the  fourth 
and  following  centuries.  Christianity,  no  longer  the  object 
of  persecution,  became  the  dominant  reUgion  of  the  State,  and 
the  profession  of  its  tenets  was  tlie  shortest  road  to  influence 
and  honor.  The  old  literature,  with  its  mythological  allusions, 
became  less  and  less  fashionable,  and  the  Greek  poets,  philoso- 
phers and  orators  of  the  better  periods  gradually  lost  their  attrac- 
tions. Greek,  the  official  language  of  Constantinople,  was  spoken 
there,  with  difierent  degrees  of  corruption,  by  Syrians,  Bulga- 
rians and  Goths,  and  thus,  as  Christianity  undermined  the  old 
classical  hteratui'e,  the  political  condition  of  the  capital  deterio- 
rated the  language  itself.  Other  causes  accelerated  the  deca- 
dence of  Greek  learning  :  the  great  Ubrary  at  Alexandria,  and 
the  school  which  had  been  estabUshed  in  connection  with  it, 
were  destroyed  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  by  the  edict  of 
Theodosius,  and  the  conquest  of  Egyjot  by  the  Saracens  in  the 
seventh  century  only  completed  the  work  of  destruction. 
Justinian  closed  the  schools  of  Athens,  and  prohibited  the  teach- 
ing of  philosophy  ;  the  Arabs  overthrew  those  established  else- 
where, and  there  remained  only  the  institutions  of  Constanti- 
nople. But  long  before  the  estabUshment  of  the  Turks  on  the 
ruins  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  Greek  literatui'e  had  ceased  to 
claim  any  original  or  independent  existence.  The  opposition 
between  the  literary  spirit  of  heathen  Greece  and  the  Christian 
scholarship  of  the  time  of  Constantine  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors, which  grew  up  very  gradually,  was  the  result  of  the 
oriental  superstitions,  which  distorted  Christianity  and  disturbed 
the  old  philosophy.  The  abortive  attempt  of  the  emperor 
Julian  to  create  a  reaction  in  favor  of  heathenism  was  the  cause 
of  the  open  antagonism  between  the  classical  and  Christian 
forms  of  literature.  The  church,  ho^vever,  was  soon  enabled  not 
only  to  dictate  its  own  rules  of  Hterary  criticism,  but  to  destroy 
the  writings  of  its  most  formidable  antagonists.  The  last 
rays  of  heathen  cultivation  in  Italy  were  extinguished  in 
the  gloomy  dungeon  of  Boethius,  and  the  period  so  justly 
designated  as  the  Dark  Ages  commenced  both  in  eastern  and 
western  Europe. 

8.  Last  Echoes  of  the  Old  LiTERATtRE. — From  the  time 
when  Christianity  placed  itself  in  opposition  to  the  old  culture 
of  heathen  Greece  and  Rome  down  to  the  period  of  the  revival 
of  classical  literature  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
the  classical  spirit  was  nearly  extinct  both  in  eastern  and  west- 


118  GEEEK    LITERATUrvE. 

em  Europe.  lu  Italy,  the  triumpli  of  barbarism  was  more 
sudden  and  complete.  In  the  eastern  empire  there  was  a  cer- 
tain literary  activity,  and  in  the  department  of  history,  By- 
zantine hterature  was  conspicuously  prohfic. 

The  imperial  family  of  the  Commeni,  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  and  the  Palieologi,  who  reigned  from  the 
thirteenth  century  to  the  end  of  the  eastern  empire,  endeavored 
to  revive  the  taste  for  literature  and  learning.  But  the  echoes 
of  the  past  became  fainter  and  fainter,  and  when  Constantino- 
ple fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  1453  a.d.,  the  wandering 
Greeks  who  found  their  way  into  Italy  could  only  serve  as  lan- 
guage-masters to  a  race  of  scholars,  who  thus  recovered  the 
learning  that  had  ceased  to  exist  among  the  Greeks  them- 
selves. 

The  last  manifestations  of  the  old  classical  learning  by  the 
Alexandrian  school,  which  had  done  so  much  in  the  second  and 
first  centuries  before  our  era,  n:iay  be  divided  into  three  classes. 
In  the  first  are  placed  the  mathematical  and  geographical 
studies,  which  had  been  brought  to  such  perfection  by  Euclid, 
his  successors,  and  after  him  by  Ptolemy.  In  the  second  class 
we  have  the  substitution  of  prose  romances  for  the  bucolic  and 
erotic  poetry  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Sicilian  writers.  In  the 
third  class  the  revival,  by  Nonnus  and  his  followers,  of  a  learned 
epos,  of  much  the  same  kind  as  the  poems  of  Callimachus. 
Among  the  representatives  of  the  mathematical  school  of  Alex- 
andria was  Theon,  whose  celebrity  is  obscured  by  that  of  his 
daughter  Hypatia  (11. 415  a.d.),  whose  sex,  youth,  beauty  and  cruel 
fate  have  made  her  a  most  interesting  martyr  of  philosophy.  She 
])resided  in  the  public  school  at  Alexandria,  where  she  taught 
mathematics,  and  the  philosophy  of  Ammonius  and  Plotinus. 
Her  influence  over  the  educated  classes  of  that  city  excited 
the  jealousy  of  the  arclii)ishop.  She  was  given  up  to  the 
violence  of  a  superstitious  and  brutal  mob,  attacked  as  she  was 
passing  through  the  streets  in  her  chariot,  torn  in  pieces,  and 
her  mutilated  body  thrown  to  the  flames. 

When  rhetorical  prose  superseded  composition  in  verse,  the 
greater  facility  of  style  naturally  led  to  more  detailed  narratives, 
and  the  sophist  who  would  have  been  a  poet  in  the  time  of  Calli- 
machus, became  a  writer  of  prose  romances  in  the  final  period  of 
Greek  Hterature.  The  first  ascertained  beginning  of  this  style  of 
light  reading,  which  occupies  so  large  a  space  in  the  catalogues  of 
modern  libraries,  was  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  when 
a  Syrian  or  Babylonian  I'reedman,  named  lamblichus,  published  a 
love  story  called  the  "  Baljylonian  Adventures."     Among  his 


GREEK   LITERATURE.  119 

snccGssors  is  Longus,  of  whose  work  "  The  Lesbian  Adventure," 
it  is  suflicient  to  say,  that  it  was  the  model  of  the  "Diana"  of 
Montemayor,  the  "  Aminta"  of  Tasso,  the  "Pastor  Fido"  of 
Guarini,  and  the  "  Gentle  Shepherd"  of  Allan  Eamsay. 

While  the  sophists  were  amusing  themselves  by  clothing 
erotic  and  bucolic  subjects  in  rhetorical  prose,  an  Egyptian 
boldly  revived  the  epos  which  had  been  cultivated  at  Alexandria 
in  the  earliest  days  of  the  Museum.  Nonnus  probably  flourished 
at  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century  a.d.  His  epic  poem, 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  terminology  of  the  age,  is  called 
"  Dionysian  Adventures,"  is  an  enormous  farrago  of  learning  on 
the  well-worked  subject  of  Bacchus.  The  most  interesting  of 
the  epic  productions  of  the  school  of  Nonnus  is  the  story  of 
**  Hero  and  Leander,"  in  340  verses,  which  bears  the  name  of 
Musasus.  For  grace  of  diction,  metrical  elegance  and  simple 
pathos,  this  little  canto  stands  far  before  the  other  poems  of  the 
same  age.  The  Hero  and  Leander  of  Musoeus  is  the  dying 
swan-note  of  Greek  poetry,  the  last  distinct  note  of  the  old  music 
of  Hellas. 

In  the  Byzantine  literature,  there  are  works  which  claim  no 
originality,  but  have  a  higher  value  than  their  contemporaries, 
because  they  give  extracts  or  fragments  of  the  lost  writings  of 
the  best  days  of  Greece.  Next  in  value  follow  the  lexi- 
cographers, the  grammarians  and  commentators.  The  most 
voluminous  department,  however,  of  Byzantine  literature,  was 
that  of  the  historians,  annalists,  chroniclers,  biographers  and 
antiquarians,  whose  Avorks  form  a  continuous  series  of  Byzantine 
annals  from  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  taking  of 
the  capital  by  the  Turks.  This  literature  was  also  enlivened  by 
several  poets,  and  enriched  by  some  writers  on  natural  history 
and  medicine. 

9.  The  New  Testament  axd  the  Greek  Fathers. — The 
history  of  Greek  literature  would  be  imperfect  without  some 
allusion  to  a  class  of  writings  not  usually  included  in  the  range 
of  classical  studies.  The  first  of  these  works,  the  Septiia- 
gint  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  before  mentioned,  and  the 
Greek  Apocrypha,  may  properly  be  termed  Hebrew-Grecian. 
Their  spirit  is  wholly  at  variance  with  that  of  pagan  literature, 
and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  they  exerted  great  influence  when 
made  known  to  the  pagans  of  Alexandria.  Many  of  the  books 
termed  the  Apocrypha  were  originally  written  in  Greek,  and 
mostly  before  the  Christian  era.  Many  of  them  contain  authentic 
narratives,  and  are  valuable  as  illustrating  the  circumstances  of 


120  GREEK    LITERATURE. 

tlie  ao'e  to  whicli  thcv  refer.  The  other  class  of  writincrs  alluded 
to  comprehends  the  works  of  the  Christian  authors.  As  the  in- 
fluence of  Christianity  became  more  diifused  during  the  first  and 
second  centuries,  its  regenerating  power  became  visible.  After 
the  time  of  Christ,  there  appeared,  in  both  the  Greek  and  Latin 
tongues,  works  wholly  difierent  in  their  spirit  and  character 
from  all  that  is  found  in  pagan  literature.  The  collection  of 
sacred  writings  contained  in  the  jN'ew  Testament  and  the  works 
of  the  early  fathers,  constitute  a  distinct  and  interesting  feature 
in  the  literature  of  the  age  in  which  they  appeared.  The 
writings  of  the  New  Testament,  considered  simply  in  their 
literary  aspect,  are  distinguished  by  a  simplicity,  earnestness, 
naturalness  and  beauty,  that  find  no  parallel  in  the  literature  of 
the  world.  But  the  consideration  must  not  be  overlooked,  that 
they  were  the  work  of  those  men  who  wrote  as  they  were  moved 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  they  contain  the  life  and  the  teachings 
of  the  great  Founder  of  our  faith,  and  that  they  come  to  us 
invested  with  divine  authority.  Their  influence  upon  the  ages 
which  have  succeeded  them  is  incalculable,  and  it  is  still  widen- 
ing as  the  knowledge  of  Christianity  increases.  The  composition 
of  the  Nev.^  Testament  is  historical,  epistolary  and  prophetic. 
The  first  five  books,  or  the  historical  division,  contain  an  account 
of  the  life  and  death  of  our  Saviour,  and  some  account  of  the 
first  movements  of  the  Apostles.  The  epistolary  division  consists 
of  letters  addressed  by  the  Apostles  to  the  different  churches  or 
to  individuals.  The  last,  the  book  of  "Revelation,"  the  only 
part  that  is  considered  prophetic,  diflers  from  the  others  in  its 
use  of  that  symbolical  language  which  had  been  common  to  the 
Hebrew  prophets,  in  the  sublimity  and  majesty  of  its  imagery, 
and  in  its  prediction  of  the  final  and  universal  triumph  of 
Christianity. 

The  writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  or  the  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  the  Apostles,  were  held  in  high  estimation  by  the 
primitive  Christians.  Of  those  who  wrote  under  this  denomina- 
tion, the  venerable  Polycarp  and  Ignatius,  after  they  had  both 
attained  the  age  of  eighty  years,  sealed  their  faith  in  the  blood 
of  martyrdom.  The  former  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  Smyrna, 
and  the  latter  devoured  by  lions  in  the  amphitheatre  of  Rome. 
In  the  second  and  third  centuries,  Christianity  numbered  among 
its  advocates  many  distinguished  scholars  and  philosophers,  par- 
ticularly among  the  Greeks.  Their  productions  may  be  classed 
under  the  heads  of  biblical,  controversial,  doctrinal,  historical 
and  homiletical.  Among  the  most  distin^-uished  of  the  Greek 
fathers,  were  Justin  Martyr  (fl.  89  a.d.),  an  eminent  Christian 


GREEK   LITERxVTURE.  '      121 

pliilosoplier  and  speculative  thinker  ;  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(fl.  190  A.D.),  who  has  left  us  a  collection  of  works,  which,  for 
learning  and  literary  talent,  stand  unrivalled  among  the  writings 
of  the  early  Christian  fathers  ;  Origen  (184-253  a.d.),  who 
in  his  numerous  works  attempted  to  reconcile  philosophy  with 
Christianity;  Eusebius  (fl.  325  a.d.),  whose  ecclesiastical  history 
is  ranked  among  the  most  valuable  remains  of  Christian  antiquity ; 
Athanasius,  famous  for  his  controversy  with  Arius  ;  Gregory 
Kazianzen  (329-390  a.d.),  distinguished  for  his  rare  union 
of  eloquence  and  piety,  a  great  orator  and  theologian  ;  Basil 
(329-379  A.D.),  whose  works,  mostly  of  a  purely  theological 
character,  exhibit  occasionally  decided  proofs  of  his  strong  feel- 
ing for  the  beauties  of  nature  ;  and  John  Chrysostom  (347-407 
A.D.),  the  founder  of  the  art  of  preaching,  w^hose  extant  homilies 
breathe  a  spu'it  of  sincere  earnestness  and  of  true  genius.  To 
these  may  be  added  Nemesius  (fl.  400  a.d.), whose  work  on  the 
"  Nature  of  Man  "  is  distinguished  by  the  purity  of  its  style  and 
by  the  traces  of  a  careful  study  of  classical  authors,  and  Syne- 
sius  (378-430  a.d.),  who  maintained  the  parallel  importance  of 
pagan  and  Christian  literature,  and  who  has  always  been  held  in 
high  estimation  for  his  epistles,  hymns  and  di'amas 


eo:m:ae"  literatuke. 

Introduction. —1.  Roman  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — 2.  The  Lar.guage  ;  Ethno- 
graphical elements  of  the  Latin  Language;  the  Umbrian  ;  Oscan  ;  Etruscan;  the  old 
Roman  tongue ;  Saturnian  verse ;  peculiarities  of  the  Latin  language. — 3.  The  Roman 
Religion. 

Period  First. — 1.  Early  Literature  of  the  Romans  ;  the  Fescennine  Songs ;  the  Fabulse 
Atellante. — 2.  Early  Latin  Poets;  LiViUS  Andronicus,  Naevius  and  Ennius. — 3.  Roman 
Comedy. — 4.  Comic  Poets  ;  Plautus,  Terence  and  Statius. — 5.  Roman  Tragedy.— G. 
Tragic  Poets  ;  Pacuvius  and  Attius. — 7.  Satire  ;  Lucihus. — 8.  History  and  Oratory  ; 
Fabius  Pictor ;  Cencius  Alimentus  ;  Cato  ;  Varro  ;  M.  Antonius  ;  Crassus  ;  Ilortensius. — 
9.  Roman  Jurisprudence.— 10.  Grammarians. 

Period  Second. — 1.  Development  of  the  Roman  Literature. — 2.  Mimes,  Mimogi-a- 
phers,  Pantomime;  Laberius  and  P.  Lyrus. — 3  Epic  Poetry;  Virgil;  The.Eneid.— 4.  Di- 
dactic Poetry;  the  Bucolics;  the  Georgics  ;  Lucretius.- 5.  Lyric  Poetry;  Catullus; 
Horace. — 6.  Elegy  ;  Tibullus  ;  Propertius  ;  Ovid. — 7.  Oratory  and  Philosophy ;  Cicero. — 
S.  History;  J.  Cajsar;  Sallust ;  Livy. — 9.  Other  Prose  Writers. 

Period  Thikd. — 1.  Decline  of  Roman  Literature. — 2.  Fable  ;  Phjedrus. — 3.  Satire  and 
Epigram;  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial. — 4.  Dramatic  Literature;  the  Tragedies  of  Seneca. 
^5.  Epic  Poetry;  Lucan ;  Slius  Itallcus;  Valerius  Flaccus  ;  P.  Statius. — 6.  History; 
Paterculus ;  Tacitus  :  Suetonius  ;  Q.  Curtius  ;  Valerius  Maximus. — 7.  Rhetoric  and 
Eloquence ;  Quintilian  ;  Pliny  the  Younger.— 8.  Pliilosophy  and  Science  ;  Seneca  ; 
Pliny  the  Elder  ;  Celsus  ;  P.  Mela ;  Columella  ;  Frontinus.— 9.  Roman  Literature  from 
Hadrian  to  Theodoric  ;  Claudian  ;  Eutropius;  A.  IMarcelllnus  ;  S.  Sulpicius;  Gellius  ; 
Macrobius  ;  L.  Apuleius;  Boethius  ;  the  Latin  Fathers. — 10.  Roman  Jurisprudence. 

IXTRODUCTIOX. 

1.  RoMAX  LiTER.vTURE  AND  ITS  Divisioxs. — lufcrior  to  Grccce 
ill  the  genius  of  its  inhabitants,  and,  perliaps,  in  tlie  intrinsic 
greatness  of  the  events  of  wliieh  it  was  the  theatre,  un- 
questionably inferior  in  the  fruits  of  intellectual  activity,  Italy 
holds  the  second  place  in  the  classic  literature  of  antiquity. 
Etruria  could  boast  of  arts,  legislation,  scientific  knowledge,  a 
fanciful  mythology,  and  a  form  of  dramatic  spectacle,  l^efore  the 
foundations  of  Rome  were  laid.  But,  like  the  ancient  Egvptians, 
the  Etrurians  made  no  progress  in  composition.  A-'erses  of  an 
irregular  structure  and  rude  in  sense  and  harmony  appear  to 
liave  formed  the  highest  limit  of  their  literary  achievements. 
Nor  did  even  the  opulent  and  luxurious  Greeks  of  Southern 
Italy,  while  they  retained  their  independence,  contribute  much 
to  the  glory  of  letters  in  the  West.  It  was  only  in  their  fall  that 
they  did  good  service  to  the  cause,  when  they  redeemed  the  dis- 

122 


EOilAX    LITEKATURE.  123 

grace  of  their  political  liiimiliatioii  by  the  honor  of  communicat- 
ing  the   first    impulse  towards   intellectual    refinement  to   the 
bosoms   of  their  conquerors.     When,    in  the  process  of  time, 
Sicily,  Macedonia  and  Achaia  had  become  Roman   provinces, 
some   acquaintance   with  the   language  of  their  new  subjects 
proved   to    be  a  matter  almost  of  necessity  to  the  victorious 
people;  but  the  first   impression  made  at   Rome   by  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  Grecian  Muse,  and  the  first  efi'orts  to  create  a 
similar  literature,  must  be  traced  to  the  conquest  of  Tarentum, 
(272  B.C.)     From  that  memorable  period,  the  versatile  talents 
which   distinguished  the    Greeks   in   every   stage   of  national 
decline,  began  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  on  the  Roman 
mind,  which  was  particularly  felt  in  the  departments  of  education 
and   amusement.     The   instruction   of  the   Roman  youth  was 
committed  to  the  skill  and  learning  of  Greek  slaves  ;  the  spirit 
of  the  Greek  drama  was  transferred  into  the  Latin  tongue,  and, 
somewhat  later,    Roman   genius   and   ambition  devoted   their 
united  energies  to  the  study  of  Greek  rhetoric,  w^hich  long  con- 
tinued to  be  the  guide  and  model  of  those  schools,  in  whose 
exercises  the  abilities  of  Cicero  himself  were  trained.     Prejudice 
and  patriotism   were  powerless  to  resist  this  flood  of  foreign 
innovation  ;  and  for  more  than  a  century  after  the  Tarentine 
war,  legislative  influence  strove  in  vain  to  counteract  the  pre- 
dominance of  Greek  philosophy  and  eloquence.     But  this  imita- 
tive tendency  was  tempered  by  the  pride  of  Roman  citizenship. 
That  sentiment  breaks  out,  not  merely  in  the  works  of  great 
statesmen  and  warriors,  but  quite  as  strikingly  in  the  productions 
of  those  in  whom  the  literary  character  was  all  in  all.     It  is  as 
prominent  in  Yirgil  and  Horace  as  in  Cicero  and  Caesar  ;  and  if 
the  language  of  Rome,  in  other  respects  so  inferior  to  that  of 
Greece,  has  any  advantage  over  the  sister  tongue,  it  lies  in  that 
accent   of  dignity  and  command  which  seems  inherent   in   its 
tones.     The  austerity  of  power  is  not  shaded  down  by  those 
graceful  softenings  so  agreeable  to  the  disposition  of  the  most 
polished  Grecian  communities.     In  the  Latin  forms  and  syntax 
we  are  everywhere  conscious  of  a  certain  energetic  majesty  and 
forcible  compression.     We  hear,  as  it  were,  the  voice  of  one  who 
claims  to  be  respected,  and  resolves  to  be  obeyed. 

The  Roman  classical  literature  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods.  The  first  embraces  its  rise  and  progress,  oral  and 
traditional  compositions,  the  rude  elements  of  the  drama,  the 
introduction  of  Greek  literature,  and  the  construction  and  per- 
fection of  comedy.  To  this  period  the  first  five  centuries  of 
the  republic  may  be  considered  as  introductory,  for  Rome  had, 


124  r.OMAX   LITERATURE. 

properly  speaking,  no  literature  until  the  conclusion  of  tlie  first 
Punic  war  (241  e.g.),  and  the  first  period,  commencing  at  that 
time,  extends  through  160  years — that  is,  to  the  first  appear- 
ance of  Cicero  in  public  life,  74  e.g. 

The  second  period  ends  with  the  death  of  Augustus,  14  a.d. 
It  comprehends  the  age  of  which  Cicero  is  the  representative 
as  the  most  accomplished  orator,  philosopher  and  prose-writer 
of  his  time,  as  well  as  that  of  Augustus,  which  is  commonly 
called  the  Golden  Age  of  Latin  poetry. 

The  third  and  last  period  terminates  with  the  death  of 
Theodoric,  526  a.d.  Notwithstanding  the  numerous  excellences 
which  distinguished  the  literature  of  this  time,  its  decline  had 
evidently  commenced,  and,  as  the  age  of  Augustus  has  been 
distinguished  by  the  epithet  "  golden,"  the  succeeding  period,  to 
the  death  of  Hadrian,  138  a.d.,  on  account  of  its  comparative 
inferiority,  has  been  designated  ''the  Silver  Age."  From  this 
time  to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Theodoric,  only  a  few  distin- 
guished names  arc  to  be  found. 

2.  The  Language. — The  origin  of  the  Latin  language  is 
necessarily  connected  with  that  of  the  Romans  themselves.  In 
the  most  distant  ages  to  which  tradition  extends,  Italy  appears 
to  have  been  inhabited  by  three  stocks  or  tribes  of  the  great 
Indo-European  family.  One  of  these  is  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Oscans;  another  consisted  of  two  branches,  the 
Sabelians  or  Sabines,  and  the  Umbrians;  the  third  was  called 
Sikeli,  sometimes  Vituli  or  Itali. 

The  original  settlements  of  the  TJmbrians  extended  over  the 
district  bounded  on  one  side  by  the  Tiber,  and  on  the  other  by 
the  Po.  All  the  country  to  the  south  was  in  possession  of  the 
Oscans,  with  the  exception  of  Latium,  which  was  inhabited  by 
the  Sikeli.  But,  in  process  of  time,  the  Oscans,  pressed  upon 
by  the  Sabines,  invaded  the  abodes  of  this  peaceful  and  rural 
people,  some  of  whom  submitted,  and  amalgamated  with  their 
conquerors;  the  rest  were  driven  across  the  narrow  sea  into 
Sicily,  and  gave  their  name  to  the  island. 

These  tribes  were  not  left  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their 
rich  inheritance.  More  than  1000  e.g.  there  arrived  in  the 
northern  part  of  Italy  the  Pelasgians  (or  dark  Asiatics),  an  en- 
terprising race,  famed  for  their  warlike  spirit  and  their  skill  in 
the  arts  of  peace,  who  became  the  civilizers  of  Italy.  They  were 
far  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civilization  and  refinement,  and  in  the 
sciem'e  of  politics  and  social  life.  They  enriched  their  newly 
acquired   country  with   commerce,  and  filled   it  with   strongly 


KOMAX   LITERATURE.  125 

fortified  and  populous  cities,  and  their  dominion  rapidly  spread 
'over  the  whole  peninsula.  Entering  the  territory  of  the  Um- 
brians,  they  drove  them  into  the  mountainous  districts,  or  com- 
pelled them  to  live  among  them  as  a  subject  people,  while  they 
possessed  themselves  of  the  rich  and  fertile  plains.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  invaders  was  Etruria,  and  that  portion  of  them 
who  settled  there  were  known  as  Etrurians.  Marching  southward, 
they  vanquished  the  Oscans  and  occupied  the  plains  of  Latium. 
They  did  not,  however,  remain  long  at  peace  in  the  districts 
which  they  had  conquered.  The  old  inhabitants  returned  from 
the  neighboring  highlands  to  which  they  had  been  driven,  and 
subjugated  the  northern  part  of  Latium,  and  established  a 
federal  union  between  the  towns  of  the  north,  of  which  Alba 
was  the  capital,  while  of  the  southern  confederacy  the  chief  city 
was  Lavinium. 

At  a  later  period,  a  Latin  tribe,  belonging  to  the  Alban 
federation,  established  itself  on  the  Mount  Palatine,  and  founded 
Rome,  while  a  Sabine  community  occupied  the  neighboring 
heights  of  the  Quu'inal.  Mutual  jealousy  of  race  kept  them,  for 
some  time,  separate  from  each  other;  but  at  length  the  two 
communities  became  one  people,  called  the  Romans.  These 
were,  at  an  early  period,  subjected  to  Etruscan  rule,  and  when 
the  Etruscan  dynasty  passed  away,  its  influence  still  remained, 
and  permanently  affected  the  Roman  language. 

The  Etruscan  tongue  being  a  compound  of  Pelasgian  and  Um- 
brian,  the  language  of  Latium  may  be  considered  as  the  result  of 
those  two  elements  combined  with  the  Oscan,  and  brought  to- 
gether by  the  mingling  of  those  different  tribes.  These  elements, 
which  entered  in  the  formation  of  the  Latin,  may  be  classified  under 
two  heads:  the  one  which  has,  the  other  which  has  not  a  re- 
semblance to  the  Greek.  All  Latin  words  which  resemble  the 
Greek  are  Pelasgian,  and  all  which  do  not  are  Etruscan,  Oscan 
or  Umbrian.  From  the  first  of  these  classes  must  be  excepted 
those  words  which  are  directly  derived  from  the  Greek,  the  origin 
of  which  dates  partly  from  the  time  when  Rome  began  to  have 
intercourse  with  the  Greek  colonies  of  Magna  Grsecia,  partly  after 
the  Greeks  exercised  a  direct  influence  on  Roman  literature. 

Of  the  ancient  languages  of  Italy,  which  concurred  in  the 
formation  of  the  Latin,  little  is  known.  The  Eugubine  Tables 
arc  the  only  extant  fragments  of  the  Umbrian  language.  These 
were  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ugubio,  in  the  year  1444 
A.D. ;  they  date  as  early  as  354  b.c,  and  contain  prayers  and 
rules  for  religious  ceremonies.  Some  of  these  tables  were 
engraved  in  Etruscan  or  Umbrian  characters,  others  in  Latin 


126  ROMAN   LITERATUEE. 

letters.  The  remains  wliicli  have  come  down  to  us  of  the  Oscaii 
language,  belong  to  a  composite  idiom  made  up'of  tlie  Sabine 
and  Oscan,  and  consist  chiefly  of  an  inscription  engraved  on  a 
brass  plate,  discovered  in  1793  a.d.  As  the  word  Baiisce 
occurs  in  this  inscription,  it  has  been  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
town  of  Bantia,  which  was  situated  not  far  from  the  spot  where 
the  tablet  was  found,  and  it  is,  therefore,  called  the  Bantine 
Table.  The  similarity  between  some  of  the  w^ords  found  in  the 
Engubine  Tables  and  in  Etruscan  inscriptions,  shows  that  the 
Etruscan  language  was  composed  of  the  Pelasgian  and  Umbrian, 
and  from  the  examples  given  by  ethnographers,  it  is  evident 
that  the  Etruscan  element  was  most  influential  in  the  formation 
of  the  Latin  language. 

The  old  Roman  tongue,  or  lingua  prisca,  as  it  was  composed 
of  these  materials,  and  as  it  existed  })revious  to  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  Greek,  has  almost  entirely  perished  ;  it  did  not 
grow  into  the  new,  like  the  Greek,  by  a  process  of  intrinsic 
development,  but  it  was  remoulded  by  external  and  foreign 
influences.  So  different  was  the  old  Roman  from  the  classical  Latin, 
that  some  of  those  ancient  fragments  were  with  difiiculty  intelligi- 
ble to  the  cleverest  and  best  educated  scholars  of  the  Augustan  age. 

An  example  of  the  oldest  Latin  extant  is  contained  in  the 
sacred  chant  of  the  Fratres  Arvnks.  These  were  a  college  of 
priests,  whose  function  was  to  offer  prayers  for  plenteous  har- 
vests, in  solemn  dances  and  processions  at  the  opening  of  spring. 
Their  song  was  chanted  in  the  temple  with  closed  doors,  accom- 
panied by  that  peculiar  dance  which  was  termed  the  tripudium, 
from  its  containing  three  beats.  The  inscription  which  embodied 
this  litanv  was  discovered  in  Rome  in  17T8  a.d.  The  monument 
belongs  to  the  reign  of  Heliogabalus,  218  a.d.,  but  although  the 
date  is  so  recent,  the  permanence  of  religious  formulas  renders  it 
probable  that  the  inscription  contains  the  exact  words  sung  by 
this  priesthood  in  the  earliest  times.  The  "  Carmen  Saliare,"  or 
the  Salian  hymn,  the  leges  rcgice,  the  Tiburtine  inscription,  the 
inscription  on  the  sarcophagus  of  L.  Cornelius  Scipio  Barl)a- 
tus,  the  great-grandfather  of  the  conqueror  of  Hannilial,  the 
epitaph  of  Lucius  Scipio  his  son,  and  above  all,  tlie  Twelve 
Tables,  are  the  other  principal  extant  monuments  of  ancient 
Latin.  The  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  were  engraven  on 
tablets  of  brass,  and  publicly  set  up  in  the  comitium;  they  were 
first  made  public  449  e.g. 

Most  of  these  literary  monuments  were  written  in  Saturnian 
verse,  the  oldest  measure  used  by  the  Latin  poets.  It  was  pro- 
bably derived  from  the  Etruscans,  and  until  Ennius  introduced 


EOMAN   LITEKATUEE.  127 

the  heroic  hexameter,  the  strains  of  the  Itahan  bards  flowed  in 
this  metre.  The  structm'e  of  the  Satm-nian  is  very  simple,  and 
its  rhythmical  arrangement  is  found  in  the  poetry  of  every  age 
and  country.  Macaulay  adduces,  as  an  example  of  this  measure, 
the  following  line  from  the  well  known  nursery  song  : 

"  The  queen  was  m  her  parlor,  {  eating  bread  and  honey." 

From  this  species  of  verse,  which  probably  prevailed  among  the 
natives  of  Provence  (the  Roman  Provincia),  and  into  which,  at 
a  later  period,  rhyme  was  introduced  as  an  embellishment,  the 
Troubadours  derived  the  metre  of  their  ballad  poetry,  and  thence 
introduced  it  into  the  rest  of  Europe. 

A  wide  gap  separates  this  old  Latin  from  the  Latin  of  Ennius, 
whose  style  was  formed  by  Greek  taste  ;  another  not  so  wide  is 
inteii^osed  between  the  age  of  Ennius  and  that  of  Plautus  and 
Terence,  and  lastly,  Cicero  and  the  Augustan  poets  mark 
another  age.  But  in  all  its  periods  of  development,  the  Latin 
bears  a  most  intimate  relation  with  the  Greek.  This  similarity 
is  the  result  both  of  then*  common  origin  from  the  primitive 
Pelasgian.  and  of  the  intercourse  which  the  Romans  at  a  later 
period  held  with  the  Greeks.  Latin,  however,  had  not  the 
plastic  property  of  the  Greek,  the  faculty  of  transforming  itself 
into  every  variety  of  form  and  shape  conceived  by  the  fancy  and 
imagination  ;  it  partook  of  the  spirit  of  Roman  nationality,  of 
the  conscious  dignity  of  the  Roman  citizen,  of  the  indomitable 
will  that  led  that  people  to  the  conquest  of  the  world.  In  its 
construction,  instead  of  conforming  to  the  thought,  it  bends  the 
thought  to  its  own  genius.  It  is  a  fit  language  for  expressing 
the  thoughts  of  an  active  and  practical,  but  not  of  an  imaginative 
and  speculative  people.  It  was  propagated,  like  the  dominion 
of  Rome,  by  conquest.  It  either  took  the  place  of  the  language 
of  the  conquered  nation,  or  became  ingrafted  upon  it,  and 
gradually  pervaded  its  composition  ;  hence  its  presence  is 
discernible  in  all  European  languages. 

3.  The  Religion. — The  religion  and  mythology  of  Etruria 
left  an  indelible  stamp  on  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Roman 
people.  At  first  they  worshipped  heaven  and  earth  personified 
in  Saturn  and  Ops,  by  wiiom  Juno,  Festa  and  Ceres  were 
generated,  symbolizing  marriage,  family  and  fertility  ;  soon  after, 
other  Etruscan  divinities  were  introduced,  such  as  Jupiter, 
Minerva  and  Janus  :  and  Svlvanus  and  Faunus,  who  delighted 
in  the  simple  occupations  of  rural  and  pastoral  life.     Fronx  the 


128  ROMAN   LITEExVTUKE. 

Etrurians  the  Romans  borrowed,  also,  tlie  institution  of  the 
Vestals,  whose  duty  was  to  watch  and  keep  alive  the  sacred  fire 
of  Vesta  ;  the  Lares  and  the  Penates,  the  domestic  gods,  which 
presided  over  the  dwelling  and  famik;  Terminus,  the  god  of 
property  and  the  rites  connected  with  possession  ;  and  th\3 
orders  of  Augurs  and  Aruspices,  whose  ofiice  was  to  consult 
the  flight  of  birds  or  to  inspect  the  entrails  of  animals  offered  in 
sacrifice,  in  order  to  ascertain  future  events.  The  familv  of  the 
Roman  gods  continued  to  increase  by  adopting  the  divinities  of 
the  conquered  nations,  and  more  particularly  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  those  of  Greece.  The  general  division  of  the  gods  was 
twofold — the  superior  and  inferior  deities.  The  first  class  con- 
tained the  Consentes  and  the  Selccti;  the  second,  the  Iiidigetcs  and 
SemoTies.  The  Consentes,  so  called  because  they  were  supposed  to 
form  the  great  council  of  heaven,  consisted  of  twelve :  Jupiter, 
Neptune,  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Vulcan,  Juno,  Minerva,  Ceres, 
Diana,  Venus  and  Vesta.  The  Selecli  were  nearly  ecjual  to  them 
in  rank,  and  consisted  of  eight :  Saturn,  Pluto,  Bacchus,  Janus, 
Sol,  Genius,  Rhea  and  Luna.  The  Indigetes  were  heroes  who 
were  ranked  among  the  gods,  and  included  particularly  Hercules, 
Castor  and  Pollux,  and  Quirinus  or  Romulus.  The  Semones  com- 
prehended those  deities  that  presided  over  particular  objects,  as 
Pan,  the  god  of  shepherds  ;  Flora,  the  goddess  of  flowers,  etc. 
Besides  these,  there  were  among  the  inferior  gods  a  numerous 
class  of  deities,  including  the  virtues  and  vices  and  other  objects 
personified. 

The  religion  of  the  Romans  was  essentially  political,  and 
employed  as  a  means  of  promoting  the  designs  of  the  state. 
It  was  prosaic  in  its  character,  and  in  this  respect  differed  essen- 
t  ially  from  the  artistic  and  poetical  religion  of  the  Greeks.  The 
Greeks  conceived  religion  as  a  free  and  joyous  worship  of 
nature,  a  centre  of  individuality,  beauty  and  grace,  as  well  as  a 
source  of  poetry,  art  and  independence.  AVith  the  Romans, 
on  the  contrary,  religion  conveyed  a  mysterious  and  hidden 
idea,  which  gave  to  this  sentiment  a  gloomy  and  unattractive 
character,  without  either  moral  or  artistic  influence. 

PERIOD  FIRST. 

IKOM   THE    COXCLUSION    OF   THE    FIRST    FUXIC    WAR   TO   THE    AGE    OF 

CICERO   (241-74  B.C.) 

1.  Early  Literature  of  the  Romans.' — The  Romans,  like  all 
other  nations,  had  oral  poetical  compositions  before  they  pos- 
sessed any  written  literature.     Cicero  speaks  of  the  banquet  being 


KOMAX   LITEEATUEE.  129 

enlivened  by  the  songs  of  bards,  in  which  the  exploits  of  heroes 
were  recited  and  celebrated.  By  these  lays  national  pride  and 
family  vanity  were  gratified,  and  the  anecdotes  thus  preserved, 
furnished  sources  of  early  legendary  history.  But  these  legends 
must  not  be  compared  to  those  of  Greece,  in  which  the  religious 
sentiment  gave  a  supernatural  glory  to  the  effusions  of  the  bard, 
painted  men  as  heroes  and  heroes  as  deities,  and,  while  it  was 
the  natural  growth  of  the  Greek  intellect,  twined  itself  around  the 
affections  of  the  people.  The  Roman  religion  was  a  ceremonial 
for  the  priests,  and  not  for  the  people,  and  in  Roman  tradition 
there  are  no  traces  of  elevated  genius  or  poetical  inspiration. 
The  Romans  possessed  the  germs  of  those  faculties  which  admit 
of  cultivation  and  improvement,  such  as  taste  and  genius,  and  the 
appreciation  of  the  beautiful;  but  they  did  not  possess  those 
natural  gifts  of  fancy  and  imagination  which  formed  part  of  the 
Greek  mind,  and  which  made  that  nation  in  a  state  of  infancy, 
almost  of  barbarism,  a  poetical  people.  With  them  literature 
was  not  of  spontaneous  growth;  it  was  chiefly  the  result  of  the 
influence  exerted  by  the  Etruscans,  who  were  their  teachers  in 
everything  mental  and  spbitual. 

The  tendency  of  the  Roman  mind  was  essentially  utihtarian. 
Even  Cicero,  with  all  his  varied  accomplishments,  will  recognize 
but  one  end  and  object  of  all  study,  namely,  those  sciences  which 
will  render  man  useful  to  his  country,  and  the  law  of  literary 
development  is  modified  according  to  this  ruling  principle.  From 
the  very  beginning,  the  first  cause  of  Roman  literature  will  be 
found  to  have  been  a  view  to  utility  and  not  to  the  satisfaction 
of  an  impulsive  feeling. 

In  other  nations,  poetry  has  been  the  first  spontaneous  pro- 
duction. With  the  Romans,  the  first  written  hterary  effort  was 
history;  but  even  their  early  history  was  a  simple  record  of  facts, 
not  of  ideas  or  sentiments,  and  valuable  only  for  its  truth  and 
accuracy.  Their  original  documents,  mere  records  of  memorable 
events  anterior  to  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  perished 
in  the  conflas-ration  of  the  citv. 

o  V 

The  earliest  attempt  at  versification  made  by  the  rude  ij^habit- 
ants  of  Latium  was  satire  in  a  somewhat  dramatic  form.  The 
Fescennim  songs  were  metrical,  for  the  accompaniments  of  music 
and  dancing  necessarily  restricted  them  to  measure,  and,  like  the 
dramatic  exhibitions  of  the  Greeks,  thevhad  their  oriorin  amono-the 
rural  population,  not  like  them  in  any  religious  ceremonial,  but 
in  the  pastimes  of  the  village  festival.  At  first  they  were  inno- 
cent and  gay,  but  liberty  at  length  degenerated  into  license,  and 
gave  bu'th  to  malicious  and  h1)ellous  attacks  upon  persons  of 


130  ROMAN    LITEEATUKE. 

irreproachable  character.  This  infancy  of  song  illustrates  the 
character  of  the  Romans  in  its  rudest  and  coarsest  form.  They 
loved  strife,  both  bodily  and  mental,  and  they  thus  early  displayed 
that  taste  which,  in  more  polished  ages,  and  in  the  hands  of  cul- 
tivated poets,  was  developed  in  the  sharp,  cutting  wit,  and  the 
lively  but  piercing  points  of  Roman  satire. 

In  the  Fescennine  songs  the  Etruscans  probably  furnished  tlie 
spectacle,  all  that  which  addresses  itself  to  the  eye,  while  the 
habits  of  Italian  rural  life  supplied  the  sarcastic  humor  and 
ready  extemporaneous  gibe,  which  are  the  essence  of  the  true 
comic.  The  next  advance  in  point  of  art  must  be  attributed  to 
the  Oscans,  whose  entertainments  were  most  popular  among  the 
Itahan  nations.  They  represented  in  broad  caricature  national 
peculiarities.  Their  language  was,  originally,  Oscan,  as  well 
as  the  characters  represented.  The  principal  one  resembled  the 
clown  of  modern  pantomime  ;  another  was  a  kind  of  pantaloon 
or  charlatan,  and  much  of  the  rest  consisted  of  practical  jokes, 
like  that  of  the  Italian  Polincinella.  After  their  introduction 
at  Rome,  they  received  many  improvements;  they  lost  their  na- 
tive rusticity;  their  satire  was  good-natured;  their  jests  were 
seemly,  and  kept  in  check  by  the  laws  of  good  taste.  They 
were  not  acted  by  common  professional  performers,  and  even  a 
Roman  citizen  might  take  part  in  them  without  disgrace.  They 
were  known  by  the  name  of  *'  Fabulae  Atellana?,"  from  A  ttela,  a 
town  in  Campania,  where  they  were  first  performed.  They  re- 
mained in  favor  with  the  Roman  people  for  centuries.  Sylla 
amused  his  leisure  hours  in  writing  them,  and  Suetonius  bears 
testimony  to  their  having  been  a  popular  amusement  under  the 
empire. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  the  Etruscan  histr'wncs 
were  introduced,  whose  entertainments  consisted  of  graceful 
national  dances,  accompanied  with  the  music  of  the  flute,  but 
without  either  sontirs  or  dramatic  action.  With  these  dances  the 
Romans  combined  the  old  Fescennine  songs,  and  the  varied 
metres,  which  their  verse  permitted  to  the  vocal  parts,  gave  to  this 
mixed ^tertainment  the  name  of  Satura  (a  hodge-podge  or  pot- 
pourri), from  which,  in  after  times,  the  word  satire  was  derived. 

2.  Early  Latin  Poets. — At  the  conclusion  of  the  first  Punic 
war,  when  the  influence  of  Greek  intellect,  which  had  already 
long  been  felt  in  Italy,  had  extended  to  the  capital,  the  Romans 
were  prepared  for  the  reception  of  a  more  regular  drama.  But 
not  only  did  they  owe  to  Greece  the  principles  of  literary  taste; 
their  earliest  poet  was  one  of  that  nation.     Livius  Aiidronicus 


KOMAiSr   LITERATURE.  131 

(fl.  240  B.C.),  thougli  born  in  Italy,  and  educated  at  Rome,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  native  of  the  Greek  colony  of  Tarentum. 
He  was  at  first  a  slave,  probably  a  captive  taken  in  war,  but 
was  finally  emancipated  by  his  master,  in  whose  family  he  occu- 
pied the  position  of  instructor  to  his  children.  He  wrote  a 
translation,  or  perhaps  an  imitation  of  the  Odyssey,  in  the  old 
Saturnian  metre,  and  also  a  few  hymns.  His  principal  works, 
however,  were  tragedies;  but,  from  the  few  fragments  of  his 
writings  extant,  it  is  impossible  to  form  an  estimate  of  his  ability 
as  a  poet.  According  to  Livy,  Audrouicus  was  the  first  who 
substituted,  for  the  rude  extemporaneous  effusions  of  the  Fescen- 
nine  verse,  plays  with  a  regular  j^lot  and  fable.  In  consequence 
of  losing  his  voice,  from  being  frequently  encored,  he  obtained 
permission  to  introduce  a  boy  to  sing  the  ode  or  air  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  the  flute,  while  he  himself  represented  the  action 
of  the  song  by  his  gestures  and  dancing. 

jS^eevius  (fl.  235  e.g.)  was  the  first  poet  who  really  deserves 
the  name  of  Roman.  He  was  not  a  servile  imitator,  but  applied 
Greek  taste  and  cultivation  to  the  development  of  Roman  senti- 
ments, and  was  a  true  Roman  in  heart,  unsparing  in  his  censure 
of  immorality  and  his  admiration  for  heroic  self-devotion.  His 
honest  principles  cemented  the  strong  friendship  between  him  and 
the  upright  and  unbending  Cato,  a  friendship  which  probably 
contributed  to  form  the  political  and  literary  character  of  that 
stern  old  Roman.  The  comedies  of  Nsevius  had  undoubted 
pretensions  to  originahty  ;  he  held  up  to  public  scorn  the  vices 
and  follies  of  his  day,  and,  being  a  warm  supporter  of  the  people 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  nobility,  and  unable  to  resist 
indulgence  in  his  satiric  vein,  he  was  exiled  to  Utica,  where  he 
died.  He  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  the  Punic  war. 
Ennius  and  Yh*gil  unscrupulously  copied  and  imitated  him,  and 
Horace  writes  that  in  his  day  the  poems  of  Naevius  were  in  the 
hands  and  hearts  of  everybody.  The  fragments  of  his  wi'itings 
extant  are  not  more  numerous  than  those  of  Livius. 

XcBvius,  the  last  of  the  older  school  of  writers,  by  introducing 
new  principles  of  taste  to  his  countrymen,  prepared  the  way  for  a 
new  one;  and  Greek  literature  having  now  driven  out  its  prede- 
cessor, a  new  school  of  poetry  arose,  of  which  Ennius  (239-169  b.c.) 
was  the  founder.  He  earned  a  subsistence  as  a  teacher  of  Greek, 
was  the  friend  of  Scipio,  and,  at  his  death,  was  buried  in  the  family 
tomb  of  the  Scipios,  at  the  request  of  the  great  conqueror  of 
Hannibal,  whose  fame  he  contributed  to  hand  down  to  posterity 
Cicero  always  uses  the  appellation,  our  own  Ennius,  when  he 
quotes  his  poetry.     Horace  calls  him  Father  Ennius — ^a  term  im- 


132  ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

plying  reverence  and  regard — as  much  as  that  he  was  the  founder 
of  Latin  poetry.  He  was,hke  his  friends  Cato  the  censor,  and 
Scipio  Africanus  the  elder,  a  man  of  action  as  well  as  philosophical 
thought,  and  not  only  a  poet,  but  a  brave  soldier,  with  all  the 
singleness  of  heart  and  simplicity  of  manners  which  marked  the 
old  times  of  Koman  virtue.  Ennius  possessed  great  power  over 
words,  and  wielded  that  power  skillfully.  He  improved  the 
language  in  its  harmony  and  its  grammatical  forms,  and  in- 
creased its  copiousness  and  power.  What  he  did  was  improved 
upon,  but  was  never  undone,  and  upon  the  foundations  he  laid 
the  taste  of  succeedhig  ages  erected  an  elegant  and  beautiful 
superstructure.  His  great  epic  poem — the  "  Annals  " — gained 
him  the  attachment  and  admiration  of  his  countrymen.  In  this 
he  first  introduced  the  hexameter  to  the  notice  of  the  Romans, 
and  detailed  the  rise  and  progress  of  their  national  glory,  from  the 
earliest  legendary  period  down  to  his  own  times.  The  fragments 
of  this  work  which  remain  are  amply  sufficient  to  show  that  he 
possessed  picturesque  power,  both  in  sketching  his  narratives  and 
in  portraying  his  characters,  which  seem  to  live  and  breathe ;  his 
language,  dignified,  chaste  and  severe,  rises  as  high  as  the  most 
majestic  eloquence,  but  it  does  not  soar  to  the  sublimity  of 
poetry.  As  a  dramatic  poet,  Ennius  docs  not  deserve  a  higli 
reputation.  In  comedy,  as  in  tragedy,  he  never  emancipated 
himself  from  the  Greek  originals. 

3.  Roman  Comedy. — The  rude  comedy  of  the  early  Romans 
made  little  progress  beyond  personal  satire,  burlesque  extrava- 
gance and  licentious  jesting,  but  upon  this  was  ingrafted  the 
new  Greek  comedy,  and  hence  arose  that  phase  of  the  drama,  of 
which  the  representatives  were  Plautus,  Statius  and  Terence. 
The  Roman  comedy  was  calculated  to  produce  a  moral  result, 
although  the  morality  it  inculcated  was  extremely  low.  Its 
standard  was  worldly  prudence,  its  lessons  utilitarian,  and  its 
philosophy  Epicurean.  There  is  a  want  of  variety  in  the  plots, 
but  this  defect  is  owing  to  the  social  and  political  condition  of 
ancient  Greece,  which  was  represented  in  the  Greek  comedies 
and  copied  by  the  Romans.  There  is  also  a  sameness  in  the 
dramatis  persona;,  the  principal  characters  being  always  a  morose 
or  a  gentle  father,  who  is  sometimes  also  tlie  henpecked  husband 
of  a  rich  wife,  an  affectionate  or  domineering  wife,  a  good- 
natured  profligate,  a  roguish  servant,  a  calculating  slave-dealer, 
and  some  others. 

The  actors  wore  appropriate  masks,  the  features  of  which 
were  not  only  grotesque,  but  much  exaggerated  and  magnified. 


EOilAX    LITER ATUEE.  133 

This  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  hnmense  size  of  the  theatre 
and  stage,  and  the  mouth  of  the  mask  answered  the  purpose  of 
a  speaking  trumpet,  to  assist  in  conveying  the  voice  to  every 
part  of  the  vast  building.  The  characters  were  known  by  a  con- 
ventional costume;  old  men  wore  robes  of  white,  young  men 
were  attired  in  gay  clothes,  rich  men  in  purple,  soldiers  in 
scarlet,  poor  men  and  slaves  in  dark  and  scanty  dresses.  The 
comedy  had  always  a  musical  accompaniment  of  flutes  of  dif- 
ferent kinds. 

In  order  to  understand  the  principles  which  regulated  the 
Roman  comic  metres,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  manner  in 
which  the  language  itself  was  affected  by  the  common  conver- 
sational pronunciation.  Latin,  as  it  was  pronounced,  was  very 
different  from  Latin  as  it  is  written  ;  this  difference  consisted  in 
abbreviation,  either  by  the  omission  of  sounds  altogether,  or  by 
tlie  contraction  of  two  sounds  into  one,  and  in  this  respect  the 
conversational  langruao-e  of  the  Romans  resembled  that  of  modern 
nations  ;  with  them,  as  with  us,  the  mark  of  good  taste  was  ease 
and  the  absence  of  pedantry  and  affectation.  In  the  comic 
writers  we  have  a  complete  representation  of  Latin  as  it  was 
commonly  pronounced  and  spoken,  and  but  little  trammelled  or 
confined  by  a  rigid  adhesion  to  Greek  metrical  laws. 

4.  Comic  Poets. — Plautus  (22T-18-1:  b.c.)  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Ennius  ;  he  was  a  native  of  Umbria,  and  of  humble 
ori!2:in.  Education  did  not  overcome  his  vuliraritv,  althou2:h  it 
produced  a  great  effect  upon  his  language  and  style.  He 
mast  have  lived  and  associated  with  the  people  whose  manners 
he  describes,  hence  his  pictures  are  correct  and  truthful.  The 
class,  from  which  his  representations  are  taken,  consisted  of 
clients,  the  sons  of  freedmen  and  the  half-enfranchised  natives  of 
Italian  towns.  He  had  no  aristocratic  friends,  like  Ennius  and 
Terence  ;  the  Roman  public  were  his  patrons,  and  notwithstand- 
ing their  faults,  his  comedies  retained  their  popularity  even  in 
the  Augustan  age,  and  were  acted  as  late  as  the  reign  of 
Diocletian.  Life,  bustle,  surprise,  unexpected  situations,  sharp, 
sparkling  raillery  that  knew  no  restraint  nor  bound,  left  his 
audience  no  time  for  dullness  or  weariness.  Although  Greek 
was  the  fountain  from  which  he  drew  his  stores,  his  wit,  thought 
and  lanoruasre  were  entirelv  Roman,  and  his  stvle  was  Latin  of 
the  purest  and  most  elegant  kind — not,  indeed,  controlled  by 
much  deference  to  the  laws  of  metrical  harmony,  but  full  of  pith 
and  sprightliness,  bearing  the  stamp  of  colloquial  vivacity,  and 
suitable  to  the  general  briskness  of  his  scenes.     Yet  we  miss  all 


134  KOMAN    LITEKATUKE. 

symptoms  of  deference,  in  the  tone  of  his  dialogue,  to  the  taste 
of  the  more  polished  classes  of  society.  Almost  all  his  comedies 
were  adopted  from  the  new  comedy  of  the  Greeks,  and  though 
he  had  studied  both  the  old  and  the  middle  comedy,  Menauder 
and  others  of  the  same  school  furnished  him  the  originals  of  his 
plots.  The  popularity  of  Plautus  was  not  confined  to  Rome, 
either  republican  or  impsrial.  Dramatic  writers  of  modern  times, 
as  Shaks])eare,  Dryden  and  Moliere,  have  recognized  the  effect- 
iveness of  his  plots,  and  have  adopted  or  imitated  them.  About 
twenty  of  his  plays  are  extant,  among  which  the  Captivi,  the 
Epidicus,  the  Cistellaria,  the  Aulularia  and  the  Rudens  are 
considered  the  best. 

Terence  (193-158  b.c.)  was  a  slave  in  the  family  of  a  Roman 
senator,  and  was  probably  a  native  of  Carthage.  His  genius 
presented  the  rare  combination  of  all  the  fine  and  delicate 
qualities  which  characterized  Attic  sentiment,  without  corrupt- 
ing the  native  purity  of  the  Latin  language.  The  elegance  and 
gracefulness  of  his  style  show  that  the  conversation  of  the 
accomplished  society,  in  which  he  was  a  welcome  guest,  was  not 
lost  upon  his  correct  ear  and  quick  intuition.  So  far  as  it  can 
be  so,  comedy  was,  in  the  hands  of  Terence,  an  instrument  of 
moral  teaching.  Six  of  his  comedies  only  remain,  of  which  the 
Andrian  and  the  Adelphi  are  the  most  interesting.  If  Terence 
was  inferior  to  Plautus  in  life,  bustle  and  intrigue,  and  in  the 
delineation  of  national  character,  he  is  superior  in  elegance  of 
language  and  refinement  of  taste.  The  justness  of  his  reflections 
more  than  compensates  for  the  absence  of  his  predecessor's 
humor  ;  he  touches  the  heart  as  well  as  gratifies  the  intellect. 

Of  the  few  other  writers  of  comedy  among  the  Romans,  Statins 
may  be  mentioned,  who  flourished  between  Plautus  and  Terence. 
He  was  an  emancipated  slave,  born  in  Milan.  Cicero  and  Yarro 
have  pronounced  judgment  upon  his  merits,  the  substance  of 
which  appears  to  be,  that  his  excellences  consisted  in  the  conduct 
of  the  plot,  in  dignity  and  in  pathos,  while  his  fault  was  too 
little  care  in  preserving  the  purity  of  the  Latin  style.  The  frag- 
ments, however,  of  his  works,  which  remain,  are  not  sufficient  to 
test  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  critics. 

5.  RoMAX  Tragedy.^ — While  Roman  comedy  was  brought  to 
perfection  under  the  influence  of  Greek  literature,  Roman 
tragedy,  on  the  other  hand,  was  transplanted  from  Athens,  and, 
with  few  exceptions,  was  never  anything  more  than  translation 
or  imitation.  In  the  century  diu'ing  which,  together  with 
comedy,  it  flourished  and  decayed,   it  boasted  of  five  distin- 


ROMAN   LITERATURE.  135 

guished  TrtTiter.^,  Livius,  jSTievius,  Ennms  (already  spoken  of), 
Pacuviiis  and  Attius.  In  after  ages,  Rome  did  not  produce  one 
tragic  poet,  unless  Yarius  be  considered  an  exception.  The 
tragedies  attributed  to  Seneca  were  never  acted,  and  were  only 
composed  for  readiug  and  recitation. 

Among  the  causes  which  prevented  tragedy  from  flourishing 
at  Rome,  was  the  little  influence  the  national  legends  exerted 
over  the  people.  These  legends  were  more  often  private  than 
public  property,  and  ministered  more  to  the  glory  of  private 
families  than  to  that  of  the  nation  at  large.  Thev  were 
embalmed  by  their  poets  as  curious  records  of  antiquity,  but  they 
did  not,  like  the  venerable  traditions  of  Greece,  twine  them- 
selves around  the  heart  of  the  nation.  Another  reason  why 
Roman  legends  had  not  the  power  to  move  the  affections  of  the 
Roman  populace,  is  to  Ije  found  in  the  changes  the  masses  had 
undergone.  The  Roman  people  were  no  longer  the  descendants 
of  those  who  had  maintained  the  national  glory  in  the  early 
period  ;  the  patrician  families  were  almost  extinct ;  war  and 
poverty  had  extinguished  the  middle  classes  and  miserably 
thinned  the  lower  orders.  Into  the  vacancy  thus  caused,  poured 
thousands  of  slaves,  captives  in  the  bloody  wars  of  Gaul,  Spain, 
Greece  and  Africa.  These  and  their  descendants  replaced  the 
ancient  people,  and  while  many  of  them  by  their  talents  and 
energy  arrived  at  Avealth  and  station,  they  could  not  possibly  be 
Romans  at  heart,  or  consider  the  past  glories  of  their  adopted 
country  as  their  own.  It  was  to  the  rise  of  this  new  element  of 
population,  and  the  displacement  or  absorption  of  the  old  race, 
that  the  decline  of  patriotism  was  owing,  and  the  disregard  of 
everything  except  daily  sustenance  and  daily  amusement,  which 
paved  the  way  for  the  empire  and  marked  the  downfall  of  liberty. 
With  the  people  of  Athens,  tragedy  formed  a  part  of  the 
national  religion.  By  it  the  people  were  taught  to  sympathize 
with  their  heroic  ancestors;  the  poet  was  held  to  be  inspired,  and 
poetry  the  tongue  in  which  the  natural  held  communion  with  the 
supernatural.  With  the  Romans,  the  theatre  was  merely  a  place 
for  secular  amusement,  and  poetry  only  an  exercise  of  the  fancy. 
Again,  the  religion  of  the  Romans  was  not  ideal,  like  that  of  the 
Greeks.  The  old  national  faith  of  Italy,  not  being  rooted  in  the 
heart,  soon  became  obsolete,  and  readily  admitted  the  ingraft- 
ing of  foreign  superstitions,  which  had  no  hold  on  the  belief  or 
love  of  the  people.  ISTor  was  the  genius  of  the  Roman  people 
such  as  to  sympathize  with  the  legends  of  the  past  ;  they  lived 
only  in  the  present  and  the  future  ;  they  did  not  look  back  on 
their  national  heroes  as  demigods;  they  were  pressing  forward  to 


136  ROM  AX   LITER  ATUllE. 

extend  the  frontiers  of  their  empire,  to  bring  under  their  yoke 
nations  which  their  forefathers  had  not  known.  If  they  re- 
garded their  ancestors  at  all,  it  was  not  in  the  light  of  men 
of  heroic  stature  as  compared  with  themselves,  but  as  those 
whom  they  could  equal  or  even  surpass. 

The  scenes  of  real  life,  the  bloody  combats  of  the  gladiators, 
the  captives  and  malefactors  stretched  on  crosses,  expiring  in 
excruciating  agonies  or  mangled  by  wild  beasts,  were  the 
tragedies  which  most  deeply  interested  a  Roman  audience. 

The  Romans  were  a  rough  people,  full  of  physical  rather  than 
of  intellectual  energy,  courting  peril  and  setting  no  value  on 
human  life  or  suffering.  Their  very  virtues  were  stern  and 
severe  ;  they  were  strangers  to  both  the  passions  which  it  was 
the  object  of  tragedy  to  excite — pity  and  terror.  In  the  public 
games  of  Greece,  the  refinements  of  poetry  mingled  with  those 
exercises  which  were  calculated  to  invigorate  the  physical  powers, 
and  de\  elop  manly  beauty.  Those  of  Rome  were  sanguinary  and 
brutalizing,  the  amusements  of  a  nation  to  whom  war  was  a 
pleasure  and  a  pastime. 

It  cannot  be  asserted,  however,  that  tragedy  was  never  to  a 
certain  extent  an  acceptable  entertainment  at  Rome,  but  only 
that  it  never  flourished  there  as  it  did  at  Athens,  and  that  no 
Roman  tragedies  can  be  compared  with  those  of  Greece. 

6.  Tragic  Poets. — Three  separate  eras  produced  tragic  poets. 
In  the  first  flourished  Livius  Andronicus,  Nasvius  and  Ennius  ; 
in  the  second,  Pacuvius  and  Attius  ;  in  the  third,  Asinius 
Pollio  wrote  tragedies,  the  plots  of  which  seem  to  have  been 
taken  from  Roman  history.  Ovid  attempted  a  "  Medea,"  and 
even  the  emperor  Augustus,  with  other  men  of  genius,  tried 
their  hand,  though  unsuccessfully,  at  tragedy. 

In  the  second  of  the  eras  mentioned,  Roman  tragedy  reached 
its  highest  degree  of  perfection  simultaneously  with  that  of 
comedy.  While  Terence  was  successfully  reproducing  the  wit 
and  manners  of  the  new  Attic  comedy,  Pacuvius  (220-130  b.c.) 
was  enriching  the  Roman  drama  with  free  translations  of  the 
Greek  tragedians.  He  was  a  native  of  Brundusium  and  a 
grandson  of  the  poet  Ennius.  At  Rome  he  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  painter  as  well  as  a  dramatic  poet.  Ilis  tragedies  were 
not  mere  translations,  but  adaptations  of  Greek  tragedies  to  the 
Roman  stage.  The  fragments  which  are  extant  are  fall  of  new 
and  original  thoughts,  and  the  very  roughness  of  his  style  and  auda- 
city of  his  expressions  have  somewhat  of  the  solemn  grandeur  and 
picturesque  boldness,  which  distinguish  the  father  of  Attic  tragedy. 


ROMAN   LITERATL'RE.  137 

Attius  (fl.  138  B.C.),  though  born  later  than  Pacuvius,  was 
almost  his  contemporary,  and  a  competitor  for  popular  applause. 
He  is  said  to  have  written  more  than  fifty  tragedies,  of  which 
fragments  only  remain.  His  taste  is  chastened,  his  sentiments 
noble,  and  his  versification  elegant.  With  him,  Latin  tragedy 
disappeared.  The  tragedies  of  the  third  period  were  written 
expressly  for  reading  and  recitation,  and  not  for  the  stage — 
they  were  dramatic  poems,  not  dramas.  Amidst  the  scenes  of 
horror  and  violence  which  followed,  the  voice  of  the  tragic  muse 
was  hushed.  Massacre  and  rapine  raged  through  the  streets 
of  Rome,  itself  a  theatre,  where  the  most  terrible  scenes  were 
daily  enacted. 

t.  Satire. — The  invention  of  satire  is  universally  attributed 
to  the  Romans,  and  this  is  true  as  far  as  the  external  form 
is  concerned,  but  the  spirit  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
literature  of  Greece.  Ennius  was  the  inventor  of  the  name,  but 
Lucilius  (148-102  b.c.)  was  the  father  of  satire,  in  the  proper 
sense.  His  satires  mark  an  era  in  Roman  literature,  and  prove 
that  a  love  for  this  species  of  poetry  had  already  made  great 
progress.  Hitherto,  literature,  science  and  art  had  been  con- 
sidered the  province  of  slaves  and  freedmen.  The  stern  old  Ro- 
man virtue  despised  such  sedentary  employment  as  intellectual 
cultivation,  and  thought  it  unworthy  of  the.  warrior  and  states- 
man. Some  of  the  higher  classes  loved  literature  and  patronized 
it,  but  did  not  make  it  their  pursuit.  Lucilius  was  a  Roman 
knight,  as  well  as  a  poet.  His  satires  were  comprised  in  thirty 
books,  numerous  fragments  of  which  are  still  extant.  He  was  a 
man  of  high  moral  principle,  though  stern  and  stoical;  a  relent- 
less enemy  of  vice  and  profligacy,  and  a  gallant  and  fearless 
defender  of  truth  and  honesty.  After  the  death  of  Lucilius 
satire  languished,  until  half  a  century  later,  when  it  assumed  a 
new  garb  in  the  descriptive  scenes  of  Horace,  and  put  forth  its 
original  vigor  in  the  burning  thoughts  of  Persius  and  Juvenal. 

8.  History  and  Oratory. — Prose  was  far  more  in  accordance 
with  the  genius  of  the  Romans,  than  poetry.  As  a  nation,  they 
had  little  or  no  imaginative  power,  no  enthusiastic  love  of  natural 
beauty,  and  no  acute  perception  of  the  sympathy  between  man 
and  the  external  world.  The  favorite  civil  pursuit  of  an  en- 
lightened Roman  was  statesmanship,  and  the  subjects  akin  to  it, 
history,  jurisprudence  and  oratory,  the  natural  language  of  which 
was  prose,  not  poetry.  And  their  practical  statesmanship  gave 
an  early  encouragement  to  oratory,  which  is  peculiarly  the  litera- 


138  EOMAN    LITERATURE.  < 

ture  of  active  life.  As  matter  was  more  valued  than  manner  by 
this  utilitarian  people,  it  was  long  before  it  was  thought 'necessary 
to  embelUsh  prose  composition  with  the  graces  of  rhetoric.  The 
fact  that  lloman  literature  was  imitative  rather  than  inventive, 
gave  a  historical  bias  to  the  Roman  intellect,  and  a  tendency  to 
study  subjects  in  a  historical  point  of  view.  But  even  in  history, 
they  never  attained  that  comprehensive  and  philosophical  spirit, 
which  distinguished  the  Greek  historians. 

The  most  ancient  writer  of  Roman  history  was  Fabius  Pictor 
(fl.  219  B.C.)  His  principal  work,  written  in  Greek,  was  a  history 
of  the  first  and  second  Punic  war,  to  which  subsequent  writers 
were  much  indebted.  Contemporary  with  Fabius  was  Cincius 
Alimentus,  also  an  annalist  of  the  Punic  Avar,  in  which  he  was 
personally  engaged.  He  was  a  prisoner  of  Hannibal,  who  de- 
lighted in  the  society  of  literary  men,  and  treated  him  with  great 
kindness  and  consideration,  and  himself  communicated  to  him 
the  details  of  his  passage  across  the  Alps.  Like  Fabius,  he 
wrote  his  work  in  Greek,  and  prefixed  to  it  a  brief  abstract  of 
Roman  history.  Though  the  works  of  these  annalists  are  valu- 
able as  furnishing  materials  for  more  philosophical  minds,  they 
are  only  such  as  could  have  existed  in  the  infancy  of  a  national 
literature.  They  were  a  bare  compilation  of  facts — the  mere 
framework  of  history — diversified  by  no  critical  remarks  or 
political  reflections,  ,and  meagre  and  insipid  in  style. 

The  versatility  of  talent  displayed  by  Cato  the  censor  (22-4-144 
B.C.)  entitles  him  to  a  place  among  orators,  jurists,  economists 
and  historians.  His  life  extends  over  a  wide  and  important 
period  of  literary  history,  when  everything  was  in  a  state  of 
change  in  morals,  social  habits  and  literary  taste.  Cato  was 
born  in  Tusculum,  and  passed  his  boyhood  in  the  pursuits  of  rural 
life  at  a  small  Sabine  farm  belonging  to  his  father.  The  skill 
with  which  he  pleaded  the  causes  of  his  clients  before  the  rural 
magistracy,  made  his  abilities  known,  and  he  rose  rapidly  to 
eminence  as  a  pleader.  He  filled  many  high  oflices  of  state;  his 
energies  were  not  weakened  by  advancing  age,  and  he  was 
always  ready  as  the  advocate  of  virtue,  the  champion  of  the 
oppressed,  and  the  punisher  of  vice.  With  many  defects,  Cato 
was  morally  and  intellectually  one  of  the  greatest  men  Rome 
ever  produced.  He  had  the  ability  and  the  determination  to  excel 
in  everything  which  he  undertook.  His  style  is  rude,  unpolished, 
ungraceful,  because  to  him  polish  was  superficial,  and,  therefore, 
unreal.  His  statements,  however,  were  clear,  his  illustrations 
striking;  the  words  with  which  he  enriched  his  native  tongue 
were  full  of  meaning;  his  wit  was  keen  and  lively,  and  his  argu- 


ROMAN   LITEKATUKE.  139 

ments  went  straight  to  the  intellect,  and  carried  conviction  with 
them. 

Cato's  great  historical  and  antiquarian  work,  **  The  Origins," 
was  a  history  of  Italy  and  Rome  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
latest  events  which  occurred  in  his  own  lifetime.  It  was  a  work 
of  great  research  and  originality,  but  only  brief  fragments 
of  it  remain.  In  the  "  De  Ke  Rustica,"  which  has  come  down 
to  us  in  form  and  substance  as  it  was  written,  Cato  maintains, 
in  the  introduction,  the  superiority  of  agriculture  over  other 
modes  of  gaining  a  livelihood.  The  work  itself  is  a  common- 
place book  of  agriculture  and  domestic  economy;  its  object  is 
utility,  not  science :  it  serves  the  purpose  of  a  farmer's  and  gar- 
dener's manual,  a  domestic  medicine,  herbal  and  cookery  book. 
Cato  teaches  his  readers,  for  example,  how  to  plant  osier  beds, 
to  cultivate  vegetables,  to  preserve  the  health  of  cattle,  to  pickle 
pork,  and  to  make  savory  dishes. 

Of  the  "  Orations  "  of  Cato,  ninety  titles  are  extant,  together 
with  numerous  fragments.  In  style  he  despised  art.  He  was 
too  fearless  and  upright,  too  confident  in  the  justness  of  his 
cause  to  be  a  rhetorician ;  he  imitated  no  one,  and  no  one  was 
ever  able  to  imitate  him.  ^Niebuhr  pronounces  him  to  be  the 
only  great  man  in  his  generation,  and  one  of  the  greatest  and 
most  honorable  characters  in  Roman  history. 

Yarro  (116-28  e.g.)  was  an  agriculturist,  a  grammarian,  a 
critic,  a  theologian,  a  historian,  a  philosopher,  a  satirist.  Of  his 
miscellaneous  works  con^siderable  portions  are  extant,  sufficient 
to  display  his  erudition  and  acuteness,  yet,  in  themselves,  more 
curious  than  attractive. 

Eloquence,  though  of  a  rude,  unpolished  kind,  must  have  been, 
in  the  very  earliest  times,  a  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people. 
It  is  a  plant  indigenous  to  a  free  soil.  As  in  modern  times  it 
has  flourished  especially  in  England  and  America,  fostered  by 
the  unfettered  freedom  of  debate,  so  it  found  a  congenial  home 
in  free  Greece  and  republican  Rome.  Oratory  was,  in  Rome, 
the  unwritten  literature  of  active  life,  and  recommended  itself  to 
a  warlike  and  utilitarian  people  by  its  utility  and  its  antagonistic 
spirit.  Long  before  the  art  of  the  historian  was  sufficiently 
advanced  to  record  a  speech,  the  forum,  the  senate,  the  battle- 
field, and  the  threshold  of  the  jurisconsult  had  been  nurseries  of 
Romau  eloquence,  or  schools  in  which  oratory  attained  a  vigorous 
youth,  and  prepared  for  its  subsequent  maturity. 

While  the  legal  and  political  constitution  of  the  Roman 
people  gave  direct  encouragement  to  deliberative  and  judicial 
oratory,  respect  for  the  illustrious  dead  furnished  opportunities 


140  EOMAX   LITERATURE. 

for  panegyric.  The  song  of  the  bard  in  honor  of  the  departed 
warrior  gave  place  to  the  funeral  oration.  Among  the  orators 
of  this  time  were  the  two  Scipios,  and  Galba,  whom  Cicero 
praises  as  having  been  the  first  Roman  who  understood  how  to 
apply  the  theoretical  principles  of  Greek  rhetoric. 

All  periods  of  pohiical  disquiet  are  necessarily  favorable  to 
eloquence,  and  the  era  of  the  Gracchi  was  especially  so.  After 
a  struggle  of  nearly  four  centuries,  the  old  distinction  of  plebeian 
and  patrician  no  longer  existed.  Plebeians  held  high  offices,  and 
patricians,  hke  the  Gracchi,  stood  forward  as  champions  of  popu- 
lar rights.  These  stirring  times  produced  many  celebrated 
orators.  The  Gracchi  themselves  were  both  eloquent  and  pos- 
sessed of  those  qualities  and  endowments  which  would  recommend 
their  eloquence  to  their  countrymen.  Oratory  began  now  to  be 
studied  more  as  an  art,  and  the  interval  between  the  Gracchi 
and  Cicero  boasted  of  many  distinguished  names  ;  the  most 
illustrious  among  them  are  M.  Antonius,  Crassus,  and  Cicero's 
contemporary  and  most  formidable  rival,  Hortensius. 

M.  Antonius  (fl.  119  e.g.)  entered  public  life  as  a  pleader,  and 
thus  laid  the  foundation  of  his  brilhant  career  ;  but  he  was 
through  life  greater  as  a  judicial  than  as  a  deliberative  orator. 
He  was  indefatigable  in  preparing  his  case,  and  made  every 
point  tell.  He  was  a  great  master  of  the  pathetic,  and  knew 
the  way  to  the  heart.  Although  he  did  not  himself  give  his 
speeches  to  posterity,  some  of  his  most  pointed  expressions  and 
favorite  passages  left  an  indelible  impression  on  the  memories 
of  his  hearers,  and  many  of  them  were  preserved  by  Cicero.  In 
the  prime  of  life  he  fell  a  victim  to  political  fury,  and  his 
bleeding  head  was  placed  upon  the  rostrum,  which  was  so  fre- 
(piently  the  scene  of  his  eloquent  triumphs. 

L.  Licinius  Crassus  was  four  years  younger  than  Antonius, 
and  acquired  great  reputation  for  his  knowledge  of  jurisprudence, 
for  his  eminence  as  a  pleader,  and,  above  all,  for  his  powerful 
and  triumphant  orations  in  support  of  the  restoration  of  the 
judicial  office  to  the  senators.  From  among  the  crowd  of  orators, 
which  were  thea  flourishing  in  the  last  days  of  expiriug  Roman 
liberty,  Cicero  selected  Crassus  to  be  the  representative  of  his 
sentiments  in  his  imaginary  conversation  in  "  The  Orator." 
Like  Lord  Chatham,  Crassus  almost  died  on  the  floor  of  the 
Senate  house,  and  his  last  effort  was  in  support  of  the  aristo- 
cratic party. 

Q.  Hortensius  was  born  114  b.c.  He  was  only  eight  years 
senior  to  the  greatest  of  all  Roman  orators.  He  early  com- 
menced his  career  as  a  pleader,  and  he  was  the  acknowledged 


EOilAX   LITERATURE.  141 

leader  of  the  Roman  bar,  until  the  star  of  Cicero  arose.  His 
political  connection  with  the  faction  of  Sjlla,  and  his  unscrupulous 
support  of  the  profligate  corruption  which  characterized  that 
administration,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  enlisted  his  legal 
talents  in  defence  of  the  infamous  Yerres;  but  the  eloquence  of 
Cicero,  together  with  the  justice  of  the  cause  which  he  espoused, 
])revailed ;  and  from  that  time  forward,  his  superiority  over 
Hortensius  was  estabhshed  and  complete.  Tlie  style  of 
Hortensius  was  Asiatic — more  florid  and  ornate  than  polished 
and  refined. 

9.  KoiiAN  Jurisprudence. — The  framework  of  their  juris- 
prudence the  Romans  derived  from  Athens,  but  the  complete 
structure  was  built  up  by  their  own  hands.  They  were  the 
authors  of  a  system  possessing  such  stability  that  they  bequeathed 
it,  as  an  inheritance,  to  modern  Europe,  and  traces  of  Roman 
law  are  visible  in  the  lesral  systems  of  the  whole  civilized  world. 

The  complicated  principles  of  jurisprudence  of  the  Roman 
constitution  became,  in  Rome,  a  necessary  part  of  a  liberal 
education.  AYhen  a  Roman  youth  had  completed  his  studies, 
under  his  teacher  of  rhetoric,  he  not  only  frequented  the  forum, 
in  order  to  learn  the  application  of  the  rhetorical  principles  he  had 
acquired,  and  frequently  took  some  celebrated  orator  as  a  model, 
but  also  studied  the  principles  of  jurisprudence  under  eminent 
jurists,  and  attended  the  consultations  in  which  they  gave  to 
their  clients  their  expositions  of  law. 

The  earliest  systematic  works  on  Roman  law  were  the 
"  Manual "  of  Pomponius,  and  the  "  Institutes  "  of  Gains,  who 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines.  Both  of  ^ 
these  works  were,  for  a  long  time,  lost,  though  fragments  were 
preserved  in  the  pandects  of  Justinian.  In  1816,  however, 
Niebuhr  discovered  a  palimpsest  MS.,  in  which  the  epistles  of 
St.  Jerome  were  written  over  the  erased  "  Institutes  "  of  Gaius. 
From  the  numerous  misunderstandings  of  the  Roman  historians 
respecting  the  laws  and  constitutional  history  of  their  country, 
the  subject  continued  long  in  a  state  of  confusion,  until  Yico,  in 
his  "  Scienza  nuova,"  dispelled  the  clouds  of  error,  and  reduced 
it  to  a  system ;  and  he  was  followed  so  successfully  by  Xiebuhr, 
that  modern  students  can  have  a  more  comprehensive  and 
antiquarian  knowledge  of  the  subject,  than  the  writers  of  the 
Augustan   age. 

The  earliest  Roman  laws  were  the  "Leges  Regiai,"  which 
were  collected  and  codified  by  Sextus  Papuius,  and  were  hence 
called  the  Papirian  code;  but  these  were  rude  and  unconnected, 


142  EOilAN   LITER ATtrPwE. 

— simply  a  collection  of  isolated  enactments.  The  laws  of  the 
"  Twelve  Tables  "  stand  next  in  point  of  antiquity.  They 
exhibited  the  first  attempt  at  regular  system,  and  embodied  not 
only  legislative  enactments,  but  legal  principles.  So  popular 
were  they  that  when  Cicero  was  a  child  every  Roman  boy  com- 
mitted them  to  memory,  as  our  children  do  their  catechism, 
and  the  c-reat  orator  laments  that  in  the  course  of  his  lifetime 
this  practice  had  become  obsolete. 

The  oral  traditional  expositions  of  these  laws  formed  tlie 
groundwork  of  the  Roman  civil  law.  To  these  were  added, 
from  time  to  time,  the  decrees  of  the  people,  the  acts  of  tlie 
senate,  and  pretorian  edicts,  and  from  these  various  elements  the 
whole  body  of  Roman  law  was  composed.  So  early  was  the 
sul)ject  diligently  studied,  that  the  age  preceding  the  first  two  cen- 
turies of  our  era  was  rich  in  jurists,  whose  powers  are  celebrated 
in  historv. 

The  most  eminent  jurists,  who  adorned  this  period,  were  tlie 
Scoevoke,  a  family  in  whom  the  profession  seems  to  have  been 
hereditary.  After  them  flourished  ^Elius  Gallus  (123-6T  e.g.), 
eminent  as  a  law  reformer,  C.  Juventius,  Sextus  Papirius  and 
L.  Lucilius  Balbus,  three  distinguished  jurists,  who  were  a  few 
years  senior  to  Cicero. 

10.  GRAMMAmANS.' — Towards  the  conclusion  of  this  literary 
period  a  great  increase  took  place  in  the  numbers  of  those 
learned  men  whom  the  Romans  at  first  termed  literati,  but 
afterwards,  following  the  custom  of  the  Greeks,  grammarians. 
To  them  literature  was  under  great  obligations.  Although 
few  of  them  were  authors,  and  all  of  them  possessed  acquired 
learning  rather  than  original  genius,  they  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  over  the  public  mind  as  professors,  lecturers,  critics  and 
schoolmasters.  By  them  the  youths  of  the  best  families  not 
only  were  imbued  with  a  taste  for  Greek  philosophy  and  poetry, 
but  were  also  taught  to  appreciate  the  literature  of  their  own 
country.  Livius  Androiiicus  and  Ennius  may  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  this  class,  followed  by  Crates  Mallotes,  C.  Octavius 
Lampadio,  La^lius,  Archelaus,  and  others,  most  of  whom  were 
emancipated  slaves,  either  from  Greece,  or  from  other  foreign 
countries. 


EOMAX   LITERATURE.  143 


PERIOD   SECOXD. 

FROM   THE    AGE    OF    CICERO   TO    THE   DEATH    OF    AUGUSTUS     (t-i     B.C. 

14  A.D.) 

1.  Development  OF  the  Roman  Literature. — Latin  literature, 
at  first  rude,  and,  for  live  centuries,  unable  to  reach  any  high 
excellence,  was,  as  we  have  seen,  gradually  developed  by  the 
example  and  tendency  of  the  Greek  mind,  which  moulded 
Roman  civilization  anew.  The  earliest  Latin  poets,  historians 
and  e-rammarians  were  Greeks.  The  metre  which  was  broua,-ht 
to  such  perfection  by  the  Latin  poets  was  formed  from  the 
Greeks,  and  the  Latin  language  more  and  more  assimilated  to 
the  Hellenic  tongue. 

As  civilization  advanced,  the  rude  literature  of  Rome  was 
compared  with  the  great  monuments  of  Greek  genius,  their 
superiority  was  acknowledged,  and  the  study  of  them  encouraged. 
The  Roman  youth  not  only  attended  the  schools  of  the  Greeks, 
in  Rome,  but  their  education  was  considered  incomplete,  unless 
they  repaired  to  those  of  Athens,  Rhodes  and  Mytilene.  Thus, 
whatever  of  national  character  existed  in  the  literature,  was 
gradually  obliterated,  and  what  it  gained  in  harmony  and  finish 
it  lost  in  originality.  The  Roman  writers  imitated  more  particu- 
larly the  writers  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  who,  being  more 
artificial,  were  more  congenial  than  the  great  writers  of  the  age 
of  Pericles. 

Roman  genius,  serious,  majestic,  and  perhaps  more  original 
than  at  a  later  period,  was  manifest  even  at  the  time  of  the 
Punic  wars,  but  it  had  not  yet  taken  form  ;  and  while  thought 
was  vigorous  and  powerful,  expression  remained  weak  and 
uncertain.  But,  under  the  Greek  influence,  and  aided  by  the 
vigor  imparted  by  free  institutions,  the  union  of  thought  and 
form  was  at  length  consummated,  and  the  literature  reached  its 
culminating  point  in  the  great  Roman  orator.  The  fruits  whicli 
had  grown  and  matured  in  the  centuries  preceding,  were  gathered 
by  Augustus ;  but  the  influences  that  contributed  to  the  splendor 
of  his  age  belong  rather  to  the  republic  than  the  empire,  and 
with  the  fall  of  the  liberties  of  Rome,  Roman  literature  de- 
clined. 

2.  Mimes,  Mimographers  and  Pantomime. — Amidst  all  the 
splendor  of  the  Latin  literature  of  this  period,  dramatic  poetry 
never  recovered  from  the  trance  into  which  it  had  fallen,  though 


144  EOMAX   LITEKATUEE, 

the  stage  had  not  altogether  lost  its  popularity,  ^sopus  and 
Koscius,  the  former  the  great  tragic  actor,  and  the  latter  the 
favorite  comedian,  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  enjoyed  his  friendship, 
and  that  of  other  great  men,  and  both  amassed  large  fortunes. 
But  although  the  standard  Roman  plays  were  constantly  repre- 
sented, dramatic  literature  had  become  extinct.  The  entertain- 
ments, which  had  now  taken  the  place  of  comedy  and  tragedy, 
were  termed  mmes.  These  were  laughable  imitations  of  manners 
and  persons,  combining  the  features  of  comedy  and  farce,  for 
comedy  represents  the  characters  of  a  class,  farce  those  of  in- 
dividuals. Their  essence  was  that  of  the  modern  pantomime, 
and  their  coarseness,  and  even  indecency,  gratified  the  love  of 
broad  humor  which  characterized  the  Roman  people.  After  a 
time,  when  they  became  established  as  popular  favorites,  the 
dialogue  occupied  a  more  prominent  position,  and  was  written  in 
verse,  like  that  of  tragedy  and  comedy.  During  the  dictator 
ship  of  Ca3sar,  a  Roman  knight  named  Laberius  (107-45  b.c. 
became  famous  for  his  mimes.  The  profession  of  an  actoi 
of  mimes  was  infamous,  but  Laberius  was  a  writer,  not  an 
actor.  On  one  occasion,  Caesar  offered  him  a  large  sum  of 
money  to  enter  the  lists  on  a  trial  of  his  improvisatorial  skill. 
Laberius  did  not  submit  to  the  degradation  for  the  sake  of  the 
money,  but  he  was  afraid  to  refuse.  The  only  method  of 
retaliation  in  his  power  was  sarcasm.  His  part  was  that  of  a 
slave;  and  when  his  master  scourged  him,  he  exclaimed:  "  Porro, 
Quirites,  libertatem  perdimus!"  His  words  were  received  with 
a  round  of  applause,  and  all  eyes  were  fixed  on  Caesar.  The 
dictator  restored  him  to  the  rank  of  which  his  act  had  deprived 
liim,  but  he  could  never  recover  the  respect  of  his  countrymen. 
As  he  passed  the  orchestra,  on  his  way  to  the  stalls  of  the 
knights,  Cicero  cried  out:  *' If  we  were  not  so  crowded,  I 
would  make  room  for  you  here."  Laberius  replied,  alluding  to 
Cicero's  lukewarmness  as  a  political  partisan:  "  I  am  astonished 
that  you  should  be  crowded,  as  you  generally  sit  on  two  stools." 

Another  writer  and  actor  of  mimes  was  Publius  Syrus, 
originally  a  Syrian  slave.  Tradition  has  recorded  a  hon  mot  of 
his  which  is  as  witty  as  it  is  severe.  Seeing  an  ill-tempered 
man  named  Mucius  in  low  spirits,  he  exclaimed:  "Either  some 
ill  fortune  has  happened  to  Mucius,  or  some  good  fortune  to  one 
of  his  friends!" 

The  Roman  pantomime  diifered  somewhat  from  the  mime.  It 
was  a  ballet  of  action,  performed  by  a  single  dancer,  who  not 
only  exhibited  the  human  figure  in  its  most  graceful  attitudes, 
but  represented  every  passion  and  emotion  with  such  truth  that 


KOMAN   LITERATURE.  145 

the  spectators  could,  without  difficulty,  understand  the  story. 
The  pantomime  was  licentious  in  its  character,  and  the  actors 
were  forbidden  by  Tiberius  to  hold  any  intercourse  with  Romans 
of  equestrian  or  senatorial  dignity. 

These  were  the  exhibitions  which  threw  sucli  discredit  on  the 
stage,  which  called  forth  the  well-deserved  attacks  of  the  early 
Christian  fathers,  and  caused  them  to  declare  that  whoever  at- 
tended them  was  unworthy  of  the  name  of  Christian.  Had  the 
drama  not  been  so  abused,  had  it  retained  its  original  purity, 
and  carried  out  the  object  attributed  to  it  by  Aristotle,  they 
would  have  seen  it,  not  a  nursery  of  vice,  but  a  school  of  virtue ; 
not  only  an  innocent  amusement,  but  a  powerful  engine  to  form 
the  taste,  to  improve  the  morals,  and  to  purify  the  feelings  of  a 
people. 

3.  Epic  Poetry. — The  epic  poets  of  this  period  selected  their 
subjects  cither  from  the  heroic  age  and  the  mythology  of  Greece, 
or  from  their  own  national  history.  The  Augustan  age  abounds 
in  representatives  of  these  two  poetical  schools,  though  possess- 
ing little  merit.  But  the  Romans,  essentially  practical  and 
positive  in  their  character,  felt  little  interest  in  the  descriptions 
of  manners  and  events  remote  from  their  associations,  and  poetry, 
restrained  within  the  limits  of  their  history,  could  not  rise  to 
that  height  of  imagination  demanded  by  the  epic  muse.  Yirgil 
united  the  two  forms  by  selecting  his  subject  from  the  national 
history,  and  adorning  the  ancient  traditions  of  Rome  with  the 
splendor  of  Greek  imagination. 

Yirgil  (70-19  e.g.)  was  born  at  Andes,  near  Mantua;  he 
was  educated  at  Cremona  and  at  Naples,  where  he  studied 
Greek  literature  and  philosophy.  After  this  he  came  to  Rome, 
where,  through  Maecenas,  he  became  known  to  Octavius,  and 
basked  in  the  sunshine  of  court  favor.  His  favorite  residence 
was  Naples.  On  his  return  from  Athens,  in  company  with 
Autz-ustus,  he  was  seized  with  an  illness  of  which  he  died.  He 
was  buried  about  a  mile  from  Naples,  on  the  road  to  Pozzuoli ; 
and  a  tomb  is  still  pointed  out  to  the  traveller  which  is  said  to 
be  that  of  the  poet.  Yirgil  was  deservedly  popular  both  as  a 
poet  and  as  a  man.  The  emperor  esteemed  him  and  people 
respected  him  ;  he  was  constitutionally  pensive  and  melancholy, 
temperate  and  pure-minded  in  a  profligate  age,  and  his  popularity 
never  spoiled  his  simplicity  and  modesty.  In  his  last  moments 
he  was  anxious  to  burn  the  whole  manuscript  of  the  JEneid,  and 
directed  his  executors  either  to  improve  it  or  commit  it  to  the 
flames. 

1 


146  KOMxiN   LITER ATUKE. 

The  idea  and  plan  of  the  J^neid  are  derived  from  Homer.  As 
the  wrath  of  Achilles  is  the  mainspring  of  the  Iliad,  so  the 
unity  of  the  ^Eneid  results  from  the  anger  of  Juno.  The  arrival 
of  yEneas  in  Italy  after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  the  obstacles 
that  opposed  him  through  the  intervention  of  Juno,  and  the 
adventures  and  the  victories  of  the  hero  form  the  subject  of  the 
poem.  Leaving  Sicily  for  Latium,  JEneas  is  driven  on  the 
coast  of  Africa  by  a  tempest  raised  against  him  by  Juno  ;  at 
Carthage  he  is  welcomed  by  the  queen  Dido,  to  whom  he  relates 
his  past  adventures  and  sufferings.  By  his  narrative  he  wins 
her  love,  but  at  the  command  of  Jupiter  abandons  her.  Unable 
to  retain  him,  Dido,  in  the  despair  of  her  passion,  destroys  her- 
self. After  passing  through  many  dangers,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Sibyl  of  Cuma,  he  descends  into  the  kingdom  of  the  dead 
to  consult  the  shade  of  his  father.  There  appear  to  him  the 
souls  of  the  future  heroes  of  Rome.  On  his  return,  he  becomes 
a  friend  of  the  king  of  Latium,  who  promises  to  him  the  hand 
of  his  daughter,  which  is  eagerly  sought  by  King  Turnus.  A 
fearfnl  war  ensues  between  the  rival  lovers,  which  ends  in  the 
victory  of  JEueas. 

Though  the  poem  of  Virgil  is  in  many  passages  an  imitation 
from  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  the  Roman  element  predomi- 
nates in  it,  and  the  ^neid  is  the  true  national  poem  of  Rome. 
There  was  no  subject  more  adapted  to  flatter  the  vanity  of  the 
Romans,  than  the  splendor  and  antiquity  of  their  origin. 
Augustus  is  evidently  typified  under  the  character  of  ^Eneas  ; 
Cleopatra  is  boldly  sketched  as  Dido  ;  and  Turnus  as  the 
popular  Anthony.  The  love  and  death  of  Dido,  the  passionate 
victim  of  an  unrequited  love,  give  occasion  to  the  poet  to  sing 
the  victories  of  his  countrymen  over  their  Carthaginian  rivals  ; 
the  Pythagorean  metempsychosis,  which  he  adopts  in  the  descrijv 
tion  of  p]lysium,  affords  an  opportunity  to  exalt  the  heroes  of 
Rome;  and  the  wars  of  JKneas  allow  him  to  describe  the 
localities  and  the  manners  of  ancient  Latium  with  such  truth- 
fulness, as  to  give  to  his  verses  the  authority  of  historical 
quotations.  In  style,  the  J^neid  is  a  model  of  purity  and 
elegance,  and  for  the  variety  and  the  harmony  of  its  incidents, 
for  the  power  of  its  descriptions,  and  for  the  interest  of  its  plot 
and  episodes,  second  only  to  the  Iliad.  It  has  been  observed 
that  VirgiFs  descriptions  are  more  like  landscape  painting  than 
those  of  any  by  his  predecessors,  whether  Greek  or  Roman,  and 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  landscape  painting  was  first  intro- 
duced in  his  time. 


ROMAN    LITEKATUFvE,  147 

4.  Didactic  Poetry. — The  poems,  wliicli  first  established  the 
reputation  of  Yirgil  as  a  poet,  belong  to  didactic  poetry. 
They  are  his  Bucolics  and  Georgics.  The  Bucohcs  are  pastoral 
idyls;  the  characters  are  Italian  in  all  their  sentiments  and 
feehugs,  acting,  however,  the  unreal  and  assumed  part  of  Greek 
shepherds.  The  Italians  never  possessed  the  elements  of  pasto- 
ral life,  and  could  not  furnish  the  poet  with  originals  and 
models  from  which  to  draw  his  portraits.  When  represented  as 
Yirgil  represents  them  in  his  Bucolics,  they  are  in  masquerade, 
and  the  drama  in  which  they  form  the  characters  is  of  an 
allegorical  kind.  Even  the  scenery  is  Sicilian,  and  does  not 
truthfully  describe  the  tame  neighborhood  of  Mantua.  In  fact, 
these  poems  are  imitations  of  Theocritus  ;  but,  divesting  our- 
selves of  the  idea  of  the  outward  form  which  the  poet  has 
chosen  to  adopt,  we  are  touched  by  the  simple  narrative  of 
disappointed  loves  and  childlike  woes  ;  we  appreciate  the 
delicately-veiled  compliments  paid  by  the  poet  to  his  patron ;  we 
enjoy  the  inventive  genius  and  poetical  power  which  they 
display,  and  we  are  elevated  by  the  exalted  sentiments  which 
they  sometimes  breathe. 

The  Georgics  are  poems  on  the  labors  and  enjoyments  of  rural 
life,  a  subject  for  which  Kome  offered  a  favorable  field.  Though 
in  this  style  Hesiod  was  the  model  of  Yirgil,  his  system  is  per- 
fectly ItaUan,  so  much  so,  that  many  of  his  rules  may  be  traced 
in  modern  Itahan  husbandry,  just  as  the  descriptions  of  imple- 
ments in  the  Greek  poet  are  frequently  found  to  agree  with 
those  in  use  in  modern  Greece.  The  great  merit  of  the 
Georgics  consists  in  their  varied  digressions,  interesting  episodes, 
and  in  the  sublime  bursts  of  descriptive  vigor  which  are 
interspersed  throughout  them.  They  have  frequently  been 
taken  as  models  for  imitation  by  the  didactic  poets  of  all 
nations,  and  more  particularly  of  England.  The  *'  Seasons," 
for  instance,  is  a  thoroughly  Yirgihan  poem. 

Lucretius  (95-51  e.g.)  belongs  to  the  class  of  didactic 
poets.  He  might  claim  a  place  among  philosophers  as  well 
as  poets,  for  his  poem  marks  an  epoch  both  in  poetry  and 
philosophy.  But  his  philosophy  is  a  mere  reflection  from 
that  of  Greece,  while  his  poetry  is  bright  with  the  rays  of 
original  genius.  His  poem  on  "  The  Mature  of  Things"  is  in 
imitation  of  that  of  Empedocles.  Its  subject  is  philosophical 
and  its  puq^ose  didactic  ;  but  its  unity  of  design  gives  to 
it  almost  the  rank  of  an  epic.  Its  structure  prevents  it 
from  being  a  complete  and  systematic  survey  of  the  whole 
Epicurean    philosophy,    but  as  far   as  the  form  of  the  poem 


148  nOMAN   LITERATURE. 

permitted,   it  presents    an   accurate   view  of    tlie   pliilosopLy 
which  then  enjoyed  the  highest  popularity. 

The  object  of  the  poem  of  Lucretius  is  to  emancipate  man- 
kind from  the  debasing  effects  of  superstition  by  an  exposition 
of  pliilosoph}^,  and  though  a  follower  of  Epicurus,  he  is  not 
entirely  destitute  of  the  rehgious  sentiment,  for  he  deifies  nature 
and  has  a  veneration  for  her  laws  ;  his  infidelity  must  be  viewed 
rather  in  the  light  of  a  philosophical  protest  against  the  results 
of  heathen  superstition,  than  a  total  rejection  of  the  principles  of 
religious  faith. 

Lucretius  valued  the  capabilities  of  the  Latin  language  ;  he 
wielded  at  will  its  power  of  embodying  the  noblest  thoughts,  and 
showed  how  its  copious  and  flexible  properties  could  overcome 
the  hard  technicalities  of  science.  The  great  beauty  of  his 
poetry  is  its  variety  ;  his  fancy  is  always  lively,  his  imagination 
has  always  free  scope.  He  is  sublime,  as  a  philosopher  who 
penetrates  the  secrets  of  the  natural  world,  and  disclosQS  to 
the  eyes  of  man  the  hidden  causes  of  its  wonderful  phenomena. 
His  object  was  a  lofty  one  ;  for  although  the  absurdities  of  the 
national  creed  drove  him  into  skepticism,  his  aim  was  to  set  the 
intellect  free  from  the  trammels  of  superstition.  But  besides 
grandeur  and  sublimity,  we  find  the  totally  different  qualities  of 
softness  and  tenderness.  Rome  had  long  known  nothing  but 
war,  and  was  how  rent  by  civil  dissension.  Lucretius  yearned 
for  peace  ;  and  his  prayer,  that  the  fabled  goddess  of  all  that  is 
beautiful  in  nature  would  heal  the  wounds  which  discord  had 
made,  is  distinguished  by  tenderness  and  pathos  even  more  than 
by  sublimity.  He  is  superior  to  Ovid  in  force,  though  inferior 
in  facility;  not  so  smooth  or  harmonious  as  Yirgil,  his  poetry 
always  falls  upon  the  ear  with  a  swelling  and  sonorous  melody. 
Yirgil  appreciated  his  excellence,  and  imitated  not  only  single 
expressions,  but  almost  entire  verses  and  passages  ;  and  Ovid 
exclaims,  that  the  sublime  strains  of  Lucretius  shall  never 
perish  until  the  world  shall  be  given  up  to  destruction. 

5.  Lyric  Poetry. — The  Romans  had  not  the  ideality  and  the 
enthusiasm,  which  are  the  elements  of  lyric  poetry,  and  in  all 
the  range  of  their  literature,  there  are  only  two  poets  who, 
greatly  inferior  to  the  lyi'ic  poets  of  Greece,  have  a  positive  claim 
to  a  place *in  this  department,  Catullus  and  Horace.  Catullus 
(8G-46  B.C.)  was  born  near  Yerona.  At  an  early  age  he  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  plunged  into  all  the  excesses  of  the  capital, 
and  where  his  sole  occupation  was  the  cultivation  of  his  literary 
tastes  and  talents.     A  career  of  extravagance  and  debauchery 


TcOMAX   LITERATUKE.  149 

terminated  iu  the  ruin  of  his  fortune,  and  he  died  at  the  age  of 
forty.  The  works  of  Catullus  consist  of  numerous  short  pieces 
of  a  lyrical  character,  elegies  and  other  poems.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  popular  of  the  Roman  poets,  because  he  possessed 
those  qualities  which  the  hterary  society  at  Kome  most  valued, 
polish  and  learning,  and  because,  although  an  hnitator,  there 
was  a  truly  Roman  nationality  in  all  that  he  wrote.  His  satire 
was  the  bitter  resentment  of  a  vindictive  spirit  ;  his  love  and  his 
hate  were  both  purely  selfish,  but  his  excellences  were  of  the 
most  alluring  and  captivating  kind.  He  has  never  been  sur- 
passed in  gracefulness,  melody  and  tenderness. 

Horace  (65-8  e.g.),  like  Yirgil  and  other  poets  of  his  time, 
enjoyed  the  friendship  and  intimacy  of  Miecenas,  who  procured 
for  him  the  public  grant  of  his  Sabine  farm,  situated  about 
fifteen  miles  from  Tivoli.  At  Rome  he  occupied  a  house  on  the 
beautiful  heights  of  the  Esquiline.  The  rapid  alternation  of 
town  and  country  life,  which  the  fickle  poet  mdulged  in,  gives  a 
peculiar  charm  to  his  poetry.  His  Satires  were  followed  by  the 
publication  of  the  "  Odes  "  and  the  "Epistles."  The  satires  of 
Horace  occupied  the  position  of  the  fashionable  novel  of  our  day. 
In  them  is  sketched  boldly,  but  good-humoredly,  a  picture  of 
Roman  social  life,  with  its  vices  and  follies.  They  have  nothing 
of  the  bitterness  of  Lucilius,  the  love  of  purity  and  honor  that 
adorns  Persius,  or  the  burnin2:  indio-nation  of  Juvenal  at  the 
loathsome  corruption  of  morals,  Yice,  in  his  day,  had  not 
reached  that  appalling  height,  which  it  attained  in  the  time  of 
the  emperor  who  succeeded  Augustus,  Deficient  in  moral 
purity,  nothing  would  strike  him  as  deserving  censure,  except 
such  excess  as  would  actually  defeat  the  object  vrhich  he  pro- 
posed to  himself,  namely,  the  utmost  enjoyment  of  life.  In  the 
"  Epistles,"  he  lays  aside  the  character  of  a  moral  teacher  or 
censor,  and  writes  with  the  freedom  with  which  he  would  con- 
verse with  an  intimate  friend.  But  it  is  in  his  inimitable 
"  Odes"  that  the  genius  of  Horace  as  a  poet  is  especially  dis- 
played ;  they  have  never  been  equalled  in  beauty  of  sentiment, 
gracefulness  of  language  and  melody  of  versification  ;  they  com- 
prehend every  variety  of  subject  suitable  to  the  lyric  muse  ; 
they  rise  without  effort  to  the  most  elevated  topics  ;  and  they 
descend  to  the  simplest  joys  and  sorrows  of  every-day  4ife. 

The  life  of  Horace  is  especially  histructive,  as  a  mirror  in 
which  is  reflected  a  faithful  image  of  the  manners  of  his  dav. 
He  is  the  representative  of  Roman  refined  society,  as  Yirgil  is 
of  the  national  mind.  His  morals  were  lax,  but  not  worse  than 
those  of  his  contemporaries.     He  looked  at  virtue  and  vice  from 


150  ,  r.OMAX   LITERATURE. 

a  worldly,  uot  from  a  moral  point  of  view,  and  witli  him  the  one 
was  prudence  and  the  other  folly. 

In  connection  with  Horace,  we  may  mention  Moscenas,  who, 
by  his  good  taste  and  munificence,  exercised  a  great  influence 
upon  literature,  and  literary  men  of  Rome  were  much  indebted 
to  him  for  the  use  he  made  of  his  friendship  with  Augustus,  to 
whom,  probably,  his  love  of  literature  and  of  pleasure  and  his 
imperturbable  temper  recommended  him  as  an  agreeable  com- 
panion. He  had  wealtli  enough  to  gratify  his  utmost  wishes, 
and  his  mind  was  so  full  of  the  delights  of  refined  society,  of 
palaces,  gardens,  wit,  poetry  and  art,  that  there  was  no  room  in 
it  for  ambition.  All  the  most  brilliant  men  of  Rome  were  found 
at  his  table — Yirgil,  Horace,  Propertius  and  Yarius  were 
amons*  his  friends  and  constant  associates.  He  was  a  fair 
specimen  of  the  man  of  pleasure  and  society — liberal,  kind- 
hearted,  clever,  refined,  but  luxurious,  self-indulgent,  indolent 
and  volatile,  with  good  impulses,  but  without  principle. 

6.  Elegy. — Tibullus  (h.  54  b.o.)  was  the  father  of  the  Roman 
elegy.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Yirgil  and  Horace.  The 
style  of  his  poems  and  their  tone  of  thought  are  like  his 
character,  deficient  in  vigor  and  manliness,  but  sweet,  smooth, 
polished,  tender,  and  never  disfigured  by  bad  taste.  He  passed 
his  short  life  in  peaceful  retirement,  and  died  soon  after  Yirgil. 
The  poems  ascribed  to  Tibullus  consist  of  four  books,  of  which 
only  two  arc  genuine. 

Propertius  (b.  150  e.g.),  although  a  contemporary  and  friend 
of  the  Augustan  poets,  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  a 
somewhat  different  school  of  poetry.  While  Horace,  Yirgil  and 
Tibullus  imitated  the  noblest  poets  of  the  Greek  age,  Propertius, 
like  the  minor  Roman  poets,  aspired  to  nothing  more  than  the 
imitation  of  the  graceful,  but  feeble  strains  of  the  Alexandrian 
poets.  If  he  excels  Tiijullus  in  vigor  of  fancy,  expression  and 
coloring,  he  is  inferior  to  him  in  grace,  spontaneity  and  delicacy; 
he  cannot,  also,  be  compared  with  Catullus,  who  greatly  sur- 
passes him  in  his  easy  and  effective  style. 

Ovid  (43  B.C. — 6  A.D.),the  most  fertile  of  the  Ijatin  poets,  uot 
only  in  elegy,  but  also  in  other  kinds  of  poetry,  was  enabled  by 
his  rank,  fertune  and  talents  to  cultivate  the  society  of  men  of 
congenial  tastes.  A  skeptic  and  an  epicurean,  he  lived  a  life  of 
continual  indulgence  and  intrigue.  He  was  a  universal  admirer 
of  the  female  sex,  and  a  favorite  among  them.  He  was  popular 
as  a  poet,  successful  in  society,  and  possessed  all  the  enjoyments 
that  wealth  could  bestow ;  but  later  in  life  he  incurred  the  auger 


EOMAX    LITER ATUEE.  151 

of  Augustus,  and  was  banished  to  the  very  frontier  of  the 
Koman  empire,  where  he  lingered  for  a  few  years  and  died  in 
great  misery.  The  "Epistles  to  and  from  women  of  the  heroic 
age,"  are  a  series  of  love-letters  ;  with  the  exception  of  the 
"  Metamorphoses,"  they  have  been  greater  favorites  than  any 
other  of  his  works.  Love,  in  the  davs  of  Ovid,  had  in  it  nothinir 
pure  or  chivalrous.  The  age  in  which  he  lived  was  morally  pol- 
luted, and  he  was  neither  better  nor  worse  than  his  contem- 
poraries, hence  grossness  is  the  characteristic  of  his  "  Art  of 
Love."  His  "Metamorphoses"  contain  a  series  of  mythological 
narratives  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  translation  of  the  soul 
of  Julius  Caesar  from  earth  to  heaven,  and  his  metamorphosis 
into  a  star.  In  this  poem  especially  may  be  traced  that  study 
and  learning,  by  which  the  Roman  poets  made  all  the  treasures 
of  Greek  literature  their  own.  "  The  Fasti,"  a  poem  on  the 
Koman  calendar,  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  simple  narrative  in 
verse,  and  displays,  more  than  any  of  his  works,  his  power 
of  telhng  a  story  without  the  slightest  effort,  in  poetry  as  well 
as  prose.  The  five  books  of  the  "Tristia,"  and  the  "Epistles 
from  Pontus,"  were  the  outpourings  of  his  sorrowful  heart,  during 
the  gloomy  evening  of  his  days. 

*I.  Oratory  and  Philosophy. — As  oratory  gave   to  Latin 
prose-writing  its  elegance  and  dignity,  Cicero  (106-43  e.g.)  is 
not   only  the  representative  of  the  flourishing  period  of  the 
language,  but  also  the  instrumental  cause  of  its  arriving  at  per- 
fection.     He  Grave    a  fixed    character  to  the  Latin    tono;ue  ; 
showed  his  countrymen  what  vigor  it  possessed,  and  of  what 
elegance  and  polish  it  was  susceptible.     The  influence  of  Cicero 
on  the  language  and  literature  of  his  day  was  not  only  extensive, 
but  permanent,  and  it  survived  almost  until  the  language  was 
corrupted  by  barbarism.     After  travelling  in  Greece  and  Asia, 
and  holdino:  a  hiffh  office  in  Sicilv,  he  returned  to  Rome,  resumed 
his  forensic  practice,  and  was  made  consul.     The  conspiracy  of 
Catiline  was  the  great  event  of  his  consulship.     The  prudence 
and  tact,  with  which  he  crushed  this,  gained  him  the  applause 
and  gratitude  of  his  fellow-citizens,  who  hailed  him  as  the  father 
of  his  country  ;  but  he  was  obliged,  by  the  intrigues  of  his 
enemies,  to  fly  from  Rome  ;  his  exile  was  decreed,  a^d  his  town 
and  country  houses  given  up  to  plunder.     He  was,  however, 
recalled,  and  appointed  to  a  seat  hi  the  college  of  Augurs.     In 
the  struggle  between  Pompey  and  Ca}sar,  he  followed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  former;  but  CiBsar,  after  his  triumph,  granted  him  a 
full  and  free  pardon.     After  the  assassination  of  Caesar,  Cicero 


152  EOMAN   LITERATUEE.      . 

delivered  that  torrent  of  indignant  and  eloquent  invective,  his 
twelve  Philippic  orations,  and  became  again  the  popular  idol  ; 
but  when  the  second  triumvirate  was  formed,  and  each  member 
gave  up  his  friends  to  the  vengeance  of  his  colleagues,  Octavius 
did  not  hesitate  to  sacrifice  Cicero.  Betrayed  by  a  treacherous 
freedman,  he  would  not  j^ermit  his  attendants  to  make  any 
resistance,  but  courageously  submitted  to  the  sword  of  the 
assassins,  who  cut  off  his  head  and  hands,  and  carried  them  to 
Anthony,  whose  wife,  Julia,  gloated  with  inhuman  delight  upon 
the  pallid  features,  and  in  petty  spite  pierced  with  a  needle  the 
once  eloquent  tongue.  Cicero  had  numerous  faults  ;  he  was 
vain,  vacillating,  inconstant,  timid,  and  the  victim  of  morbid  sen- 
sibility; but  he  was  candid,  truthful,  just,  geneious,  pure-minded 
and  warm-hearted.  Gentle,  sympathizing  an  i  affectionate,  he 
lived  as  a  patriot  and  died  as  a  philosopher. 

The  place,  which  Cicero  occupies  in  the  history  of  Koman 
literature,  is  that  of  an  orator  and  philosopher.  The  effective- 
ness of  his  oratory  was  mainly  owing  to  his  knowledge  of  the 
human  heart,  and  of  the  national  peculiarities  of  his  countrymen. 
Its  charm  was  owing  to  his  extensive  acquaintance  with  the 
stores  of  literature  and  philosophy,  which  his  sprightly  wit 
moulded  at  will  ;  to  the  varied  learning,  which  his  unpedantic 
mind  made  so  pleasant  and  popular;  and  to  his  fund  of  illustra- 
tion, at  once  interesting  and  convincing.  He  carried  his  hearers 
with  him  ;  senate,  judges  and  people  understood  his  arguments, 
and  felt  his  passionate  appeals.  Compared  with  the  dignihed 
energy  and  majestic  vigor  of  Demosthenes,  the  Asiatic  exuber- 
ance of  some  of  his  orations  may  be  fatiguing  to  the  more  sober 
and  chaste  taste  of  modern  scholars  ;  but  in  order  to  form  a  just 
appreciation,  we  must  transport  ourselves  mentally  to  the 
excitements  of  the  thronged  forum,  to  the  senate,  composed  of 
statesmen  and  warriors  in  the  prime  of  life,  maddened  with  the 
party-spirit  of  revolutionary  times.  Viewed  in  this  light,  his 
most  florid  passages  will  appear  free  from  affectation — the 
natural  flow  of  a  speaker  carried  away  with  the  torrent  of  his 
enthusiasm.  Among  his  numerous  orations,  in  which,  according 
to  the  criticisms  of  Quintilian,  he  combined  the  force  of  Demos- 
thenes, the  copiousness  of  Plato,  and  the  elegance  of  Isocratcs, 
we  mention  the  six  celebrated  Yerrian  harangues,  which  are 
considered  masterpieces  of  Tullian  eloquence.  In  the  speech 
for  the  poet  Archias,  he  had  evidently  expended  all  his  resources 
of  art,  taste  and  skill ;  and  his  oration  in  defence  of  Milo,  for 
force,  pathos  and  the  externals  of  eloquence,  deserves  to  be 
reckoned  among  his  most  wonderful  efforts.     The  oratory  of 


s 


ROMAN   LITEBATUPwE.  153 

Cicero  was  essentially  judicial  ;  even  his  political  orations  are 
rather  judicial  than  deliberatiye.  He  was  not  born  for  a 
politician  ;  he  did  not  possess  that  analytical  character  of  mind, 
which  penetrates  into  the  remote  causes  of  human  action,  nor 
the  synthetical  power,  which  enables  a  man  to  follow  them  out 
to  their  furthest  consequences.  Of  the  three  qualities  necessary 
for  a  statesman,  he  possessed  only  two — honesty  and  patriotism; 
he  had  not  political  wisdom.  Hence,  in  the  finest  specimens  of 
his  political  orations,  his  Catilinarians  and  Philippics,  we  look  in 
vain  for  the  calm,  practical  weighing  of  the  subject,  which  is 
necessary  in  addressing  a  deliberative  assembly.  Is  evertheless, 
so  irresistible  was  the  influence  which  he  exercised  upon  the 
minds  of  his  hearers,  that  all  his  political  speeches  were  triumphs. 
His  panegyric  on  Pompey  carried  his  appointment  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  East ;  he  crushed  in  Catiline  one  of 
the  most  formidable  traitors  that  had  ever  menaced  the  safety 
of  the  republic,  and  Anthony's  fall  followed  the  complete  exposure 
of  his  debauchery  in  private  life,  and  the  factiousness  of  his 
public  career. 

In  his  rhetorical  works,  Cicero  left  a  legacy  of  practical  in- 
struction to  posterity.  The  treatise  "  On  Invention''  is  merely 
interesting  as  the  juvenile  production  of  a  future  great  man. 
"The  Orator,"  "Brutus,  or  the  illustrious  Orators,"  and  "The 
Orator  to  Marius  Brutus,"  are  the  results  of  his  matured  ex- 
perience. They  form  together  one  series,  in  which  the  princi- 
ples are  laid  down,  and  their  development  carried  out  and  illus- 
trated ;  and  in  the  Orator  he  places  before  the  eyes  of  Brutus 
the  model  of  ideal  perfection.  In  his  treatment  of  that  subject, 
he  shows  a  mind  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  Plato  ;  he  invests 
it  with  dramatic  interest,  and  transports  the  reader  into  the 
scene  which  he  so  graphically  describes. 

Roman  philosophy  was  neither  the  result  of  original  investi- 
gation, nor  the  gradual  development  of  the  Greek  system.  It 
arose  rather  from  a  study  of  ancient  philosophical  literature, 
than  from  an  emanation  of  philosophical  principles.  It  consisted 
in  a  kind  of  eclecticism  with  an  ethical  tendency,  bringing  to- 
gether doctrines  and  opinions  scattered  over  a  wide  field  in 
reference  to  the  political  and  social  relations  of  man.  Greek 
philosophy  was  probably  first  introduced  into  Rome,  166  e.g. 
But  although  the  Romans  could  appreciate  the  majestic  dignity 
and  poetical  beauty  of  the  style  of  Plato,  they  were  not  equal 
to  the  task  of  penetrating  his  hidden  meaning  ;  neither  did  the 
peripatetic  doctrines  meet  with  much  favor.  The  philosophical 
system  which  first  arrested  the  attention  of  the  Romans,  and 

7* 


154:  koma:^  literature. 

gained  an  influence  over  their  minds,  was  tlie  Epicurean.  That 
of  the  Stoics  also,  the  severe  principles  of  Avhich  were  in  har- 
mony with  the  stern  old  Roman  virtues,  had  distinguished  disci- 
ples. The  part,  which  Cicero's  character  qualified  him  to  per- 
form in  the  philosophical  instruction  of  his  countrymen,  was 
scarcely  that  of  a  guide  ;  he  could  give  them  a  lively  interest  in 
the  subject,  but  he  could  not  mould  and  form  their  behef,  and 
train  them  in  the  vv'ork  of  original  investigation.  Not  being  de- 
voutly attached  to  any  system  of  philosophical  belief,  he  would 
be  cautious  of  offending  the  philosophical  prejudices  of  others. 
He  was  essentially  an  eclectic  in  accumulating  stores  of  Greek 
erudition,  while  his  mind  had  a  tendency,  in  the  midst  of  a  va- 
riety of  inconsistent  doctrines,  to  leave  the  conclusion  undeter- 
mined. He  brought  everything  to  a  practical  standard  ;  he  ad- 
mired the  exalted  purity  of  stoical  morality,  but  he  feared  that  it 
was  impractical.  He  believed  in  the  existence  of  one  supreme  cre- 
ator, in  his  spiritual  nature,  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul ; 
but  his  belief  was  rather  the  result  of  instinctive  conviction,  than 
of  proof  derived  from  philosophy. 

The  study  of  Cicero's  philosophical  works  is  invaluable,  in 
order  to  understand  the  minds  of  those  who  came  after  him. 
Xot  only  all  Roman  philosophy  after  his  time,  but  a  great  part 
of  that  of  the  middle  ages,  was  Greek  philosophy  filtered 
through  Latin,  and  mainly  founded  on  that  of  Cicero.  Among 
his  works  on  speculative  philosophy  are  "  The  Academics,  or  a 
history  and  defence  of  the  belief  of  the  new  Academy  ;"  ''  Dia- 
logues on  the  Supreme  Good,  the  end  of  all  moral  action  ;" 
"  The  Tuscuhin  Disputations,"  containing  five  treatises  on  the 
fear  of  death,  the  endurance  of  pain,  power  of  wisdom  over  sor- 
row, the  morbid  passions,  and  the  relation  of  virtue  to  happiness. 
His  moral  philosophy  comprehends  the  "  Duties,"  a  stoical 
treatise  on  moral  obligations,  and  the  unequalled  little  essays 
on  "  Friendship  and  Old  Age."  His  political  works  are  "  The 
Republic"  and  "  The  Laws ;"  but  these  remains  are  fragment- 
ary. 

The  extent  of  Cicero's  correspondence  is  almost  incredible. 
Even  those  epistles,  which  remain,  consist  of  more  than  eight 
hundred.  In  them  we  find  the  eloquence  of  the  heart,  not  of  the 
rhetorical  school ;  they  are  models  of  pure  Latinity,  elegant 
without  stiffness,  the  natural  outpourings  of  a  mind  which  could 
not  give  birth  to  an  ungraceful  idea.  In  his  letters  to  Atticus 
he  lays  bare  the  secrets  of  his  heart  ;  he  trusts  his  life  in  his 
hands  ;  he  is  not  only  his  friend  but  his  confidant,  his  second 
self.     In  the  letters  of  Cicero  we  have  the  description  of  the 


KOMA.X   LITElRlTURE.  155 

period  of  Roman  history,  and  the  portrait  of  the  inner  life  of 
Roman  society  in  his  day. 

8.  History. — In  their  historical  literature  the  Romans  exhi- 
bited a  faithful  transcript  of  their  mind  and  character.  History 
at  once  gratitied  their  patriotism,  and  its  investigations  were  in 
accordance  with  their  love  of  the  real  and  the  practical.  In 
this  department,  they  were  enabled  to  emulate  the  Greeks  and 
to  be  their  rivals,  and  sometimes  their  superiors.  The  elegant 
simplicity  of  Caesar  is  as  attractive  as  that  of  Herodotus  ;  none 
of  the  Greek  historians  surpasses  Livy  in  talent  for  the  pictur- 
esque and  in  the  charm  with  which  he  invests  his  spirited  and 
living  stories  ;  while  for  condensation  of  thought,  terseness  of 
expression  and  political  and  philosophical  acumen,  Tacitus  is  not 
inferior  to  Thucydides,  The  catalogue  of  Roman  historians  con- 
tains many  wi'iters  whose  works  are  lost ;  such  as  L.  Lucretius, 
the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Cicero,  L.  Lucullus,  the 
illustrious  conqueror  of  Mithridates,  and  Cornelius  Nepos,  of 
whom  only  one  work  was  preserved,  the  "Lives  of  Eminent 
Generals  •/'  the  authenticity  of  this  work  is,  however,  disputed. 
But,  at  the  head  of  this  department,  as  the  great  representatives 
of  Roman  history,  stand  Julius  Casar,  Sallust,  Livy  and  Taci- 
tus, all  of  whom,  except  the  last,  belong  to  the  Augustan  age. 

Julius  Caesar  (100-44  b.c.)  was  descended  from  one  of  the 
oldest  among  the  patrician  families  of  Rome.  He  attached 
himself  to  the  popular  party,  and  his  good  taste,  great  tact,  and 
pleasing  manners  contributed,  together  with  his  talents,  to  insure 
his  popularity.  He  became  a  soldier  in  the  nineteenth  year  of 
his  age,  and  hence  his  works  display  all  the  best  qualities  which 
are  fostered  by  a  military  education — frankness,  simplicity  and 
brevity.  His  earliest  literary  triumph  v\^as  as  an  orator,  and 
according  to  Quintilian,  he  was  a  worthy  rival  of  Cicero.  When 
he  obtained  the  office  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  he  diligently  exa- 
mined tlie  history  and  nature  of  the  Roman  beUef  in  augury, 
and  published  his  investigations.  When  his  career  as  a  military 
commander  began,  whatever  leisure  his  duties  permitted  him  to 
enjoy,  he  devoted  to  the  composition  of  his  memoirs,  or  commen- 
taries of  the  Gallic  and  civil  wars.  He  wrote,  also,  some  minor 
works  on  different  subjects,  and  he  left  behind  him  various  let- 
ters, some  of  which  are  extant. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  works  of  Cassar  is  his 
"  Commentaries,"  which  have  come  down  to  us  in  a  tolerably 
perfect  state.  They  are  sketches  taken  on  the  spot,  in  the 
D:iid£t  of  action,  while  the  mind  was  full,  and  they  have  all  tlie 


156  KOMAX    LITEEATUIIE. 

graphic  power  of  a  master-mind  and  the  vigorous  touches  of  a 
master-hand.  The  Commentaries  are  the  materials  for  history, 
notes  jotted  do\Yn  for  future  historians.  The  very  faults,  which 
mav  jiistlv  be  found  with  the  style  of  Ciesar,  are  such  as  reflect 
the  man  himself.  The  majesty  of  his  character  consists  chiefly 
in  the  imperturbable  calmness  and  equanimity  of  his  temper  ;  he 
had  no  sudden  bursts  of  energy  and  alternations  of  passion  and 
inactivity.  The  elevation  of  his  character  was  a  high  one,  but 
it  was  a  level  table-land.  This  calmness  and  equability  pervades 
his  writings,  and  for  this  reason  they  have  been  thought  to  want 
hfe  and  energy.  The  beauty  of  his  language  is,  as  Cicero  savs, 
statuesque  rather  than  picturesque.  Simple  and  severe,  it  con- 
veys the  idea  of  perfect  and  well-proportioned  beauty,  while  it 
banishes  all  thoughts  of  human  passion.  In  relating  his  ovrn 
deeds,  he  does  not  strive  to  add  to  his  ovrn  reputation  by  de- 
tracting from  the  merits  of  those  who  served  under  hmi.  He  is 
honest,  generous  and  candid,  not  only  towards  them,  but  also 
towards  his  brave  enemies.  He  recounts  his  successes  without 
pretension  or  arrogance,  though  he  has  evidently  no  objection  to 
be  the  hero  of  his  own  tale.  His  Commentaries  are  not  confes- 
sions, although  he  is  the  subject  of  them  ;  not  a  record  of  a 
weakness  appears,  nor  even  a  defect,  except  that  which  the  Ro- 
mans would  readily  forgive,  cruelty.  His  savage  vraste  of  hu- 
man hfe  he  recounts  with  perfect  self-complacency.  A^anity,  the 
crowning  error  in  his  career  as  a  statesman,  though  hidden  by 
the  reserve  with  which  he  speaks  of  himself,  sometimes  discovers 
itself  in  the  historian. 

The  Commentaries  of  Ca3sar  have  been  compared  with  the 
work  of  the  great  soldier-historian  of  Greece,  Xenophon.  Both 
are  eminently  simple  and  unaffected,  but  there  the  parallel  ends. 
The  severe  contempt  of  ornament,  which  characterizes  the  stern 
Roman,  is  totally  unlike  the  mellifluous  sweetness  of  the  Attic 
writer. 

Sallust  ( 85-35  b.c.)  was  born  of  a  plebeian  family,  but  having 
served  the  offices  of  tribune  and  qua?stor,  attained  senatorial 
rank.  He  was  expelled  from  the  Senate  for  his  profligacy,  but 
restored  again  to  his  rank  throuijh  the  influence  of  Caesar,  whose 
party  he  espoused.  He  accompanied  his  patron  in  the  African 
Avar,  and  was  made  governor  of  Xumidia.  While  in  that  capa- 
city, he  accumulated  by  rapacity  and  extortion  enormous  wealth, 
which  he  lavished  in  expensive  but  tasteful  luxury.  The  gar- 
dens on  the  Quirinal,  which  bore  his  name,  were  celebrated  for 
their  beauty  ;  and  there,  surrounded  by  the  choicest  works  of 
art,  he  devoted  his  retirement  to  composing  the  historical  re- 


EOMAX   LITERATURE.  157 

cords  \Yhicli  survived  him.  As  a  politician,  he  was  a  mere  par- 
tisan of  Cajsar,  and  therefore  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  higher 
classes  and  of  the  supporters  of  Ponipey.  The  object  of  his  ha- 
tred was  not  the  old  patrician  blood  of  Rome,  but  the  new  aris- 
tocracy, which  had  of  late  years  been  rapidly  rising  up  and  dis- 
placing it.  That  new  nobility  was  utterly  corrupt,  and  their 
corruption  was  encouraged  by  the  venality  of  the  masses,  whose 
poverty  and  destitution  tempted  them  to  be  the  tools  of  unscru- 
pulous ambition.  Sallust  strove  to  place  that  party  in  the  un- 
favorable light  which  it  deserved  ;  but  notwithstanding  the 
truthfulness  of  the  picture  which  he  draws,  selfishness  and  not 
patriotism  was  the  mainspring  of  his  politics  ;  he  was  not  an 
honest  champion  of  popular  rights,  but  a  vain  and  conceited 
man,  who  lived  in  an  immoral  and  corrupt  age,  and  had  not  the 
strength  of  principle  to  resist  the  force  of  example  and  tempta- 
tion. If,  however,  we  make  some  allowance  for  the  political 
bias  of  Sallust,  his  histories  have  not  only  the  charms  of  the  his- 
torical romance,  but  are  also  valuable  political  studies.  His 
characters  are  vigorously  and  naturally  drawn,  and  the  more  his 
histories  are  read,  the  more  obvious  it  is  that  he  always  writes 
with  an  object,  and  uses  his  facts  as  the  means  of  enforcing  a 
great  political  lesson. 

His  first  work  is  on  the  "  Jugurthine  War  ;"  the  next  related 
to  the  period  from  the  consulship  of  Lepidus  to  the  preetorship 
of  Cicero,  and  is  unfortunately  lost.  This  was  followed  by  a 
history  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  "The  war  of  Catiline," 
in  which  he  paints  in  vivid  colors  the  depravity  of  that  order  of 
society  who,  bankrupt  in  fortune  and  honor,  still  plume  them- 
selves on  their  rank  and  exclusiveness.  To  Sallust  must  be  con- 
ceded the  praise  of  having  first  conceived  the  notion  of  a  history, 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  term.  He  was  the  first  Roman  histo- 
rian, and  the  guide  of  future  historians.  He  had  always  an  ob- 
ject to  which  he  wished  all  his  facts  to  converge,  and  he  brought 
them  forward  as  illustrations  and  developments  of  principles. 
He  analyzed  and  exposed  the  motives  of  parties,  and  laid  bare  the 
inner  life  of  those  great  actors  on  the  pubhc  stage,  in  the  inter- 
esting historical  scenes  which  he  describes.  His  style,  although 
ostentatiously  elaborate  and  artificial,  is,  upon  the  whole, 
])leasing,  and  almost  always  transparently  clear.  Following 
Thucydides,  whom  he  evidently  took  as  his  model,  he  strives  to 
imitate  his  brevity;  but  while  this  quality  with  the  Greek  his- 
torian is  natural  and  involuntarv,  with  the  Roman  it  is  inten 
tional  and  studied.  The  brevity  of  Thucydides  is  the  result  of 
condensation,  that  of  Sallust  is  elhptical  expression. 


158  ROMA^  LITEItATUIlE. 

Livy  (59-18  b.c.)  was  born  in  Padua,  and  came  to  E,omo 
during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  Avliere  he  resided  in  the  enjoyment 
of  tlie  imperial  tavor  and  patronage.  lie  was  a  warm  and  open 
admirer  of  the  ancient  institutions  of  the  country,  and  esteemed 
Pompey  as  one  of  its  greatest  heroes;  but  Augustus  did  not 
allow  political  opinions  to  interfere  with  the  regard  which  he  en- 
tertained for  the  historian.  His  great  work  is  a  history  of 
Rome,  which  he  modestly  terms  "  Annals,"  in  142  books,  of 
which  35  are  extant.  Besides  his  history,  Livy  is  said  to  have 
written  treatises  and  dialogues,  which  were  partly  philosophi- 
cal and  partly  historical. 

The  great  object  of  Livy's  history  was  to  celebrate  the  glories 
of  his  native  country,  to  which  he  was  devotedly  attached.  He 
was  a  patriot  :  his  sympathy  was  with  Pompey,  called  forth 
by  the  disinterestedness  of  that  great  man,  and  perhaps  by  his 
sad  end.  He  delights  to  put  forth  his  powers  in  those  passages 
which  relate  to  the  affections.  He  is  a  biographer  quite  as  much 
as  a  historian;  he  anatomizes  the  moral  nature  of  his  heroes, 
and  shows  the  motive  springs  of  their  noble  exploits.  His  cha- 
racters stand  before  us  like  epic  heroes,  and  he  tells  his  story  like 
a  bard  singing  his  lay  at  a  joyous  festive  meeting,  checkered  by 
alternate  successes  and  reverses,  though  all  tending  to  a  happy 
result  at  last.  But  while  these  features  constitute  his  charm  as 
a  narrator,  they  render  him  less  valuable  as  a  historian.  Although 
he  would  not  be  willfully  inaccurate,  if  the  legend  he  was  about  to 
tell  was  interesting,  he  would  not  stop  to  inquire  whether  or  not 
it  was  true.  Taking  upon  trust  the  traditions  which  had  been 
handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  the  more  flattering 
and  popular  they  were,  the  more  suitable  would  he  deem  them 
for  his  purposes.  He  loved  his  country,  and  he  would  scarcely 
believe  anything  derogatory  to  the  national  glory.  Whenever 
Rome  was  false  to  treaties,  unmerciful  in  victory,  or  unsuccessful 
in  arms,  he  either  ignores  the  facts  or  is  anxious  to  find  excuses. 
He  does  not  appear  to  have  made  researches  into  the  many  ori- 
ginal documents  which  were  extant  at  his  time,  but  he  trusted 
to  the  annalists,  and  took  advantage  of  the  investigations  of  pre- 
ceding historians.  His  descriptions  of  military  affairs  are  often 
vague  and  indistinct,  and  he  often  shows  himself  ignorant  of  the 
locahties  which  he  describes.  Such  are  the  principal  defects  of 
Livy,  who  otherwise  charms  his  readers  with  his  romantic  narra- 
tives, and  his  lively,  fresh,  and  fascinating  style.  t: 

9.  Other  Prose  Writers. — Though  the  grammarians  of  this 
period  were  numerous,  tliey  added  little  or  nothing  to  its  literary 


ROilAN    LITERATURE.  150 

reputation.  The  most  conspicnous  among  tliem  were  Atteius,  a 
friend  of  Sallust  ;  Epirota,  the  correspondent  of  Cicero  ;  Juhus 
Hv"'iuus,  a  friend  of  Ovid  ;  and  Xiii'idius  Fis-nlus,  an  orator  as 
well  as  o-rammariau.  M.  Altruvius  PoUio,  the  celebrated  archi- 
tect,  deserves  to  be  mentioned  for  his  treatise  on  architecture. 
He  was  probably  native  of  Yerona,  and  served  under  Julius 
Caesar  in  Africa,  as  a  military  engineer.  Notwithstanding  the 
defects  of  his  stvle,  the  lano-uage  of  Yitruvius  is  viirorous,  and  his 
descriptions  bold  ;  his  work  is  valuable  as  exhibiting  the  prin- 
ciples of  Greek  architectural  taste  and  beauty,  of  which  he  was 
a  devoted  admirer. 


PERIOD  THIRD. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  AUGUSTUS  TO  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  REIGN 

OF  THEODORIC  (14-5 2 G  A.D.) 

1.  Decline  of  Roman  Literature. — With  the  death  of  Auo:us- 
tus  commenced  the  decline  of  Roman  literature,  and  a  few  names 
only  rescue  the  first  years  of  this  period  from  the  charge  of  a 
corrupt  and  vitiated  taste.  After  a  while,  indeed,  political  cir- 
cumstances again  became  more  favorable  ;  the  dangers,  which 
paralyzed  genius  and  talent  and  prevented  their  free  exercise 
under  Tiberius  and  his  tyrannical  successors,  diminished,  and  a 
more  liberal  system  of  administration  ensued  under  Yespasian 
and  Titus.  Juvenal  and  Tacitus  then  stood  forth,  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  old  Roman  independence.  Yigor  of  thought 
communicated  itself  to  the  language  ;  a  taste  for  the  sublime  and 
beautiful,  to  a  certain  extent,  revived,  although  it  did  not  attain 
to  the  perfection  which  shed  a  lustre  over  the  Augustan  age. 
Between  the  ages  of  Horace  and  Juvenal,  Cicero  and  Tacitus, 
there  was  a  gap  of  half  a  century,  in  which  Roman  genius  was 
slumbering.  The  gradual  growth  of  a  spirit  of  adulation  de- 
terred all,  who  were  qualified  for  the  task  of  the  historian,  from 
attempting  it.  Fear,  during  the  lifetime  of  Tiberius  and  Cali- 
gula, Claudius  and  Nero,  and  hatred,  still  fresh  after  their  deaths, 
rendered  all  accounts  of  their  reigns  false.  And  the  same  causes 
which  silenced  the  voice  of  historv,  extiuGruished  the  o:enius  of 
poetry  and  oratory.  As  liberty  decUned,  natural  eloquence  de- 
cayed ;  the  orator  sought  only  to  please  the  corrupt  taste  of  his 
audiences  with  strange  and  exaggerated  statements  ;  the  poet 
aimed  to  win  pubUc  admiration  through  a  style  overladen  with 
ornament,  and  florid  and  diffuse  descriptions.  Literature,  in  order 


IGO  EOMAX    LITEKATUKE. 

to  flourish,  requires  the  genial  sunshine  of  human  sympathy  ;  it 
needs  either  the  patronage  of  the  great,  or  the  favor  of  the  people. 
Immediately  after  the  death  of  Augustus,  patronage  was  with- 
drawn, and  there  was  no  public  sympathy  to  supply  its  place. 
In  the  reign  of  Nero,  literature  partially  revived  ;  for  though  the 
bloodiest  of  tyrants,  he  had  a  taste  for  art  and  poetry,  and  an 
ambition  to  excel  in  refinement. 

2.  Fable. — In  fable,  as  in  other  fields  of  literature.  Home  was 
an  imitator  of  Greece,  but  nevertheless  Phasdrus  struck  out  a 
new  line  for  himself,  and  through  his  fables  became  not  only  a 
moral  instructor,  but  a  political  satirist.  Phredrus  (fl.  16  a.d.), 
the  originator  and  only  author  of  Roman  fable,  though  born 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  wrote  when  the  Augustan  age  had 
passed  away.  His  works  are,  as  it  were,  isolated  ;  he  had  no 
contemporaries.  Nevertheless,  his  solitary  voice  was  lifted  up 
when  those  of  the  poet,  the  historian  and  the  philosopher  were 
silenced.  The  moral  and  political  lessons  conveyed  in  his  fables 
were  suggested  by  the  evils  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived.  Some 
of  them  illustrate  the  danger  of  riches  and  the  comparative  safety 
of  obscurity  and  poverty,  in  an  age  when  the  rich  were  marked 
for  destruction,  in  order  that  the  confiscation  of  their  property 
might  glut  the  avarice  of  the  emperor  and  of  his  servants;  others 
were  suggested  by  historical  events,  being  nevertheless  satirical 
strictures  on  individuals.  The  st3ie  of  Phadrus  is  pure  and  clas- 
sical, and  combines  the  simple  neatness  and  graceful  elegance  of 
the  golden  ac-e  with  the  vigor  and  terseness  of  the  silver  one. 
He  has  the  facility  of  Ovid  and  the  brevity  of  Tacitus.  In  the 
construction  of  his  fables,  he  displays  observation  and  ingenuity ; 
but  he  is  deficient  in  imagination.  He  makes  his  animals  the 
vehicles  of  his  wisdom,  but  he  does  not  throw  himself  into  them, 
or  identify  himself  with  them;  while  they  look  and  act  like  ani- 
mals, they  talk  like  human  beings.  In  this  consists  the  great 
superiority  of  JEsop  to  his  Poman  imitator;  his  brutes  are  a 
superior  race,  but  they  are  still  brutes,  and  it  would  seem  that 
the  fabulist  had  lived  among  them,  as  one  of  themselves,  had 
adopted  their  mode  of  life,  and  conversed  with  them  in  their  own 
language.  In  Pha3drus  we  have  human  sentiments  translated 
into  the  language  of  beasts,  while  in  ^Esop  we  have  beasts  giving 
utterance  to  such  sentiments  as  would  be  naturally  theirs  if  they 
were  placed  in  the  position  of  men. 

3.  Satire    axd    Epigram.- -Poman    satire,    subsequently   to 
Horace,  is  represented  by  Persius  and  Juvenal.     Persius  (34- 


EOMAN   LITEExiTUEE.  161 

62  A.D.)  early  attached  himself  to  the  Stoic  philosophy.  He  was 
pure  in  miud,  and  free  from  the  corrupt  taint  of  an  unmoral 
age.  Although  Lucilius  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  his  model, 
he  docs  not  attack  vice  with  the  biting  severity  of  the  old  satir- 
ist, nor  do  we  find  in  his  writings  the  enthusiastic  indignation 
wiiicli  burns  in  the  verses  of  Juvenal.  His  purity  of  mind  and 
kindliness  of  heart  disinclined  him  to  portray  vice  in  its  hideous 
and  loathsome  forms,  and  to  indulge  in  that  bitterness  of  invective 
which  the  prevalent  enormities  of  his  times  deserved.  His  up- 
rightness and  love  of  virtue  are  shown  by  the  uncompromising 
severity  with  which  he  rebukes  sins  of  not  so  deep  a  die  ;  and 
the  heart  which  was  capable  of  being  moulded  by  his  example, 
and  influenced  by  his  purity,  would  have  shrunk  from  the  fearful 
crimes  which  deform  the  pages  of  Juvenal.  The  greatest  defect 
in  Persius  as  a  satirist  is,  that  the  Stoic  philosophy  in  which  he 
was  educated  rendered  him  indifferent  to  the  affairs  of  the 
world.  His  contemplative  habits  led  him  to  criticise,  as  his 
favorite  subjects,  false  taste  in  poetry  and  empty  pretensions  to 
philosophy.  Horace  mingled  in  the  society  of  the  profligate,  and 
considering  them  as  fools,  laughed  their  folly  to  scorn.  Juvenal 
looked  down  upon  the  corruption  of  the  age  from  the  eminence 
of  his  virtue,  and  punished  it  like  an  aveughig  deity.  Persius, 
pure  in  heart  and  passionless  by  education,  while  he  lashes  wick- 
edness in  the  abstract,  almost  ignores  its  existence,  and  shrinks 
from  probing  to  the  bottom  the  vileness  of  the  human  heart. 
His  works  comprise  six  satires,  all  of  which  breathe  the  natural 
amiability  and  placid  cheerfulness  of  his  temper. 

Juvenal  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  towards  the  close 
of  the  first  century  a.d.,  a  dark  period,  which  saw  the  utter 
moral  degradation  of  the  people,  and  the  bloodiest  t}Tanny  and 
oppression  on  the  part  of  their  rulers.  The  picture  of  Roman 
manners,  as  painted  by  his  glowing  pencil,  is  truly  appalling. 
The  fabric  of  society  was  in  ruins,  the  popular  religion  was 
rejected  with  scorn,  and  the  creed  of  natural  religion  had  not 
occupied  its  place.  The  emperors  took  part  in  public  scenes  of 
folly  and  profligacy,  and  exposed  themselves  as  charioteers,  as 
dancers  and  as  actors.  ]S^othing  was  respected  but  wealth, 
nothing  provoked  contempt  but  poverty.  Players  and  dancers 
had  all  honors  and  offices  at  their  disposal ;  the  city  swarmed 
with  informers,  who  made  the  rich  their  prey;  every  man  feared 
his  most  intimate  friend,  and  the  only  bond  of  friendship  was  to 
be  an  accomplice  in  crime.  The  teacher  would  corrupt  his 
pupil,  and  the  guardian  defraud  his  ward.  Crimes  which  cannot 
be  named  were  common,  and  the  streets  of  Rome  were  the  con- 


1G2  ro:m:an  literatuue. 

stant  scene  of  robbery,  assault  and  assassination.  The  morals 
of  women  were  as  depraved  as  those  of  men,  and  there  was  no 
puljlic  amusement  so  immoral  or  so  cruel,  as  not  to  be  countenanced 
by  their  presence.  In  this  period  of  moral  dearth,  the  fountains 
of  genius  and  literature  were  dried  up.  There  was  criticism, 
declamation,  panegyric  and  verse  wTiting,  but  no  oratory,  history 
or  poetry.  Juvenal,  though  himself  not  free  from  the  decla- 
matory affectation  of  the  da}^,  attacked  the  false  literary  taste 
of  his  contemporaries,  as  unsparingly  as  he  did  their  depraved 
morality.  His  sixteen  sath-es  exhibit  an  enlightened,  truthful 
and  comprehensive  view  of  Roman  manners,  and  of  the  mevitable 
result  of  such  depravity.  The  two  finest  of  them  are  those 
which  Dr.  Johnson  has  thought  worthy  of  imitation. 

The  historical  value  of  these  satu'es  must  not  be  forgotten. 
Tacitus  lived  in  the  same  perilous  times  as  Juvenal,  and  when  they 
bad  come  to  an  end  and  it  was  not  unsafe  to  speak,  he  wrote 
their  public  history,  which  the  poet  illustrates  by  chsplayiug  the 
social  and  inner  life 'of  the  Romans.  Their  works  are  parallel, 
and  each  forms  a  commentary  upon  the  other.  The  style  of 
Juvenal  is  vigorous  and  lucid  ;  his  morals  were  pure  in  the 
midst  of  a  debased  age,  and  his  language  shines  forth  in  classic 
elegance,  in  the  midst  of  specimens  of  declining  and  degenerate 
taste. 

Juvenal  closes  the  list  of  Roman  satirists,  properly  speaking. 
The  satirical  spirit  animates  the  piquant  epigrams  of  his  friend 
Martial,  but  their  purpose  is  not  moral  or  didactic.  They 
sting  the  individual,  and  render  him  an  object  of  scorn  and 
disgust,  but  they  do  not  hold  up  vice  itself  to  ridicule  and 
detestation. 

Martial  (43-104  a.d.)  was  born  in  Spain.  He  early  emi- 
grated to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  favorite  of  Titus  and 
Domitian,  and  in  the  reign  of  the  latter  he  was  appointed  to 
the  office  of  court-poet.  During  thirty-five  years,  he  lived  at 
Rome  the  life  of  a  flatterer  and  a  dependant,  and  then  he 
returned  to  his  native  town,  where  his  death  was  hastened  by 
his  distaste  for  provincial  life.  Measured  by  the  corrupt 
standard  of  morals,  which  disgraced  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
Martial  was  probably  not  worse  than  most  of  his  contempo- 
raries ;  for  the  fearful  profligacy,  which  his  powerful  pen  describes 
in  such  hideous  terms,  had  spread  through  Rome  its  loathsome 
infection.  Had  he  lived  in  better  times,  his  talents  might  have 
been  devoted  to  a  purer  object  ;  as  it  was,  no  language  is 
strong  enough  to  denounce  the  impurities  of  his  page,  and  his 
moral  taste  must  have  been  thoroughly  depraved  not  to  have 


EOilAN   LITERATUKE.  163 

turned  with  disgust  from  the  contemplation  of  such  subjects. 
But  not  all  his  poems  are  of  this  character.  Amidst  some 
obscurity  of  style  and  want  of  finish,  many  are  redolent  of  Greek 
sweetness  and  elegance.  Here  and  there  are  pleasing  descrip- 
tions of  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  many  are  kind-hearted  and 
full  of  varied  wit,  poetical  imagination  and  graceful  expression. 
To  the  original  characteristics  of  the  Greek  epigram.  Martial, 
more  than  any  other  poet,  added  that  which  constitutes  an 
epigram  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  pointedness  either  in 
jest  or  earnest,  and  the  bitterness  of  personal  satire. 

4.  Dramatic  Literature. — Dramatic  literature  never  flourished 
in  Rome,  and  still  less  under  the  empire.  During  this  period 
there  were  not  wanting  some  imitators  of  Greece  in  this  noble 
branch  of  poetry,  but  their  productions  were  rather  literary  than 
dramatic  ;  they  were  poems  composed  in  a  dramatic  form, 
intended  to  be  read,  not  acted.  They  contain  noble  philo- 
sophical sentiments,  lively  descriptions,  and  passages  full  of  ten- 
derness and  pathos,  but  they  are  deficient  in  dramatic  effect,  and 
positively  oft'end  against  those  laws  of  good  taste  which  regu- 
lated the  Athenian  stage.  In  the  Augustan  age,  a  few  writers 
attained  some  excellence  in  tragedy,  at  least  in  the  opinion  of 
ancient  critics. 

Under  the  tyrant  Nero,  dramatic  literature  reappeared, 
specimens  of  which  are  extant  in  the  ten  tragedies  attributed  to 
Seneca.  But  the  genius  of  the  author  never  grasps,  in  their 
wholeness,  the  characters  which  he  attempts  to  copy  ;  they  are 
distorted  images  of  tlie  Greek  originals,  and  the  shadowy 
grandeur  of  the  godlike  heroes  of  ^Eschylus  stands  forth  in 
corporeal  vastness,  and  appears  childish  and  unnatural,  like  the 
giants  of  a  story-book.  The  Greeks  believed  in  the  gods  and 
heroes  whose  agency  and  exploits  constituted  the  machinery  of 
tragedy,  but  the  Romans  did  not,  and  we  cannot  sympathize 
with  them,  because  we  see  that  they  are  insincere. 

An  awful  belief  in  destiny,  and  the  hopeless  yet  patient 
struggle  of  a  great  and  good  man  against  this  all-ruling  power, 
are  the  mainspring  of  Greek  tragedy.  This  belief  the  Romans 
did  not  transfer  into  their  imitations,  but  they  supplied  its  place 
with  the  stern  fatalism  of  the  Stoics.  The  principle  of  destiny 
entertained  by  the  Greek  poets  is  a  mythological,  even  a 
religious  one.  It  is  the  irresistible  will  of  God.  God  is  at 
the  commencem.ent  of  the  chain  of  causes  and  effects,  by  which 
the  event  is  brought  about  which  God  has  ordained  ;  his 
inspired  prophets  have  power  to  foretell,  and  mortals  cannot 


164  ROM  AX   LITEKAtUKE. 

resist  or  avoid.  It  is  rather  predestination  than  destiny.  The 
fatalism  of  the  Stoics,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  doctrine  of 
practical  necessity.  It  ignores  the  almighty  power  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  although  it  does  not  deny  his  existence,  it 
strips  him  of  his  attributes  as  the  moral  governor  of  the  universe. 
These  doctrines,  expressed  equally  in  the  writings  of  Seneca  the 
philosopher,  and  in  the  tragedies  attributed  to  him,  lead  to  the 
probability,  amounting  almost  to  certainty,  that  he  was  their 
author.  But  whatever  be  the  case  in  regard  to  their  author- 
ship, it  is  certain  that,  notwithstanding  their  false  rhetorical 
taste  and  the  absence  of  all  ideal  and  creative  genius,  they  have 
found  many  admirers  and  imitators  in  modern  times.  The 
Prench  school  of  tragic  poets  took  them  for  their  model  ; 
Corneille  evidently  considered  them  the  ideal  of  tragedy,  and 
Ilacine  servilely  imitated  them. 

5.  Epic  Poetry. — At  the  head  of  the  epic  poets  who  flourished 
during  the  Silver  Age,  stands  Lucan  (39-G6  a.d.)  He  was 
born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  and  probably  came  to  Home  when 
very  youngs  where  his  literary  reputation  was  soon  established. 
But  Nero,  who  could  not  bear  the  idea  of  a  rival,  forbade  him 
to  recite  his  poems,  then  the  common  mode  of  publication, 
neither  would  he  allow  him  to  plead  as  an  advocate.  Smarting 
under  this  provocation,  he  joined  in  a  conspiracy  against  the 
emperor's  life.  The  plot  failed,  but  Lucan  was  pardoned  on 
condition  of  pointing  out  his  confederates,  and  in  the  vain  hope 
of  saving  himself  from  the  monster's  vengeance,  he  actually 
impeached  his  mother.  This  noble  woman  was  incapable  of 
treason.  Tacitus  says,  "  the  scourge,  tlie  flames,  the  rage  of  the 
executioners  who  tortured  her  the  more  savagely,  lest  they 
should  be  scorned  by  a  woman,  were  powerless  to  extort  a  false 
confession."  Lucan  never  received  the  reward  which  he  pur- 
chased by  treachery.  When  the  warrant  for  his  death  was 
issued,  he  caused  his  veins  to  be  cut  asunder,  and  expired  in  the 
twenty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

The  only  one  of  his  works  which  survives  is  the  "  Pharsalia," 
an  epic  poem  on  the  subject  of  the  civil  war  between  Ccesar  and 
Pompey.  It  bears  evident  marks  of  having  been  left  unfinished  ; 
it  has  great  faults  and  at  the  same  time  great  beauties.  The 
sentiments  contained  in  this  poem  breathe  a  love  of  freedom  and 
an  attachment  to  the  old  Homan  republicanism.  Its  subject  is 
a  noble  one,  full  of  historic  interest,  and  it  is  treated  with  spirit, 
brilliancv  and  animation.  The  characters  of  Caesar  and  Pom- 
pey  are  master-pieces  ;  but  while  some  passages  are  scarcely 


EOMAX   LITERATURE.  165 

inferior  to  any  written  by  tlie  best  Latin  poets,  others  have 
neither  the  dignity  of  prose,  nor  the  melody  of  poetry.  Descrip- 
tion forms  the  principal  feature  in  the  poetry  of  Lacan ;  in  facf, 
it  constitutes  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  lloman 
Uterature  in  its  decline,  because  poetry  had  become  more  than 
ever  an  art,  and  the  epoch  one  of  erudition. 

Sihus  Italicus  (fl.  54  a.d.)  was  the  favorite  and  intimate  of 
two  emperors,  IS^ero  and  Yitellius.  He  left  a  poem,  the 
"  Punica,"  which  contains  the  history  in  heroic  verse  of  the 
second  Punic  war.  The  ^neid  of  Yiroil  was  his  model,  and  the 
narrative  of  Livy  furnished  his  materials.  It  is  considered  the 
dullest  and  most  tedious  poem  in  the  Latin  language,  though  its 
versification  is  harmonious,  and  will  often,  in  point  of  smooth- 
ness, bear  comparison  with  that  of  Yirgil. 

Valerius  Flaccus  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  He  is 
author  of  the  "  Argonautica,"  an  imitation  and  in  some  parts  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  poem  of  Apollonius  Rhodius  on  the 
same  subject.  He  evidently  did  not  live  to  complete  his  original 
design.  In  the  Argonautica,  there  are  no  glaring  faults  or 
blemishes,  but  there  is  also  no  genius,  no  inspiration.  He  has 
some  talents  as  a  descriptive  poet ;  his  versification  is  harmonious 
and  his  style  graceful. 

P.  Statins  (61-95  a.d.)  was  the  author  of  the  Silvias, 
Thebaid  and  Achilleid.  The  "  Silvias"  are  the  rude  materials  of 
thought  springing  up  spontaneously  in  all  their  wild  luxuriance, 
from  the  rich,  natural  soil  of  the  imagination  of  the  poet.  The 
subject  of  the  "  Thebaid"  is  the  ancient  Greek  legend  respecting 
the  war  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  and  the  "Achilleid"  was 
intended  to  embrace  all  the  exploits  of  Achilles,  but  only  two 
books  were  completed.  The  poems  of  Statins  contain  many 
poetical  incidents,  which  might  stand  by  themselves  as  perfect 
fugitive  pieces.  In  these  we  see  his  natural  and  .  unaffected 
elegance,  his  harmonious  ear,  and  the  truthfulness  of  his 
perceptions.  But,  as  an  epic  poet,  he  has  neither  grasp  of 
mind  nor  vigor  of  conception  ;  his  imaginary  heroes  do 
not  inspire  and  warm  his  imagination  ;  and  his  genius  was 
unable  to  rise  to  the  highest  departments  of  art. 

6.  History. — For  the  reasons  already  stated,  Rome  for  a 
long  period  could  boast  of  no  historian  ;  the  perilous  nature  of 
the  times,  and  the  personal  obligations  under  which  learned 
men  frequently  were  to  the  emperors,  rendered  contemporary 
history  a  means  of  adulation  and  servihty.  To  this  class  of  his 
torians  belongs  Paterculus  (fl.  30  a.d.),  who  wrote  a  history  of 


1G6  KOMAN   LITERATURE. 

Rome,  wliicli  is  partial,  prejudiced  and  adulatory.  He  was  a 
man  of  livelv  talents,  and  his  taste  was  formed  after  the  model 
of  Sallust,  of  whom  he  was  an  imitator.  His  stvle  is  often  over- 
strained  and  unnatural. 

Under  the  genial  and  fostering  influence  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan,  the  fine  arts,  especially  architecture,  flourished,  and 
literature  revived.  The  same  taste  and  execution,  which  are 
visible  in  the  bas-reliefs  on  the  column  of  Ti'ajan,  adorn  the  litera- 
ture of  his  age  as  illustrated  by  its  two  great  lights,  Tacitus  and 
the  younger  Pliny.  There  is  not  the  rich,  graceful  manner 
which  invests  with  such  a  charm  the  writers  of  the  golden  age, 
but  the  absence  of  these  qualities  is  amply  compensated  by  dig- 
nity, gravity  and  honesty.  Truthfulness  beams  throughout  the 
writings  of  these  two  great  contemporaries,  and  incorruptible 
virtue  is  as  visible  in  the  pages  of  Tacitus,  as  benevolence  and 
tenderness  are  in  the  letters  of  Pliny.  They  mutually  influenced 
each  other's  characters  and  principles  ;  their  tastes  and  pursuits 
were  similar  ;  they  loved  each  other  dearly,  corresponded  regu- 
larly, corrected  each  other's  works,  and  accepted  patiently  and 
gratefully  each  other's  criticism. 

Tacitus  (60-135  a.d.)  was  of  equestrian  rank,  and  served  in 
several  important  ofiices  of  the  empire.  His  works  now  extant 
are  a  life  of  his  father-in-law,  Agricola,  a  tract  on  the  manners 
and  nations  of  the  Germans,  a  small  portion  of  a  voluminous 
work  entitled  "  Histories,"  about  two-thirds  of  another  historical 
work,  entitled  "  Annals,"  and  a  dialogue  on  the  decline  of  elo- 
quence. The  life  of  Agricola,  though  a  panegyric  rather  than  a  bio- 
graphy, is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  vigor  and  force  of  expression 
with  which  this  greatest  painter  of  antiquity  could  throw  off"  any 
portrait  which  he  attempted.  Even  if  the  likeness  be  some- 
what flattered,  the  qualities  which  the  writer  possessed,  his 
insight  into  character,  his  pathetic  power,  and  his  affectionate 
heart,  render  this  short  piece  one  of  the  most  attractive  biogra- 
phies extant.  The  treatise  on  the  "  Geography,  Manners  and 
jS'atlons  of  Germany,''  though  containing  geographical  descrip- 
tions often  va2:ue  and  inaccurate,  and  accounts  evidentlv  founded 
on  mere  tales  of  travellers,  bears  the  impress  of  truth  in  the 
salient  points  and  characteristic  features  of  the  national  man- 
ners and  institutions  of  Teutonic  nations.  The  "  Histories,"  his 
earliest  historical  work,  of  which  only  four  books  and  a  portion  of 
the  fifth  are  extant,  extended  from  the  year  69  to  96  a.d.,  and  it 
was  his  intention  to  have  added  the  reigns  of  Nero  and  Trajan. 
In  this  work  he  proposed  to  investigate  the  political  state  of  the 
commonwealth,  the  feeling  cf  its  armies,  the  sentiments  of  its 


ROMAN   LITERATUEE.  IGl 

provinces,  the  elements  of  its  strength  and  weakness,  and  the  causes 
and  reasons  for  each  historical  phenomenon.  The  principal  fault 
which  diminishes  the  value  of  his  history  as  a  record  of  events, 
is  his  too  great  readiness  to  accept  evidence  unhesitatingly,  and 
to  record  popular  rumors  without  taking  sufficient  pains  to 
examine  into  their  truth.  His  incorrect  account  of  the  history, 
constitution  and  manners  of  the  Jewish  people,  is  one  among  the 
few  instances  of  this  fault,  scattered  over  a  vast  lield  of  faithful 
history.  The  ''  Annals  "  consist  of  sixteen  books  ;  they  com- 
mence with  the  death  of  Augustus,  and  conclude  with  that  of 
Nero  (14-68  a.d.).  The  object  of  Tacitus  was  to  describe  the 
influence  which  the  establishment  of  tyranny  on  the  ruins  of 
liberty  exercised  for  good  or  for  evil  in  bringing  out  the  charac- 
ter of  the  individual.  In  the  extinction  of  freedom  there  still  exist 
ed  in  Rome  bright  examples  of  heroism  and  courage,  and  instances 
not  less  prominent  of  corruption  and  degradation.  In  the 
annals  of  Tacitus  these  individuals  stand  out  in  bold  relief,  either 
singly  or  in  groups  upon  the  stage,  while  the  emperor  forms  the 
principal  figure,  and  the  moral  sense  of  the  reader  is  awakened 
to  admire  instances  of  patient  suffering  and  determined 
bravery,  or  to  witness  abject  slavery  and  remorseless  despotism. 

Full  of  sagacious  observation  and  descriptive  power,  Tacitus 
engages  the  most  serious  attention  of  the  reader  by  the  gravity 
of  his  condensed  and  comprehensive  style,  as  he  does  by  the 
wisdom  and  dignity  of  his  reflections.  Living  amidst  the  influ- 
ences of  a  corrupt  age,  he  was  uncontaminated  ;  by  his  virtue 
and  integrity,  and  his  chastened  political  liberality,  he  commands 
our  admiration  as  a  man,  while  his  love  of  truth  is  reflected  in 
his  character  as  a  historian.  In  his  style  the  form  is  always 
subordinate  to  the  matter  ;  his  sentences  are  suggestive  of  far 
more  than  they  express,  and  his  brevity  is  enlivened  by  copious- 
ness, variety  and  poetry  ;  his  language  is  highly  figurative  ; 
his  descriptions  of  scenery  and  incidents  are  eminently  pic- 
turesque, his  characters  dramatic,  and  the  expression  of  his  own 
sentiments  almost  lyrical, 

Suetonius  was  born  about  69  a.d.  His  principal  extant 
works  are  the  "  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,"  "  iS^otices  of  illus- 
trious Grammarians  and  Rhetoricians,"  and  the  Lives  of  the 
Poets  Terence,  Horace,  Persius,  Lucan  and  Juvenal.  The  use 
which  he  makes  of  historical  documents  proves  that  he  was  a 
man  of  diligent  research,  and  as  a  biographer,  industrious  and 
careful.  He  indulges  neither  in  ornament  of  style  nor  in  roman- 
tic exaggeration.  The  pictures  which  he  draws  of  some  of  the 
Caesars  are  indeed  terrible,  but  they  are  fully  supported  by  the 


1G8  KOMAX    LITERATURE. 

contemporary  authority  of  Juvenal  and  Tacitus,  As  a  histo- 
rian, Suetonius  had  not  that  comprehensive  and  philosophical 
mind  which  would  qualify  him  for  taking  an  enlarged  view  of 
his  subject  ;  he  has  no  definite  plan  or  method,  and  wanders  at 
will  from  one  subject  to  another  just  as  the  idea  seizes  him. 

Curtius  is  considered  by  some  writers  as  belonging  to  the  sil- 
ver age,  and  by  others  to  a  later  period.  His  biography  of 
Alexander  the  Great  is  deeply  interesting.  It  is  a  romance 
rather  than  a  history.  lie  never  loses  an  opportunity,  by  the 
coloring  which  he  gives  to  historical  facts,  of  elevating  the 
Macedonian  conqueror  to  a  superhuman  standard.  His  florid 
and  ornamented  style  is  suitable  to  the  imaginary  orations  which 
are  introduced  in  the  narrative,  and  which  constitute  the  most 
striking  portions  of  the  work. 

Valerius  Maximus  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
His  work  is  a  collection  of  anecdotes  entitled  "  Memorable  Say- 
ings and  Deeds,"  the  object  of  which  was  to  illustrate  by 
examples  the  beauty  of  virtue  and  the  deformity  of  vice.  The 
style  is  prolix  and  declamatory,  and  characterized  by  awkward 
affectation  and  involved  obscurity. 

1.  Rhetoric  and  Eloquence. — Under  the  empire,  schools  of 
rhetoric  were  multiplied,  as  harmless  as  tyranny  could  desire. 
In  these  the  Iloman  youth  learned  the  means  by  which  the 
absence  of  natural  endowments  could  be  compensated.  The 
students  composed  their  speeches  according  to  the  rules  of 
rhetoric  ;  they  were  then  corrected,  committed  to  memory  and 
recited,  partly  with  a  view  to  practice,  partly  in  order  to  amuse 
an  admirino;  audience.  Kor  were  these  declamations  confined 
to  mere  students.  Public  recitations  had,  since  the  days  of  Juve- 
nal, been  one  of  the  crviug  nuisances  of  the  times.  Seneca,  the 
father  of  the  philosopher  of  the  same  name,  a  famous  rhetorician 
himself,  left  two  works  containing  a  series  of  exercises  in  oratory, 
which  show  the  hollow  and  artificial  system  of  those  schools.  He 
was  born  in  Cordova,  in  Spain  (61  a.d.),  and  as  a  professional 
rhetorician  amassed  a  considerable  fortune. 

Quintilian  (40-118  a.d.)  was  the  most  distinguished  teacher 
of  rhetoric  of  this  age.  He  attempted  to  restore  a  purer  and 
more  classical  taste,  and  although  to  a  certain  extent  he  was 
successful,  the  effect  which  he  produced  was  only  temporary. 
YoT  the  instruction  of  liis  elder  son  he  wrote  his  great  work, 
"  Institutes  of  Oratory,"  a  complete  system  of  instruction  in 
the  art  of  oratory  ;  and  in  it  he  shows  himself  far  superior  to 
Cicero  as  a  teacher,  though  he  was  inferior  to  hun  as  an  orator. 


ROMAX   LITERATUKE.  169 

His  work  is  divided  into  twelve  books,  in  whicli  he  traces 
the  progress  of  the  orator  from  the  very  cradle  until  he  arrives 
at  perfection.  In  this  monument  of  his  taste  and  genius  he  fully 
and  completely  exhausted  the  subject,  and  left  a  text-book  of  the 
science  and  art  of  nations,  as  well  as  a  masterly  sketch  of  the 
eloquence  of  antiquity. 

The  disposition  of  Quintihan  was  as  afiTectionate  and  tender  as 
his  genius  was  brilliant  and  his  taste  pure  ;  few  passages  through- 
out the  whole  range  of  Latin  literature  can  be  compared  to 
that  in  which  he  mourns  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  children.  It  is 
the  touching  eloquence  of  one  who  could  not  write  otherwise 
than  gracefully. 

Among  the  pupils  of  Quintilian,  Pliny  the  younger  took  the 
highest  place  in  the  literature  of  his  age.  He  was  born  in  Como, 
61  A.D.,  and  adopted  and  educated  by  his  maternal  uncle,  the 
elder  Pliny.  He  attained  great  celebrity  as  a  pleader,  and 
stood  high  in  favor  with  the  emperor.  His  works  consist  of  a 
panegyric  on  Trajan,  and  a  collection  of  letters  in  ten  books.  The 
panegyric  is  a  piece  of  courtly  flattery  in  accordance  with  the 
cringing  and  fawning  manners  of  the  times.  The  letters  are 
very  valuable,  not  only  for  the  insight  which  they  give  into  his 
own  character,  but  also  into  the  manners  and  modes  of  thought 
of  his  illustrious  contemporaries,  as  well  as  the  politics  of  the 
day.  For  liveliness,  descriptive  power,  elegance  and  simplicity 
of  style,  they  are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  Cicero,  whom  he 
evidently  took  for  his  model.  These  letters  show  how  accurate 
and  judicious  was  the  mind  of  Pliny,  how  prudent  his  adminis- 
tration in  the  high  offices  which  he  tilled  under  the  reign  of  Tra- 
jan, and  how  refined  his  taste  for  the  beautiful.  The  tenth  book, 
which  consists  of  the  letters  to  Trajan,  together  with  the  empe- 
ror's rescripts,  will  be  read  with  the  greatest  interest.  The  fol- 
lowing passages  from  his  dispatch  respecting  the  Christians, 
written  while  he  was  procurator  of  the  province  of  Bithynia, 
and  the  emperor's  answer,  are  worthy  of  being  transcribed, 
both  because  reference  is  so  often  made  to  them,  and  because 
they  throw  light  upon  the  marvellous  and  rapid  propagation  of 
the  Gospel,  the  manners  of  the  early  Christians,  the  treat- 
ment to  which  their  constancy  exposed  them,  and  the  severe 
jealousy  with  which  they  were  regarded  : 

"  It  is  my  constant  practice,  sire,  to  refer  to  you  all  subjects 
on  which  I  entertain  doubt.  For  who  is  better  able  to  direct 
my  hesitation,  or  to  instruct  my  ignorance  ?  I  have  never  been 
present  at  the  trials  of  Christians,  and,  therefore,  I  do  not  know 
in  what  way,  or  to   what  extent  it  is  usual  to  question  or  to 

8 


170  EOMAN    LITERATUllE. 

punish  them.  I  have  also  felt  no  small  difficulty  in  deciding 
whether  age  should  make  any  difference,  or  whether  those  of  the 
tenderest  and  those  of  mature  years  should  be  treated  alike  ; 
whether  pardon  should  be  accorded  to  repentance,  or  whether, 
where  a  man  has  once  been  a  Christian,  recantation  should  profit 
him  ;  whether,  if  the  name  of  Christian  does  not  imply  crimi- 
nality, still  the  crimes  peculiarly  belonging  to  the  name  should 
be  punished.  Meanwhile,  in  the  case  of  those  against  whom 
informations  have  been  laid  before  me,  I  have  pursued  the  follow- 
ing line  of  conduct :  I  have  put  to  them,  personally,  the  question 
whether  they  were  Christians.  If  they  confessed,  I  interrogated 
them  a  second  and  third  time,  and  threatened  them  with  punish- 
ment. If  they  still  persevered,  I  ordered  their  commitment  ;  for 
I  had  no  doubt  whatever,  that  whatever  they  confessed,  at  any 
rate,  dogged  and  inflexible  obstinacy  deserved  to  be  punished. 
There  were  others  who  displayed  similar  madness  ;  but,  as  they 
were  Roman  citizens,  I  ordered  them  to  be  sent  back  to  the  city. 
Soon,  persecution  itself,  as  is  generally  the  case,  caused  the 
crime  to  spread,  and  it  appeared  in  new  forms.  An  anonymous 
information  was  laid  against  a  large  number  of  persons,  but  they 
deny  that  they  are,  or  ever  have  been.  Christians.  As  they 
invoked  the  gods,  repeating  the  form  after  me,  and  offered  prayer 
with  incense  and  wine,  to  your  image,  which  I  had  ordered 
to  be  brought  together  with  those  of  the  deities,  and  besides, 
cursed  Christ,  while  those  who  are  true  Christians,  it  is  said, 
cannot  be  compelled  to  do  any  one  of  these  things,  I  thought  it 
right  to  set  them  at  liberty.  Others,  when  accused  by  an  infor- 
mer, confessed  that  they  were  Christians,  and  soon  after  denied 
the  fact.  They  said  they  had  been,  but  had  ceased  to  be,  some 
three,  some  more,  not  a  few  even  twenty  years  previously.  All 
these  worshipped  your  image  and  those  of  the  gods,  and  cursed 
Christ.  But  they  affirmed  that  the  sum-total  of  their  fault,  or 
their  error,  was  that  they  were  accustomed  to  assemble  on  a 
fixed  day,  before  dawn,  and  sing  an  antiphonal  hymn  to  Christ 
as  God  ;  that  they  bound  themselves  by  an  oath,  not  to  the 
commission  of  any  wickedness,  but  to  abstain  from  theft,  robl^ery 
and  adultery  ;  never  to  break  a  promise,  or  to  deny  a  deposit, 
when  it  was  demanded  back.  When  these  ceremonies  were  con- 
cluded, it  was  their  custom  to  depart,  and  again  assemble  toge- 
ther to  take  food  harmlessly  and  in  common.  That  after  my 
proclamation,  in  which,  in  obedience  to  your  command,  I  had 
forbidden  associations,  they  had  desisted  from  this  practice.  For 
these  reasons,  I  the  more  thought  it  necessary  to  investigate  the 
real  truth,  by  putting  to  the  torture  two  maidens  who  were 


ROMAN   LITEKATURE.  171 

called  deaconesses ;  but  I  discovered  notliing,  but  a  perverse  and 
excessive  superstition.  I  have,  therefore,  deferred  taking  cog- 
nizance of  the  matter  until  I  had  consulted  you  ;  for  it  seemed 
to  me  a  case  requiring  advice,  especially  on  account  of  the  num- 
ber of  those  in  peril.  For  many  of  every  age,  sex  and  rank  are, 
and  will  continue  to  be  called  in  question.  The  Infection,  in  fact, 
has  spread  not  only  through  the  cities,  but  also  through  the  vil- 
lages and  open  country  ;  but  it  seems  that  its  progress  can  be 
arrested.  At  any  rate,  it  is  clear  that  the  temples,  which  were 
almost  deserted,  l3egin  to  be  frequented  ;  and  solemn  sacrifices, 
which  had  been  long  intermitted,  are  again  performed,  and  vic- 
tims are  being  sold  everywhere,  for  which,  up  to  this  time,  a 
purchaser  could  rarely  be  found.  It  is,  therefore,  easy  to  con- 
ceive that  crowds  might  be  reclaimed,  if  an  opportunity  for 
repentance  were  given." 

Trajan  to  Pliny  :  "In  sifting  the  cases  of  those  who  have 
been  indicted  on  the  charge  of  Christianity,  you  have  adopted,  my 
dear  Secundus,  the  right  course  of  proceeding  ;  for  no  certain 
rule  can  be  laid  down,  which  will  meet  all  cases.  They  must  not 
be  sought  after,  but  if  they  are  mformed  against,  and  convicted, 
they  must  be  punished  ;  with  this  proviso,  however,  that  if  any 
deny  that  he  is  a  Christian,  and  proves  the  point  by  offering 
prayers  to  our  deities,  notwithstanding  the  suspicions  under 
which  he  has  labored,  he  shall  be  pardoned  on  his  repentance. 
On  no  account  should  any  anonymous  charges  be  attended  to, 
for  it  would  be  the  worst  possible  precedent,  and  is  inconsistent 
with  the  habits  of  our  time." 

8.  Philosophy  and  Science. — Philosophy,  and  particularly 
moral  philosophy,  became  a  necessary  study  at  this  time,  when 
the  popular  religion  had  lost  its  influence.  In  the  general  ruin 
of  public  and  private  morals,  virtuous  men  found  in  this  science  a 
guide  in  the  dangers  by  which  they  were  continually  threatened, 
and  a  consolation  in  all  their  sorrows.  The  Stoic  amont'-  the 
other  schools  met  with  most  favor  from  this  class  of  men,  for  it 
offered  better  security  against  the  evils  of  life,  and  taught  men 
how  to  take  shelter  from  baseness  and  profligacy  under  the  influ- 
ence of  virtue  and  courage.  The  doctrines  of  the  Stoics  suited 
the  rigid  sternness  of  the  Koman  character.  They  embodied 
that  spirit  of  self-devotion  and  self-denial  with  which  the  Roman 
patriot,  in  the  old  times  of  simple  republican  virtue,  threw  him- 
self into  his  pubhc  duties,  and  they  enabled  him  to  meet  death 
with  a  courageous  spirit  in  this  degenerate  age,  in  which  many 
of  the  best  and  noblest  willingly  died  by  their  own  hands,  at  tho 


172  ROMAN   LITERATURE. 

imperial  mandate,  iu  order  to  save  their  name  from  infamy,  and 
their  inheritance  from  confiscation. 

Seneca  (12-69  a.d.),  a  native  of  Cordova,  in  Spain,  was  the 
greatest  philosopher  of  this  age.  He  early  displayed  great 
talent  as  a  pleader,  but  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  he  was  banished 
to  Corsica,  where  he  solaced  his  exile  with  the  study  of  the  Stoic 
philosophy  ;  and  though  its  severe  precepts  exercised  no  moral 
influence  on  his  conduct,  he  not  only  professed  himself  a  Stoic, 
but  imagined  that  he  was  one.  A  few  years  after,  he  was 
recalled  by  Agrippina,  to  become  tutor  to  her  son  J^ero.  He 
was  too  unscrupulous  a  man  of  the  world  to  attempt  the  correc- 
tion of  the  vicious  propensities  of  his  pupil,  or  to  instill  into  him 
high  principles.  After  the  accession  of  Nero,  he  endeavored  to 
arrest  his  depraved  career,  but  it  was  too  late.  Seneca  had,  by 
usury  and  legacy-hunting,  amassed  one  of  those  large  fortunes,  of 
which  so  many  instances  are  met  with  in  Roman  history  ;  feel- 
ing the  dangers  of  wealth,  he  offered  his  property  to  Nero,  who 
refused  it,  but  resolved  to  rid  himself  of  his  former  tutor,  and 
easily  found  a  pretext  for  his  destruction.  In  adversity  the  cha- 
racter of  Seneca  shone  with  brighter  lustre.  Though  he  had  lived 
ill,  he  could  die  well.  He  met  the  messengers  of  death  without 
trembling.  His  noble  wife,  Paulina,  determined  to  die  with  him. 
The  veins  of  both  were  opened  at  the  same  time,  but  the  little 
blood  which  remained  in  his  emaciated  frame  refused  to  flow.  He 
suffered  excruciating  agony.  A  warm  bath  was  tried,  but  in  vain ; 
and  a  draught  of  poison  was  equally  ineffectual.  At  last  he  was 
suffocated  by  the  vapor  of  a  stove. 

Seneca  lived  in  a  perilous  atmosphere.  He  had  not  firmness 
to  act  up  to  the  high  moral  standard  which  he  proposed  to  him- 
self. He  was  avaricious,  but  avarice  was  the  great  sin  of  his 
times.  The  education  of  one,  who  was  a  brute  rather  than  a  man, 
was  a  task  to  which  no  one  would  have  been  equal;  he  therefore 
retained  the  influence  which  he  had  not  the  uprightness  to  com- 
mand, by  miserable  and  sinful  expedients.  He  had  great  abili- 
ties, and  some  of  the  noble  qualities  of  the  old  Eomans  ;  and  had 
he  lived  in  the  days  of  the  republic,  he  would  have  been  a  great 
man. 

Seneca  was  the  author  of  twelve  ethical  treatises,  the  best  of 
which  are  entitled,  "  On  Providence,"  "  On  Consolation,"  and 
''  On  the  Perseverance  of  wise  men."  He  cared  little  for  abstract 
speculation,  and  delighted  to  inculcate  precepts  ratlier  than  to 
investigate  principles.  He  was  always  a  favorite  with  Christian 
writers,  and  some  of  his  sentiments  are  truly  Christian.  There  is 
even  a  tradition  that  he  was  acquainted  with  St.  Paul.     He  may 


PvO:\rAX    LITERATUEE.  173 

uncousciously  have  imbibed  some  of  the  principles  of  Christianity. 
The  Gospel  had  already  made  great  and  rapid  strides  over  the 
civilized  world,  and  thoughtful  minds  may  have  been  enlightened 
by  some  of  the  rays  of  divine  truth  dispersed  by  the  moral 
atmosphere,  just  as  we  are  benefited  by  the  light  of  the  sun,  even 
when  its  disk  is  obscured  by  clouds.  His  epistles,  of  which  there 
are  124,  are  moral  essays,  and  are  the  most  delightful  of  his 
works.  They  are  evidently  written  for  the  public  eye  ;  they  are 
rich  in  varied  thought,  and  their  reflections  flow  naturally,  and 
without  effort.  They  contain  a  free  and  unconstrained  picture 
of  his  mind,  and  we  see  in  them  how  he  despised  verbal  subtle- 
ties, the  external  badges  of  a  sect  or  creed,  and  insisted  that  the 
great  end  of  science  is  to  learn  how  to  live  and  how  to  die.  The 
style  of  Seneca  is  too  elaborate  to  please.  It  is  affected,  often 
florid  and  bombastic  ;  there  is  too  much  sparkle  and  ghtter,  too 
little  repose  and  simplicity. 

Pliny  the  elder  (a.d.  23-t9)  was  born  probably  at  Como,  the 
family  residence.  He  was  educated  at  Rome,  where  he  practised 
at  the  bar,  and  filled  different  civil  offices.  He  perished  a  mar- 
tyr to  the  cause  of  science,  in  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which 
took  place  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  the  first  of  which  there  is  any 
record  in  history  The  circumstances  of  his  death  are  described 
by  his  nephew,  Pliny  the  younger,  in  two  letters  to  Tacitus.  He 
was  at  Misenum,  in  command  of  the  fleet,  when  observing  the 
first  indications  of  the  eruption,  and  wishing  to  investigate  it 
more  closely,  he  fitted  out  a  light  galley,  and  sailed  towards  the 
villa  of  a  friend  at  Stabia3.  He  found  his  friend  in  great  alarm, 
but  Pliny  remained  tranquil  and  retired  to  rest.  Meanwhile, 
broad  flames  burst  forth  from  the  volcano,  the  blaze  was  reflect- 
ed from  the  sky,  and  the  brightness  was  enhanced  by  the  dark- 
ness of  the  night.  Repeated  shocks  of  an  earthquake  made  the 
houses  rock  to  and  fro,  while  in  the  air  the  fall  of  half  burnt 
pumice-stones  menaced  danger.  He  was  awakened,  and  he  and 
his  friend,  with  their  attendants,  tied  cushions  over  their  heads 
to  protect  them  from  the  falling  stones,  and  walked  out  to  see 
if  they  might  venture  on  the  water.  It  was  now  day,  but  the 
darkness  was  denser  than  the  darkest  night,  the  sea  was  a  waste 
of  stormy  waters,  and  when  at  last  the  flames  and  the  sulphu- 
reous smell  could  no  longer  be  endured,  Phny  fell  dead,  suf- 
focated by  the  dense  vapor. 

The  natural  history  of  Pliny  is  an  unequalled  monument  of 
studious  diligence  and  persevering  industry.  It  consists  of  thirty- 
seven  books,  and  contains  20,000  facts  (as  he  believed  them  to 
be)  connected  with  nature  and  art,  the  result  not  of  original 


174  TwOMAX    LITERATURE. 

research,  but  as  he  honestly  confessed,  culled  from  the  labors  of 
other  men. 

Owmg  to-  the  extent  of  his  reading,  his  love  of  the  marvellous, 
and  his  want  of  judgment  in  comparing  and  selecting,  he  does 
not  present  us  with  a  correct  view  of  the  science  of  his  own  age. 
He  reproduces  errors  evidently  obsolete  and  inconsistent  with 
facts  and  theories  which  had  afterwards  replaced  them.  With 
him,  mythological  traditions  appeared  to  have  almost  the  same 
authority  as  modern  discoveries;  the  earth  teems  with  monsters, 
not  exceptions  to  the  regular  order  of  nature,  but  specimens  of 
her  ingenuity.  His  peculiar  pantheistic  belief  prepared  him  to 
consider  nothing  incredible,  and  his  temper  inclined  him  to  admit 
all  that  was  credible  as  true. 

He  tells  us  of  men  whose  feet  were  turned  backwards,  of 
others  whose  feet  were  so  large  as  to  shade  them  when  they  lay 
in  the  sun ;  others  without  mouths,  who  fed  on  the  fragrance  of 
fruits  and  flowers.  Among  the  lower  animals,  he  enumerates 
horned  horses  furnished  with  wings  ;  the  mantichora,  W'ith  the 
face  of  a  man,  three  rows  of  teeth,  a  lion's  body,  and  a  scorpion's 
tail  ;  the  basilisk,  whose  very  glance  is  f\ital  ;  and  an  insect 
which  cannot  live  except  in  the  midst  of  the  flames.  But 
notwithstanding  his  credulity  and  his  want  of  judgment,  this 
elaborate  work  contains  many  valuable  truths  and  much  enter- 
taining information.  The  prevailing  character  of  his  philosophi- 
cal belief,  though  tinctured  with  the  stoicism  of  the  day,  is  queru- 
lous and  melancholy.  Believing  that  nature  is  an  all  powerful 
principle,  and  the  universe  instinct  with  deity,  he  saw  more  of 
evil  than  of  good  in  the  divine  dispensation,  and  the  result  was  a 
gloomy  and  discontented  pantheism. 

Celsus  prol3ably  lived  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  works,  on  various  subjects,  of  which  one,  in 
eight  books,  on  medicine,  is  now  extant.  The  independence  of 
his  views,  the  practical,  as  w^ell  as  the  scientific  nature  of  his 
instructions,  and  above  all,  his  knowledge  of  surgery,  and  his 
clear  exposition  of  surgical  operations,  have  given  his  work 
great  authority;  the  highest  testimony  is  borne  to  its  merits  by 
the  fact  of  its  being  used  as  a  text-book,  even  in  the  present 
advanced  state  of  medical  science.  The  taste  of  the  age  in  which 
he  lived  turned  his  attention  also  to  polite  literature,  and  to  that 
may  be  ascribed  the  Augustan  purity  of  his  style. 

Pomponius  Mela  lived  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  He  is  consi- 
dered as  the  representative  of  the  Roman  geographers.  Though 
his  book,  "  The  Place  of  the  World,"  is  but  an  epitome  of  former 


ROMAN   LITERATURE.  1^5 

treatises,  it  is  interesting  for  the  simplicity  of  its  style  and  the 
purity  of  its  language. 

Columella  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Claudius  and  Xero.  He 
is  author  of  an  agricultural  work,  *'De  Re  rustica,"  in  which  he 
gives,  in  smooth  and  fluent,  though  somewhat  too  diffuse  a  style, 
the  fullest  and  completest  information  on  practical  agriculture 
among  the  Romans  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

Frontiuus  (fl.  78  a.d.)  left  two  valuable  works,  one  on  military 
tactics,  the  other  a  descriptive  architectural  treatise  on  those 
wonderful  monuments  of  Roman  art,  the  aqueducts.  Besides 
these  there  are  extant  fragments  of  other  works  on  surveying, 
and  on  the  laws  and  customs  relating  to  landed  property,  which 
assign  Frontiuus  an  important  place  in  the  estimation  of  the 
students  of  Roman  history. 

9.  Roman  Literature  from  Hadrian  to  Theodoric  (138-526 
A.D.). — From  the  death  of  Augustus,  Roman  Hterature  had  gra- 
dually declined,  and  though  it  shone  forth  for  a  time  with  classic 
radiance  in  the  writings  of  Persius,  Juvenal,  QuintiUan,  Tacitus, 
and  the  Plinics,  with  the  death  of  freedom,  the  extinction  of 
patriotism,  and  the  decay  of  the  national  spirit,  nothing  could 
avert  its  fall.  Poetry  had  become  declamation ;  history  had  de- 
generated either  into  fulsome  panegyric  or  the  fleshless  skeletons 
of  epitomes  ;  and  at  length  the  Romans  seemed  to  disdain  the 
use  of  their  native  tongue,  and  wrote  again  in  Greek,  as  they 
had  in  the  infancy  of  the  national  literature.  The  emperor 
Hadrian  resided  long  at  Athens,  and  became  imbued  with  a  taste 
and  admiration  for  Greek ;  and  thus  the  literature  of  Rome 
became  Hellenized.  From  this  epoch  the  term  classical  can  no 
longer  be  applied  to  it,  for  it  no  longer  retained  its  purity.  To 
Greek  influence  succeeded  the  still  more  corrupting  one  of  foreign 
nations.  With  the  death  of  Xerva,  the  uninterrupted  succession 
of  emperors  of  Roman  or  Italian  birth  ceased.  Trajan  himself 
was  a  Spaniard,  and  after  him  not  only  foreigners  of  every  Eu- 
ropean race,  but  even  Orientals  and  Africans  were  invested  with 
the  imperial  purple,  and  the  empire  also  over  which  they  ruled 
was  one  unwieldy  mass  of  heterogeneous  materials.  The  literary 
influence  of  the  capital  was  not  felt  in  the  interior  portions  of 
the  Roman  dominions.  Schools  were  established  in  the  very 
heart  of  nations  just  emerging  from  barbarism  ;  and  though  the 
blessings  of  civilization  and  intellectual  culture  were  thus  distri- 
buted far  and  wide,  still  literary  taste,  as  it  flowed  through  the 
minds  of  foreigners,  became  corrupted,  and  the  language  of  the 


176  EOMAX    LITERATURE. 

imperial  city,  exj^osed  to  the  infecting  contact  of  barbarous  LdiomS; 
lost  its  purity. 

The  Latin  authors  of  this  age  were  numerous,  but  few  had 
taste  to  appreciate  and  imitate  the  literature  of  the  Augustan 
age.  They  may  be  classified  according  to  their  departments  of 
poetry,  history,  grammar,  and  oratory,  philosophy  and  science. 

The  brightest  star  of  the  poetry  of  this  period  was  Claudian 
(365-404  A.D.),  in  whom  the  graceful  imagination  of  classical 
antiquity  seems  to  have  revived.  He  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
Stilicho,  the  guardian  and  minister  of  Houorius,  and  in  the  praise 
and  honor  of  him  and  of  his  pupil,  he  wrote  "  The  Kape  of  Pro- 
serpine," the  "War  of  the  Giants,"  and  several  other  poems.  His 
descriptions  indicate  a  rich  and  powerful  imagination,  but  neglect- 
ing substance  for  form,  his  style  is  often  declamatory  and  affected. 
Amonsr  the  earliest  authors  of  Christian  hvmns  were  Hilarius 
and  Prudentins.  Those  of  the  former  were  expressly  designed  to 
be  sung,  and  are  said  to  have  been  set  to  music  by  the  author 
himself.  Prudentius  (fl.  348  a.d.)  wrote  many  hymns  and  poems 
in  defence  of  the  Christian  faith,  more  distinguished  for  their 
pious  and  devotional  character  than  for  their  lyric  sublimity  or 
purity  of  language.  To  this  age  belong  also  the  hymns  of  Dama- 
sus  and  of  Ambrose. 

Among  the  historians  are  Flavius  Eutropius,  who  lived  in  the 
4th  century,  and  by  the  direction  of  the  emperor  Yalens  com- 
posed an  "Epitome  of  Roman  History,"  which  was  a  favorite 
book  in  the  middle  ages.  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  his  contem- 
porary, wrote  a  Roman  history  in  continuation  of  Tacitus 
and  Suetonius;  though  his  style  is  affected  and  often  rough  and 
inaccurate,  his  work  is  interesting  for  its  digressions  and  obser- 
vations. Severus  Sulpicius  wrote  the  history  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
of  the  four  centuries  of  the  church.  His  "  Sacred  History,"  for 
its  language  and  style,  is  one  of  the  best  works  of  that  age. 

In  the  department  of  oratory  may  be  mentioned  Cornelius 
Eronton,  who  flourished  under  Domitian  and  Nerva,  and  was 
endowed  with  a  rich  imagination  and  a  mind  stored  with  vast 
erudition  in  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  Symmachus,  distin- 
guished for  his  opposition  to  Christianity,  and  Cassiodorus,  min- 
ister and  secretary  of  the  Emperor  Theodoric. 

In  the  decline  of  Roman,  as  of  Greek  literature,  grammarians 
took  the  place  of  poets  and  of  historians  ;  they  commented  on 
and  interpreted  the  ancient  classics,  and  transmitted  to  us 
valuable  information  concerning  the  Augustan  writers.  Among 
the  most  important  works  of  this  kind  are  the  "  Attic  Nights  " 
of  Gellius,  who  was  born  in  Rome,  and  lived  under  Hadrian 


KOMAX   LITERATUEE.  1^7 

and  the  Antonines.  In  his  work  are  preserved  many  vahialjle 
passages  of  the  classics  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost. 
Macrobius,  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  was 
the  author  of  different  works  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  i^eo- 
Platonic  school  are  expounded.  His  style,  however,  is  very 
defective. 

A  striking  characteristic  of  the  writings,  both  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  of  the  last  ages  of  the  empire,  is  the  prevalence  of  prin- 
ciples and  opinions  imported  from  the  East.  The  Neo-Platonic 
school,  imbued  with  oriental  mysticism,  had  diffused  the  belief 
in  spirits  and  magic,  and  the  philosophy  of  this  age  was  a  mix- 
ture of  ancient  wisdom  with  new  superstitions  belonging  to  the 
ages  of  transition  between  the  decadence  of  the  ancient  faith 
and  the  development  of  a  new  religion.  The  best  representative 
of  the  philosophy  of  this  age  is  Apuleius,  born  in  Africa  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian.  After  having  received  his  education  in  Car- 
thage and  Athens,  he  came  to  Rome,  where  he  acquired  great 
reputation  as  a  literary  man,  and  as  the  possessor  of  extraordi- 
nary supernatural  powers.  To  his  extensive  philosophical 
knowledge  and  immense  erudition,  he  united  great  polish  of 
manner  and  remarkable  beauty  of  person.  He  wrote  much  on 
philosophy  ;  but  his  most  important  work  is  a  romance  known 
as  "  Metamorphoses,  or  the  Golden  Ass,"  containing  his  philo- 
sophical and  mystic  doctrines.  In  this  book,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  encourage  the  lielief  in  mysticism,  the  writer  describes  the 
transformation  of  a  young  man  into  an  ass,  who  is  allowed  to 
take  his  primitive  human  form  only  through  a  knowledge  of 
the  mysteries  of  Isis.  The  story  is  well  told,  and  the  romance 
is  full  of  interest  and  sprighthness  ;  but  its  style  is  incorrect, 
florid  and  bombastic. 

Boethius  (470-524),  the  last  of  the  Roman  philosophers, 
was  the  descendant  of  an  illustrious  family.  He  made  Greek 
philosophy  the  principal  object  of  his  meditations.  He  was 
raised  to  the  highest  honors  and  offices  in  the  emphe  by  Theo- 
doric,  but  finally,  through  the  artifices  of  enemies  who  envied 
his  reputation,  he  lost  the  favor  of  his  patron,  was  imprisoned, 
and  at  length  beheaded.  Of  his  numerous  works,  founded  on 
the  peripatetic  philosophy,  that  which  has  gained  him  the 
greatest  celebrity  is  entitled  "  On  the  Consolations  of  Philoso- 
phy," composed  while  he  was  in  prison.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue,  in  which  philosophy  appears  to  console  him  with  the 
idea  of  Divine  Providence.  The  poetical  part  of  the  book  is 
written  with  elegance  and  grace,  and  his  prose,  though  not 
pure,  is  fluent  and  full  of  tranquil  dignitv.     The  work  of  Boe- 

8* 


178  ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

thius,  v.'liicli  is  known  in  all  modern  languages,  was  translated 
into  Ano-lo-Saxon  bv  Kino-  Alfred,  900  a.d. 

The  fathers  of  the  church  followed  more  particularly  the  phi- 
losophy of  Plato,  which  was  united  and  adapted  to  Christianity. 
St.  Augustine  is  the  most  illustrious  among  the  Christian  Pla- 
tonists. 

The  most  eloquent  orators  and  writers  of  this  period  were 
found  among  the  advocates  of  Christianity  ;  and  among  the 
most  celebrated  of  these  Latin  Fathers  of  the  Christian  church, 
we  may  mention  the  following  names.  TertuUian  (160-2S5  a.d.), 
in  his  apology  for  the  Christians,  gives  much  information  on  the 
manners  and  conduct  of  the  early  Christians  ;  his  style  is  concise 
and  figurative,  but  harsh,  unpolished  and  obscure.  St.  Cyprian 
(200-258),  beheaded  at  Carthage  for  preaching  the  Gospel 
contrary  to  the  orders  of  the  government,  wrote  an  explanation 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  affords  a  valuable  illustration  of 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  time.  Arnobius  (fl.  300)  refuted 
the  objections  of  the  heathen  against  Christianity  with  spirit 
and  learning,  in  his  "  Disputes  with  the  Gentiles,"  a  work  rich 
in  materials  for  the  understanding  of  Greek  and  Roman  mytho- 
log}^  Lactantius  (d.  325),  on  account  of  his  fine  and  eloquent 
language,  is  frequently  called  the  Christian  Cicero  ;  his  "  Divine 
Institutes  "  are  particularly  celebrated.  St.  Ambrose  (340-397) 
obtained  great  honor  by  his  conduct  as  Bishop  of  Milan,  and 
his  ^vritings  bear  the  stamp  of  his  high  Christian  character. 
St.  Augustine  (360-430)  was  one  of  the  most  renowned  of  all 
the  Latin  fathers.  Though  others  may  have  been  more  learned 
or  masters  of  a  purer  style,  none  more  powerfully  touched  and 
warmed  the  heart  towards  religion.  His  "  City  of  God  "  is  one 
of  the  great  monuments  of  human  genius.  St.  Jerome  (330-420) 
wrote  many  epistles  full  of  energy  and  affection,  as  well  as  of 
religious  zeal.  He  made  a  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  w^as  the  foundation  of  the  Yulgate,  and  which  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Leo  the  Great 
(11.  440)  is  the  first  pope  whose  WTitings  have  been  preserved. 
They  consist  of  sermons  and  letters.  His  style  is  finished  and 
rhetorical. 

10.  Roman  Jl'risprudexce. — In  the  period  which  followed, 
from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  time  of  the  Antonincs, 
Roman  civilians  and  legal  writers  continued  to  be  numerous, 
and  as  a  professional  body  they  seem  to  have  enjoyed  high 
consideration  until  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  Seve- 
rus,  335  A.D.     After  that  time  they  were  held  in  much  less 


ROMAN    LITERATURE.  179 

estimation,  as  the  science  fell  into  the  hands  of  freedmen 
and  plebeians,  who  practised  it  as  a  sordid  and  pernicious 
trade.  With  the  reign  of  Constantine,  the  credit  of  the  pro- 
fession revived,  and  the  youth  of  the  empire  were  stimulated  to 
pursue  the  study  of  the  law  by  the  hope  of  being  ultimately 
rewarded  bv  honorable  and  lucrative  offices,  the  mag-istrates 
being  almost  wholly  taken  from  the  class  of  lawyers.  Two 
jurists  of  this  reign,  Gregorianus  and  Hermogenianus,  are  par- 
ticularly distinguished  as  authors  of  codes  which  are  known  by 
their  names,  and  which  were  recognized  as  standard  authorities 
in  courts  of  justice.  The  "  Code  of  Theodosius"  was  a  collec- 
tion of  laws  reduced  by  that  emperor,  and  promulgated  in  both 
empires  438  a.d.  It  retained  its  authority  in  the  western  empire 
until  its  final  overthrow,  4T6  a.d.,  and  even  after  this,  though 
modified  by  the  institutions  of  the  conquerors.  In  the  eastern 
empire,  it  was  only  superseded  by  the  code  of  Justinian.  Tiiis 
emperor  undertook  the  task  of  reducing  to  order  and  system  the 
great  confusion  and  perplexity  in  which  the  whole  subject  of 
Roman  jurisprudence  was  involved.  For  this  purpose  he  em- 
ployed the  most  eminent  lawyers,  with  the  celebrated  Triboniau 
at  their  head,  to  whom  he  entrusted  the  work  of  forming  and 
publishing  a  complete  collection  of  the  preceding  laws  and 
edicts,  and  who  devoted  several  years  of  unwearied  labor  and 
research  to  this  object.  They  first  collected  and  reduced  the 
imperial  constitutions  from  the  time  of  Hadrian  downwards, 
which  was  promulgated  as  the  "  Justinian  Code."  Their  next 
labor  was  to  reduce  the  writings  of  the  jurisconsults  of  the  pre- 
ceding ages,  especially  those  who  had  lived  under  the  empire, 
and  whose  works  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  two  thousand 
volumes.  This  work  was  published  533  a.d.,  under  the  title  of 
"  Pandects,"  or  "  Digest,"  the  former  title  referring  to  their 
completeness  as  comprehending  the  whole  of  Roman  jurispru- 
dence, and  the  latter  to  their  methodical  arrangement.  At  the 
same  time,  a  work  prepared  by  Tribonian  w^as  pablished  by  the 
order  of  the  emperor,  on  the  elements  or  first  principles  of 
Roman  law,  entitled  "  Institutes,"  and  another  collection  con- 
sisting of  constitutions  and  edicts,  under  the  title  of  "  Novels," 
chiefly  written  in  Greek,  but  known  to  the  moderns  by  a  Latin 
translation.  Tliese  four  works,  the  Code,  the  Pandects,  the 
Institutes  and  the  Novels,  constituted  what  is  now  called  the 
Body  cf  Roman  Law. 

The  system  of  jurisprudence  established  by  Justinian  remained 
in  force  in  the  eastern  empire  until  the  taking  of  Constantinople, 
1453  A.D.     After  the  fall  of  the  western  empire,  these  laws  liad 


180  EOMAN    LITERATURE. 

little  sway  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  Irnerius,  a  German 
lawyer  who  had  studied  at  Constantinople,  opened  a  school  at 
Bologna,  and  thus  revived  and  propagated  in  the  West  a  know- 
ledge of  Roman  civil  law.  Students  flocked  to  this  school  from 
all  parts,  and  by  them  Roman  jurisprudence,  as  embodied  in 
the  system  of  Justinian,  was  transmitted  to  most  of  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe. 

During  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  the  process  of  the 
debasement  of  the  Roman  tongue  went  on  with  great  rapidity. 
The  influence  of  the  provincials  began  what  the  irruptions  of  the 
northern  tribes  consummated.  In  many  scattered  parts  of  the 
empire  it  is  probable  that  separate  Latin  dialects  arose,  and 
the  change  upon  the  whole  structure  of  the  tongue  was  pro- 
digious, when  the  Goths  poured  into  Italy,  established  them- 
selves in  the  capital,  and  began  to  speak  and  ^mte  in  a  language 
previously  foreign  to  them.  With  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Theodoric  the  curtain  falls  upon  ancient  literature. 


AEABIAiSr  LITER ATUEE. 

1.  European  Literature  in  the  Dark  Ages.— 2.  The  Arabian  Language.— 3.  Ara- 
bian Mythology  and  the  Koran. — i.  Historical  Development  of  Arabian  Lite- 
rature.—5.  Grammar  and  Rhetoric— 6.  Poetry.— 7.  The  Arabian  Tales.— 8.  History 
and  Science. 

1.  European  Literature  in  the  Dark  Ages. — About  four 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  from  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  after 
Christ  to  the  commencement  of  the  11th,  maybe  marked  out 
as  the  period  intervening  between  ancient  and  modern  Hterature, 
— a  period  known  in  history  as  the  Dark  Ages.  At  the  first  of 
these  epochs  classical  genius  was  already  extinct,  and  the  purity 
of  the  classical  tongues  was  yielding  rapidly  to  the  corruptions  of 
the  provinces  and  of  the  new  dialects.  At  the  second  epoch, 
many  causes  conspired  to  work  great  changes  in  the  fabric  of 
societv,  and  in  the  manifestations  of  human  intellect.  The  ao-es 
that  lie  between,  though  not  unconnected  with  those  that  follow, 
have  some  features  peculiar  to  themselves.  Throughout  their 
course,  the  treasures  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  exposed  to 
the  danger  of  perishing  and  impaired  by  much  actual  loss,  ex- 
erted no  influence  on  the  minds  of  those  who  still  used  the  tongues 
to  which  they  belong.  Greek  letters,  as  we  have  seen,  decayed 
with  the  Byzantine  power,  and  the  vital  principle  in  both  became 
extinct  long  before  the  sword  of  the  Turkish  conqueror  inflicted 
the  final  blow.  The  fate  of  Latin  literature  w^as  not  less  deplor- 
able. When  province  after  province  of  the  Koman  dominions 
was  overrun  by  the  northern  hordes,  when  the  imperial  schools 
were  suppressed  and  the  monuments  of  ancient  genius  destroyed, 
an  enfeebled  people  and  a  debased  language  could  not  withstand 
such  adverse  circumstances.  During  the  7th  and  8th  centuries, 
Latin  composition  degenerated  into  the  rudeness  of  the  monkish 
style.  The  care  bestowed  by  Charlemagne  upon  education  in  the 
9  th  century  produced  some  purifying  effect  upon  the  writings  of 
the  cloister  ;  the  10th  was  distinguished  by  an  increased  zeal  in 
the  task  of  transcribing  the  classical  authors,  and  in  the  11th 
the  Latin  works  of  the  Xormans  display  some  masculine  force 
and  freedom.     Latin  was  the  repository  of  such  knowledge  as 


ISl 


182  AEAllIAX    LITEKATUKE. 

the  times  could  boast  ;  it  was  used  in  the  service  of  the  church, 
and  ill  the  chronicles  that  supplied  the  place  of  history,  but  it 
was  not  the  vehicle  of  any  great  production  stamped  with  true 
genius  and  impressing  the  minds  of  jDOsterity.  Stiil,  genius  was 
not  altogether  extinguished  in  every  part  of  Europe.  The  north, 
which  sent  out  its  daring  tribes  to  change  the  aspect  of  civil  life, 
furnished  a  fresh  source  of  mental  inspiration,  which  was  destined, 
with  the  recovered  influence  of  the  classic  spirit  and  other  pro- 
lific causes,  to  give  birth  to  some  of  the  best  portions  of  modern 
literature. 

At  the  memorable  epoch  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  do- 
minion in  the  West  (476  a.'d.),  the  seats  of  the  Teutonic  race 
extended  from  the  banks  of  the  E-hine  and  the  Danube  to  the 
rock-bound  coasts  of  Norway.  The  victorious  invaders,  who 
occupied  the  southern  provinces  of  Europe,  speedily  lost  their 
own  forms  of  speech,  which  were  broken  down,  together  with 
those  of  the  vanquished,  into  a  jargon  unfit  for  composition.  But 
in  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  where  the  old  language  retained 
its  purity,  song  continued  to  flourish.  There,  from  the  most  dis- 
tant eras  described  by  Tacitus  and  other  Latin  writers,  the 
favorite  attendants  of  kings  and  chiefs  w^re  those  celebrated  bards 
w^ho  preserved  in  their  traditionary  strains  the  memory  of  great 
events,  the  praises  of  the  gods,  the  glory  of  warriors  and  the 
laws  and  customs  of  their  countrymen.  Intrusted,  like  the 
Grecian  heroic  minstrelsy,  to  oral  recitation,  it  w'as  not  until  the 
propitious  reign  of  Charlemagne  that  these  verses  were  collected. 
But,  through  the  bigotry  of  his  successor  or  the  ravages  of  time,  not 
a  fragment  of  this  collection  remains.  We  are  enabled,  however,  to 
form  an  idea  of  the  general  tone  and  tenor  of  this  early  Teutonic 
poetry  from  other  interesting  remains.  The  "  Xibelungen-Lied," 
[Lay  of  the  Nihelungeii)  and  "Heldenbuch"  {Book  of  Heroes)  may 
be  regarded  as  the  Homeric  poems  of  Germany.  After  an  ex- 
amination of  their  monuments,  the  ability  of  the  ancient  bards, 
the  honor  in  which  they  were  held,  and  the  enthusiasm  which 
they  produced,  will  not  be  surprising. 

Equally  distinguished  were  the  Scalds  of  Scandinavia.  Ever 
in  the  train  of  princes  and  gallant  adventurers,  they  chanted 
their  rhymeless  verse  for  the  encouragement  and  solace  of  heroes. 
Their  oldest  songs,  or  sagas,  are  mostly  of  a  historical  import. 
In  th^  Icelandic  Edda,  however,  the  richest  monument  of  this 
species  of  composition,  the  theological  element  of  their  poetry 
is  shadowed  out  in  the  most  picturesque  and  fanciful  legends. 

Such  was  the  intellectual  state  of  Europe  down  to  the  age  of 
Charlemagne.     While  ui  the  once  famous  seats  of  arts  and  arms 


ARABIAN    LITERATURE.  183 

scarcely  a  ray  of  native  genius  or  courage  Avas  visible,  the  light 
of  human  intellect  still  burned  in  lands  whose  barbarism  had  fur- 
nished matter  for  the  sarcasm  of  classical  writers. 

Charlemagne  encouraged  learning,  established  schools  and 
filled  his  court  with  men  of  letters  ;  while  in  England,  the  illus- 
trious Alfred,  himself  a  scholar  and  an  author,  improved  and  en- 
riched the  Anglo-Saxon  dialect,  and  exerted  the  most  beneficial 
influence  on  his  contemporaries. 

The  confusion  and  debasement  of  language  in  the  south  of 
Europe  has  already  been  alluded  to.  But  the  force  and  activity 
of  mind,  that  formed  an  essential  characteristic  of  the  conquering 
race,  were  destined  ultimately  to  evolve  regularity  and  harmony 
out  of  the  concussion  of  discordant  elements.  The  Latin  and 
Teutonic  tongues  were  blended  together,  and  hence  proceeded  all 
the  chief  dialects  of  modern  Europe.  Over  the  south,  from  Por- 
tugal to  Italy,  the  Latin  element  prevailed  ;  but  even  where  the 
Teutonic  was  the  chief  ingredient,  as  in  the  English  and  German, 
there  has  also  been  a  large  infusion  of  the  Latin.  To  these  two 
languages,  and  to  the  Proven9al,  French,  Italian,  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  called,  from  their  Roman  origin,  the  Romance  or 
Romanic  languages,  all  that  is  prominent  and  precious  in  modern 
letters  belongs.  But  it  is  not  until  the  11th  century  that  their 
progress  becomes  identified  with  the  history  of  literature.  Up  to 
this  period  there  had  been  little  repose,  freedom,  or  peace- 
ful enjoyment  of  property.  The  independence  and  industry  of 
the  middle  classes  were  almost  unknown,  and  the  chieftain,  the 
vassal,  and  the  slave,  were  the  characters  which  stood  out  in  the 
highest  relief.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  11th  century,  the 
social  chaos  seemed  resolving  itself  into  some  approach  to  order 
and  tranquillity.  The  gradual  abolition  of  personal  servitude, 
hardly  accomplished  in  three  successive  centuries,  now  began.  A 
third  estate  arose.  The  rights  of  cities,  and  the  corporation- 
spirit,  the  result  of  the  necessity  that  drove  men  to  combine  for 
mutual  defence,  led  to  intercourse  among  them  and  to  consequent 
improvement  in  language.  Chivalry,  also,  served  to  mitigate  the 
oppressions  of  the  nobles,  and  to  soften  and  refine  their  manners. 
From  the  date  of  the  first  crusade  (1093  a.d.)  down  to  the  close 
of  the  12th  century,  was  the  golden  age  of  chivalry.  The  prin- 
cipal thrones  of  Europe  were  occupied  by  her  foremost  knights. 
The  East  formed  a  point  of  union  for  the  ardent  and  adventurous 
of  different  countries,  whose  courteous  rivalry  stimulated  the 
growth  of  generous  sentiments  and  the  passion  for  brave  deeds. 
The  genius  of  Europe  was  roused  by  the  passage  of  thousands 
of  her  sons  through  Greece  into  Asia  and  Egypt,  amidst  the 


184  ARABIAN    LITERATURE. 

ancient  seats  of  art,  science  and  refinement.  The  minds  of 
men  received  a  fresh  and  powerful  impulse.  They  were  led  to 
compare,  to  reflect,  to  aspire  and  to  imitate.  It  Avas  during  the 
11th  century  that  the  brilliancy  of  the  Arabian  literatiii'e 
reached  its  culminating  point,  and  through  the  intercourse  of  the 
Troubadours  with  the  Moors  of  the  peninsula,  and  of  the  Crusa- 
ders with  the  Arabs  in  the  East,  began  to  influence  the  progress 
of  letters  in  Europe.  The  sudden  rise  of  the  Arabian  empire, 
and  the  rapid  development  of  its  literature, were  the  great  phe- 
nomena of  the  period  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

2.  The  Arabian  Language. — The  Arabian  lansruage  belono-s 
to  the  Semitic  family;  it  has  two  principal  dialects — the  northern, 
which  has,  for  centuries,  been  the  general  tongue  of  the  empire, 
and  is  best  represented  in  literature,  and  the  southern,  a  branch 
of  wliich  is  supposed  to  be  the  mother  of  the  Ethioj^ian  language. 
The  former,  in  degenerated  dialects,  is  still  spoken  in  Arabia,  in 
parts  of  western  Asia  and  throughout  northern  Africa,  and 
forms  an  important  part  of  tlie  Turkish,  Persian  and  other 
oriental  languages.  The  Arabic  is  characterized  by  its  guttural 
sounds,  by  the  richness  and  pliability  of  its  vowels,  by  its  dignity, 
volume  of  sound,  and  vigor  of  accentuation  and  pronunciation. 
Like  all  Semitic  languages,  it  is  written  from  right  to  left  ;  the 
characters  are  of  Syrian  origin,  and  were  introduced  into  Arabia 
before  the  time  of  jMohammed.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  the 
Cu/ic,  which  were  first  used,  and  the  JVeskhi,  which  superseded 
thein,  and  which  continue  in  use  at  the  present  day.  The 
Arabic  alphabet  was,  with  a  few  modifications,  early  adopted  by 
the  Persians  and  Turks. 

3.  Arabian  Mythology  and  the  Koran. — Before  the  time 
of  Mohammed,  the  Arabians  were  gross  idolaters.  They  had 
some  traditionary  idea  of  the  unity  and  perfections  of  the 
Deity,  but  their  creed  embraced  an  immense  number  of  sub- 
ordinate divinities,  represented  by  images  of  men  and  women, 
beasts  and  birds.  The  essential  basis  of  their  religion  was 
Sabeism,  or  star-worship.  The  number  and  beauty  of  the  hea- 
venly luminaries,  and  the  silent  regularity  of  their  motions,  could 
not  fail  deeply  to  impress  the  minds  of  this  imaginative  people, 
living  in  the  open  air,  under  the  clear  and  serene  sky,  and  wan- 
dering among  the  deserts,  oases,  and  picturesque  mountains  of 
Arabia.  They  had  seven  celebrated  temples  dedicated  to 
the  seven  planets.  Some  tribes  exclusively  reverenced  the 
moon  ;  others  the  dog-star.     Some  had  received  the  religion  of 


ARABIAN   LITEEATURE.  185 

the  Magi,  or  firc-Avorsliippers,  while  others  had  become  converts 
to  Judaism. 

Ishmael  is  one  of  the  most  venerated  progenitors  of  the  nation; 
and  it  is  beUeved  by  them  that  Mecca,  then  an  arid  wilderness, 
was  the  spot  where  his  life  was  providentially  saved,  and  where 
Ilagar,  his  mother,  was  buried.  The  well  pointed  out  by  the 
angel,  they  believe  to  be  the  famous  Zemzem,  of  which  all  pious 
Mohammedans  drink  to  this  day.  To  commemorate  the  miracu- 
lous preservation  of  Ishmael,  God  commanded  Abraham  to  build 
a  temple,  and  he  erected  and  consecrated  the  Caaba,  or  sacred 
house,  which  is  still  venerated  in  Mecca  ;  and  the  black  stone 
incased  within  its  walls  is  the  same  on  which  Abraham  stood. 

Mohammed  (569-632  a.d.)  did  not  pretend  to  introduce  a 
new  religion  ;  his  professed  object  was  merely  to  restore  the 
primitive  and  only  true  faith,  such  as  it  had  l^een  in  the  days  of 
the  patriarchs  ;  the  fundamental  idea  of  which  was  the  unity  of 
God.  He  made  the  revelations  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
the  basis  of  his  preaching.  He  maintained  the  authority  of  the 
books  of  Moses,  admitted  the  divine  mission  of  Jesus,  and  he 
enrolled  himself  in  the  catalogue  of  inspired  teachers.  This  doc- 
trine was  proclaimed  in  the  memorable  words,  which  for  so  many 
centuries  constituted  the  war  cry  of  the  Saracens — There  is  no 
God  hut  God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  apostle.  Mohammed 
preached  no  dogmas  substantially  new,  but  he  adorned,  ampli- 
tied  and  adapted  to  the  ideas,  prejudices  and  inclinations  of  the 
orientals,  doctrines  which  were  as  old  as  the  race.  He  enjoined 
the  ablutions  suited  to  the  manners  and  necessities  of  hot 
climates.  He  ordained  five  daily  prayers,  that  man  might  learn 
habitually  to  elevate  his  thoughts  above  the  outward  world. 
He  instituted  the  festival  of  the  Ramadan,  and  the  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  and  commanded  that  every  man  should  bestow  in 
alms  the  hundredth  part  of  his  possessions  ;  observances  which, 
for  the  most  part,  already  existed  in  the  established  customs  of 
the  country. 

The  Koran  (Reading),  the  sacred  book  of  the  Moham- 
medans, is,  according  to  their  belief,  the  revelation  of  God 
to  their  prophet  Mohammed.  It  contains  not  only  their 
religious  belief,  but  their  civil,  military  and  political  code. 
It  is  divided  into  114  chapters,  and  1666  verses.  The  Koran 
is  written  in  rhythmical  prose,  and  its  materials  are  bor- 
rowed from  the  Jewish  and  Christian  scriptures,  the  legends 
of  the  Talmud,  and  the  traditions  and  fables  of  the  Arabian 
a  ad  Persian  mythologies.  It  is  not  written  according  to  the 
rules  of  rhetoricians.     Confusion  of  ideas,  obscurity  and  contra- 


18G  ARABIAN   LITERATURE. 

dictions  destroy  tlie  unity  and  even  the  interest  of  this  work. 
The  chapters  are  preposterously  distributed,  not  according  to  their 
date  or  connection,  but  accordinj^  to  their  length,  beginning  with 
the  longest,  and  ending  with  the  shortest ;  and  thus  the  work 
becomes  often  the  more  unintelligible  by  its  singular  arrangement. 
But  notwithstanding  this,  there  is  scarcely  a  volume  in  the 
Arabic  language  which  contains  passages  breathing  more  sub- 
lime poetry,  or  more  enchanting  eloquence  ;  and  the  Koran  is  so 
far  important  in  the  history  of  Arabian  letters,  that  when  the 
scattered  leaves  were  collected  by  Abubeker,  the  successor  of 
Mohammed  (635  a.d.),  and  afterwards  revised,  in  the  30th  year 
of  the  Ilegira,  they  lixed  at  once  the  classic  language  of  the 
Arabs,  and  became  their  standard  in  style  as  well  as  in  religion. 

This  work  and  its  commentaries  are  held  in  the  highest  reve- 
rence by  the  Mohammedans.  It  is  the  principal  book  taught  in 
their  schools  ;  they  never  touch  it  without  kissing  it,  and  carry- 
ing it  to  the  forehead,  in  token  of  their  reverence  ;  oaths  before 
the  courts  are  taken  upon  it ;  it  is  learned  by  heart,  and  repeated 
every  forty  days  ;  many  believers  copy  it  several  times  in  their 
lives,  and  often  possess  one  or  more  copies  ornamented  with  gold 
and  precious  stones. 

The  Koran  treats  of  death,  resurrection,  the  judgment,  para- 
dise and  the  place  of  torment,  in  a  style  calculated  powerfully  to 
affect  the  imagination  of  the  believer.  The  joys  of  paradise, 
promised  to  all  who  fall  in  the  cause  of  religion,  are  those  most 
captivating  to  an  Arabian  fancy.  When  Al  Sirat,  or  the  Bridge 
of  Judgment,  which  is  as  slender  as  the  thread  of  a  famished  spi- 
der, and  as  sharp  as  the  edge  of  a  sword,  shall  be  passed  by  the 
behever,  he  will  be  welcomed  into  the  gardens  of  delight  by 
black-eyed  Houris,  beautiful  nymphs,  not  made  of  common  clay, 
but  of  pure  essence  and  odors,  free  from  all  blemish,  and  subject 
to  no  decay  of  virtue  or  of  beauty,  and  who  await  their  destined 
lovers  in  rosy  bowers,  or  in  pavilions  formed  of  a  single  hollow 
pearl.  The  soil  of  paradise  is  composed  of  musk  and  safiVon, 
sprinkled  with  pearls  and  hyacinths.  The  walls  of  its  mansions 
are  of  gold  and  silver  ;  the  fruits,  which  bend  spontaneously  to 
him  who  would  gather  them,  are  of  a  flavor  and  delicacy  un- 
known to  mortals.  Numerous  rivers  How  through  this  blissful 
abode;  some  of  wine,  others  of  milk,  honey  and  water,  the  peb- 
bly beds  of  which  are  rubies  and  emeralds,  and  their  banks  of 
musk,  camphor  and  saffron.  In  paradise  the  enjoyment  of  the 
believers,  which  is  subject  neither  to  satiety  nor  diminution,  will 
be  greater  than  the  human  understanding  can  compass.  The 
meanest  among  thera  will  have  eighty  thousand  servants,  and 


ARABIAN    LITERATURE.  187 

seventy-two  wives.  Wine,  tliougli  forbidden  on  earth,  will 
there  be  freely  allowed,  and  will  not  hurt  or  inebriate.  The 
ravishino:  sono-s  of  the  ang-els  and  of  the  Houris  will  render  all 
the  groves  vocal  with  harmony,  such  as  mortal  ear  never  heard. 
At  whatever  age  they  may  have  died,  at  their  resurrection  all 
will  be  in  the  prime  of  manly  and  eternal  vigor.  It  would  be  a 
journey  of  a  thousand  years  for  a  true  Mohammedan  to  travel 
through  paradise,  find  behold  all  the  wives,  servants,  gardens, 
robes,  jewels,  horses,  camels  and  other  things,  which  belong 
exclusively  to  him. 

The  hell  of  Mohammed  is  as  full  of  terror,  as  his  heaven  is  of 
dehght.  The  wicked,  who  fall  into  the  gulf  of  torture  from  the 
bridge  of  Al  Sirat,  will  suffer  alternately  from  cold  and  heat; 
when  they  are  thirsty,  boiling  water  will  be  given  them  to 
drink  :  and  thcv  will  be  shod  with  shoes  of  fire.  The  dark  man- 
sions  of  the  Christians,  Jews,  Sabeans,  Magians  and  idolaters  are 
sunk  below  each  other  with  increasina:  horrors,  in  the  order  of 
their  names.  The  seventh  or  lowest  hell  is  reserved  for  the 
faithless  hypocrites  of  every  religion.  Into  this  dismal  recep- 
tacle the  unhappy  sutterer  will  be  dragged  by  seventy  thousand 
halters,  each  pulled  by  seventy  thousand  angels,  and  exposed  to 
the  scourge  of  demons,  whose  pastime  is  cruelty  and  pain. 

It  is  a  portion  of  the  faith  inculcated  in  the  Koran,  that  both 
angels  and  demons  exist,  having  pure  and  subtle  bodies,  created 
of  fire,  and  free  from  human  appetites  and  desires.  The  four 
principal  angels  are  Gabriel,  the  angel  of  revelation  ;  Michael, 
the  friend  and  protector  of  the  Jews  ;  Azrael,  the  angel  of 
death ;  and  Izrafel,  whose  office  it  will  be  to  sound  the  trumpet 
at  the  last  day.  Every  man  has  two  guardian  angels  to  attend 
him  and  record  his  actions,  good  and  evU.  The  doctrine  of  the 
angels,  demons  and  jins  or  genii,  the  Arabians  probably  derived 
from  the  Hebrews.  The  demons  are  fallen  angels,  the  prince  of 
whom  is  Ehlis ;  he  was  at  first  one  of  the  angels  nearest  to 
God's  presence,  and  was  called  Azazd.  He  was  cast  out  of 
heaven,  according  to  the  Koran,  for  refusing  to  pay  homage  to 
Adam  at  the  time  of  the  creation.  The  genii  are  intermediate 
creatures,  neither  wholly  spiritual  nor  wholly  earthly,  some  of 
wdiom  are  good  and  entitled  to  salvation,  and  others  infidels  and 
devoted  to  eternal  torture.  Among  them  are  several  ranks  and 
degrees,  as  the  Peris,  or  fanies,  beautiful  female  spirits,  who 
seek  to  do  good  upon  the  earth,  and  the  Deev,  or  giants, 
who  frequently  make  war  upon  the  Peris,  take  them  captive 
and  shut  them  up  in  cages.  The  genii,  both  good  and  bad, 
have   the   power  of  making  themselves   invisible    at   pleasure. 


188  ARABIAN   LITERATURE. 

Besides  tlie  moiintaiu  of  Kaf,  which  is  their  chief  place  of  resort, 
they  dwell  in  ruined  cities,  uninhabited  houses,  at  the  bottom  of 
wells,  in  woods,  pools  of  water  and  among  the  rocks  and  sand- 
hills of  the  desert.  Shooting  stars  are  still  believed  by  the  people 
of  the  East  to  be  arrows  shot  by  the  angels  against  the  genii,  who 
transgress  these  hmits  and  approach  too  near  the  forbidden  regions 
of  bliss.  Many  of  the  genii  delight  in  mischief ;  they  surprise  and 
mislead  travellers,  raise  whirlwinds  and  dry  up  springs  in  the 
desert.  The  Ghoul  lives  on  the  flesh  of  men  and  women,  whom 
he  decoys  to  his  haunts  in  wild  and  barren  places,  in  order  to 
kill  and  devour  them,  and  when  he  cannot  thus  obtain  food, 
he  enters  the  graveyards  and  feeds  upon  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 

The  fairy  mythology  of  the  Arabians  was  introduced  into 
Europe  in  the  11th  century  by  the  Troubadours  and  writers 
of  the  romances  of  chivalry,  and  through  them  it  became  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  literature  of  Europe.  It  constituted  the 
machinery  o^  i\\Q  FaUiaux  oi  iliQ  Trouveres,  and  of  the  romantic 
epics  of  Boccaccio,  Ariosto,Tasso,Spenser,  Shakspeare  and  others. 

The  three  leadino-  Mohammedan  sects  are  the  Sunnees,  the 
Sheahs  and  the  Wahabees.  The  Sunnees  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  the  first  Caliphs,  from  whom  most  of  the  traditions 
were  derived.  The  Sheahs  assert  the  divine  right  of  Ali  to 
succeed  to  the  prophet ;  consequently  they  consider  the  first 
Caliphs,  and  all  their  successors,  as  usurpers.  The  Wahabees 
are  a  sect  of  religious  reformers,  who  took  their  name  from 
Abd  al  Wahab  (1700-1150),  the  Luther  of  the  Mohammedans. 
They  became  a  formidable  power  in  Arabia,  but  they  were 
finally  overcome  by  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  1816. 

4.  Historical  development  of  the  Arabian  Literature. — 
The  literature  of  the  Arabians  has,  properly  speaking,  but  one 
period  ;  although  from  remote  antiquity  poetry  was  with  them 
a  favorite  occupation,  and  long  before  the  time  of  Mohammed 
the  roving  tribes  of  the  desert  had  their  annual  conventions, 
where  they  defended  their  honor  and  celebrated  their  heroic 
deeds.  As  early  as  the  5th  century  a.d.,  at  the  fair  of  Ochadh, 
thirty  days  every  year  were  employed  not  only  in  the  exchange 
of  merchandise,  but  in  the  nobler  display  of  rival  talents.  A 
place  was  set  apart  for  the  competitions  of  the  bards,  whose 
liighest  ambition  was  to  conquer  in  this  literary  arena,  and  the 
victorious  compositions  were  inscribed  in  golden  letters  upon 
Egyptian  paper,  and  suspended  upon  the  doors  of  the  Caaba, 
the  ancient  national  sanctuary  of  Mecca.  Seven  of  the  most 
famous  of  these  ancient  poets  have  been  celebrated  by  oriental 


ARABIAN   LITERATURE.  189 

writers  under  the  title  of  tlie  Arabian  Pleiades,  and  their  songs, 
still  preserved,  are  full  of  passion,  manly  pride,  and  intensity  of 
iniao'ination  and  feelinir.  These  and  similar  effusions  constituted 
the  entire  literature  of  Arabia,  and  were  the  only  archives  of 
the  nation  previous  to  the  age  of  Mohammed. 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia,  hitherto  restricted  to  its  natural 
Ijoundaries,  and  peopled  by  wandering  tribes,  had  occupied  but 
a  subordinate  place  in  the  history  of  the  world.  But  the 
success  of  Mohammed  and  the  preaching  of  the  Koran  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  union  of  the  tribes  who,  inspired  by  the  feelings  of 
national  pride  and  religious  fervor,  in  less  than  a  century 
made  the  Arabian  power,  tongue  and  religion  predominant 
over  a  third  j^art  of  Asia,  almost  one-half  of  Africa,  and  a 
part  of  Spain,  and,  from  the  9th  to  the  16th  century,  the  lite- 
rature of  the  Arabians  far  surpassed  that  of  any  contemporary 
nation. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  5th  century  a.d., 
when  the  western  world  sunk  into  barbarism,  and  the  inhabitants, 
ever  menaced  by  famine  or  the  sword,  found  full  occupation  in 
struggling  against  civil  wars,  feudal  tyranny  and  the  invasion 
of  barbarians  ;  when  poetry  was  unknown,  philosophy  was 
proscribed  as  rebellion  against  religion,  and  barbarous  dialects 
had  usurped  the  place  of  that  beautiful  Latin  language  which 
had  so  long  connected  the  nations  of  the  West,  and  preserved  to 
them  so  many  treasures  of  thought  and  taste,  the  Arabians, 
who  by  their  conquests  and  fanaticism  had  contributed  more 
than  any  other  nation  to  abolish  the  cultivation  of  science  and 
literature,  having  at  length  established  their  empire,  in  turn 
devoted  themselves  to  letters.  Masters  of  the  country  of  the 
magi  and  the  Chaldeans,  of  Egypt,  the  first  storehouse  of  human 
science,  of  Asia  Minor,  where  poetry  and  the  fine  arts  had  their 
birth,  and  of  Africa,  the  country  of  impetuous  eloquence  and 
subtle  intellect — they  seemed  to  unite  in  themselves  the  advan- 
tages of  all  the  nations  which  they  had  thus  subjugated.  Innu- 
meral)le  treasures  had  been  the  fruit  of  their  conquests,  and 
this  hitherto  rude  and  uncultivated  nation  now  began  to  indulge 
in  the  most  unbounded  luxury.  Possessed  of  all  the  dehghts 
that  human  industry,  quickened  by  boundless  riches,  could  pro- 
cure, with  all  that  could  flatter  the  senses  and  attach  the  heart 
to  life,  they  now  attempted  to  mingle  with  these  the  pleasures 
of  the  intellect,  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  all 
that  is  most  excellent  in  human  knowledge.  In  this  new 
career,  their  conquests  were  not  less  rapid  than  they  had  been 
in  the  field ;  nor  was  the  empire  which  they  founded  less  extended 


190  ARABIAX   LITEKATUKE. 

With  a  celerity  equally  surprising,  it  rose  to  a  gigantic  height, 
but  it  rested  on  a  foundation  no  less  insecure,  and  it  was  quite  as 
transitory  in  its  duration. 

The  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
corresponds  with  the  year  622  of  our  era,  and  the  supposed 
burning  of  the  Alexandrian  library  by  Amrou,  the  general  of 
the  Caliph  Omar,  with  the  year  641.  This  is  the  period  of  the 
deepest  barbarism  among  the  Saracens,  and  this  event,  doubtful 
as  it  is,  has  left  a  melancholy  proof  of  their  contempt  for  letters. 
A  century  had  scarcely  elapsed  from  the  period  to  which  this 
Ijarbarian  outrage  is  referred,  when  the  family  of  tlie  Abassides, 
who  mounted  tiie  throne  of  the  Caliphs  in  T50,  introduced  a 
passionate  love  of  art,  of  science  and  of  poetry.  In  the  litera- 
ture of  Greece,  nearly  eight  centuries  of  progressive  cultivation 
succeeding  the  Trojan  war  had  prepared  the  way  for  the  age  of 
Pericles.  In  that  of  Rome,  the  age  of  Augustus  was  also  in 
the  eighth  century  after  the  foundation  of  the  city.  In  French 
literature,  the  age  of  Louis  XIY.  was  twelve  centuries  subse- 
quent to  Clovis,  and  eight  after  the  development  of  the  first 
rudiments  of  the  language.  But,  in  the  rapid  progress  of  the 
Arabian  empire,  the  age  of  Al  Mamoun,  the  Augustus  of  Bag- 
dad, was  not  removed  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
from  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy.  All  the  literature  of  the 
Arabians  bears  the  marks  of  this  rapid  development. 

Ali,  the  fourth  Caliph  from  Mohammed,  was  the  first  who 
extended  any  protection  to  letters.  His  rival  and  successor, 
Moawyiah,  the  first  of  the  Ommyiades  (661-680),  assembled 
at  his  court  all  who  were  most  distinguished  by  scientific 
acquirements  ;  he  surrounded  himself  with  poets  ;  and  as  he  had 
subjected  to  his  dominion  many  of  the  Grecian  islands  and 
provinces,  the  sciences  of  Greece  under  him  first  began  to 
obtain  anv  influence  over  the  Arabians. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommyiades,  that 
of  the  Abassides  bestowed  a  still  more  powerful  patronage  on 
letters.  The  celebrated  Haroun  al  Raschid  (786-809)  acquired 
a  glorious  reputation  by  the  protection  he  afforded  to  letters. 
He  never  undertook  a  journey  without  carrying  with  him  at 
least  a  hundred  men  of  science  in  his  train,  and  he  never  built  a 
mosque  without  attaching  to  it  a  school. 

But  the  true  protector  and  father  of  Arabic  literature  was 
Al  Mamoun,  the  son  of  Haroun  al  Raschid  (813-833),  who  ren- 
dered Bagdad  the  centre  of  literature.  He  invited  to  his  court 
from  every  part  of  the  world  all  the  learned  men  with  whose 
existence  he  was  acquainted,  and  he  retained  them  by  rewards, 


ARABIAN   LITERATURE.  191 

honors  and  distinctions  of  every  kind.  He  exacted,  as  the  most 
precious  tribute  from  the  conquered  provinces,  all  the  important 
books  and  literary  relics  that  could  be  discovered.  Hundreds 
of  camels  mi2:ht  be  seen  enterino-  Bao'dad,  loaded  with  nothintc 
but  manuscripts  and  papers,  and  those  most  proper  for  instruc- 
tion were  translated  into  Arabic.  Instructors,  translators  and 
commentators  formed  the  court  of  Al  Mamoun,  which  appeared 
to  be  rather  a  learned  academy,  than  the  seat  of  government  in 
a  warlike  empu'e.  The  Caliph  himself  was  much  attached  to  the 
study  of  mathematics,  which  he  pursued  with  brilHant  success. 
He  conceived  the  grand  design  of  measuring  the  earth,  which 
was  accomplished  by  his  mathematicians,  at  his  own  expense. 
Xot  less  generous  than  enlightened,  Al  jMamoun,  when  he  par- 
doned one  of  his  relatives  who  had  revolted  against  him,  ex- 
claimed, "  If  it  were  known  what  pleasure  I  experience  in  grant- 
ing pardon,  all  who  have  offended  against  me  would  come  and 
confess  their  crimes." 

The  progress  of  the  Arabians  in  science  was  proportioned  to 
the  zeal  of  the  sovereign.  In  every  town  of  the  empire  schools, 
colleges  and  academies  were  established.  Bagdad  was  the 
capital  of  letters  as  well  as  of  the  Caliphs,  but  Bassora  and  Cufa 
almost  equalled  that  city  in  reputation,  and  in  the  number  of 
celebrated  poems  and  treatises  that  they  produced.  Balkh, 
Ispahan  and  Samarcand  were  equally  the  homes  of  science. 
Cairo  contained  a  great  number  of  colleges  ;  in  the  towns  of 
Fez  and  Morocco  the  most  magnificent  buildings  were  appro- 
priated to  the  purposes  of  instruction,  and  in  their  rich  libraries 
Avere  preserved  those  precious  volumes,  which  had  been  lost  in 
other  places. 

What  Bagdad  was  to  Asia,  Cordova  was  to  Europe,  \a  here, 
particularly  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries,  the  Arabs  were 
the  pillars  of  literature.  At  this  period,  when  learning  found 
scarcely  anywhere  either  rest  or  encouragement,  the  Arabians 
were  employed  in  collecting  and  diffusing  it  in  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  world.  Students  travelled  from  France  and 
other  European  countries  to  the  Arabian  schools  in  Spain,  par- 
ticularly to  learn  medicine  and  mathematics.  Besides  the 
academy  at  Cordova,  there  were  established  fourteen  others  in 
different  parts  of  Spain,  exclusive  of  the  higher  schools.  The 
Arabians  made  the  most  rapid  advancement  in  all  the  depart- 
ments of  learning,  especially  in  arithmetic,  geometry  and  astrono- 
my. In  the  various  cities  of  Spain,  seventy  libraries  were 
opened  for  public  instruction  at  the  period  when  all  the  rest  of 
Europe,  without  books,  without  learning,  without  cultivation^ 


192  ARAEIAX    LITERATURE. 

was  plunged  in  the  most  disgraceful  ignorance.  The  number  of 
Arabic  authors  which  Spain  produced  was  so  prodigious,  that 
many  Arabian  bibliographers  wrote  learned  treatises  on  the  au- 
thors born  in  particular  towns,  or  on  those  among  the  Spaniards 
who  devoted  themselves  to  a  single  branch  of  study,  as  philoso- 
phy, medicine,  mathematics  or  poetry.  Thus,  throughout  the  vast 
extent  of  the  Arabian  empire,  the  progress  of  letters  had  fol- 
lowed that  of  arms,  and  for  five  centuries  this  literature  pre- 
served all  its  brilliancy. 

5.  Grammar  axd  Rhetoric. — The  perfection  of  the  language 
was  one  of  the  first  objects  of  the  Arabian  scholars,  and  from 
the  rival  schools  of  Cufa  and  Bassora,  a  number  of  distinguished 
men  proceeded,  who  analyzed  with  the  greatest  subtlety  all  its 
rules  and  aided  in  perfecting  it.  As  early  as  in  the  age  of  Ali, 
the  fourth  Caliph,  Arabian  literature  boasted  of  a  number 
of  scientific  grammarians.  Prosody  and  the  metric  art  were 
reduced  to  systems.  Dictionaries  of  the  language  were  com- 
posed, some  of  which  are  highly  esteemed  at  the  present  day. 
Among  these,  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Al  Sehah,"  or  Purity, 
and  "  El  Kamus,"  or  the  Ocean,  which  is  considered  the  best  dic- 
tionary of  the  Arabian  language.  The  study  of  rhetoric  was 
united  to  that  of  grammar,  and  the  most  celebrated  works  of 
the  Greeks  on  this  art  were  translated  and  adapted  to  the 
Arabic.  After  the  age  of  Mohammed  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors, popular  eloquence  was  no  longer  cultivated.  Eastern 
despotism  having  supplanted  the  liberty  of  the  desert,  the  heads 
of  the  state  or  army  regarded  it  beneath  them  to  harangue  the 
people  or  the  soldiers  ;  they  called  upon  them  only  for  obedience. 
But  though  political  eloquence  was  of  short  duration  among  the 
Arabians,  on  the  other  hand  they  were  the  inventors  of  that 
species  of  rhetoric  most  cultivated  at  the  present  day,  that  of 
the  academy  and  the  pulpit.  Their  philosophers  in  these 
learned  assemblies  displayed  all  the  measured  harmony  of  which 
their  language  was  susceptible.     Mohammed  had  ordained  that 

his  faith  should  be  preached  in  the  mosques  ; many  of  the 

harangues  of  these  sacred  orators  are  still  preserved  in  the 
Escurial,  and  the  style  of  them  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Christian  orators. 

6.  Poetry. — Poetry  still  more  than  eloquence  was  the  favor- 
ite occupation  of  the  Arabians  from  their  origin  as  a  nation. 
It  is  said  that  this  people  alone  have  produced  more  poets  than 
all  others  united.     Mohammed  himself,  as  well  as  some  of  his 


ARABIAX    LITERATURE.  193 

first  companions,  cultivated  this  art,  but  it  was  under  Haroun 
al  Rascbid  and  bis  successor,  Al  Mamoun,  and  more  especially 
under  tbe  Ommyiades  of  Spain  that  Arabic  poetry  attained  its 
highest  splendor.  But  the  ancient  impetuosity  of  expression, 
the  passionate  feeling,  and  the  spirit  of  individual  independence 
no  longer  characterized  the  productions  of  this  period,  nor  is 
there  among  the  numerous  constellations  of  Arabic  poets  any 
star  of  distinguished  magnitude.  With  tbe  exception  of  Mo- 
hammed and  a  few  of  the  Saracen  conquerors  and  sovereigns, 
there  is  scarcely  an  individual  of  this  nation  whose  name  is 
famiUar  to  the  nations  of  Christendom. 

The  Arabians  possess  many  heroic  poems  composed  for  the 
purpose  of  celebrating  the  praises  of  distinguished  men,  and  of 
animating  the  courage  of  their  soldiers.  They  do  not,  however, 
boast  of  any  epics  ;  their  poetry  is  entirely  lyric  and  didactic. 
They  have  been  inexhaustible  in  their  love  poems,  then'  elegies, 
their  moral  verses — among  which  their  fables  may  be  reckoned — 
tbeir  eulogistic,  satirical,  descriptive,  and  above  all,  their  didactic 
poems,  which  have  graced  even  the  most  abstruse  science  as 
grammar,  rhetoric  and  arithmetic.  But  among  all  their  poems, 
the  catalogue  alone  of  which,  in  the  Escurial,  consists  of  twenty- 
four  volumes,  there  is  not  a  single  epic,  comedy  or  tragedy. 

In  those  branches  of  poetry  which  they  cultivated  they  dis- 
played surprising  subtlety  and  great  refinement  of  thought,  but 
the  fame  of  tbeir  compositions  rests,  in  some  degree,  on  their 
bold  metaphors,  their  extravagant  allegories,  and  their  excessive 
hyperboles.  The  Arabs  despised  tbe  poetry  of  the  Greeks, 
which  appeared  to  them  timid,  cold  and  constrained,  and  among 
all  the  books  which,  with  almost  superstitious  veneration,  they 
borrowed  from  them,  there  is  scarcely  a  single  poem  which 
they  judged  worthy  of  translation.  The  ol>ject  of  the  Arabian 
poets  was  to  make  a  brilliant  use  of  tbe  boldest  and  most 
gigantic  images,  and  to  astonish  tbe  reader  by  tbe  abruptness 
of  tbeir  expressions.  They  burdened  their  compositions  with 
riches,  under  tbe  idea  that  nothing  which  was  beautiful  could 
be  superfluous.  They  neglected  natural  sentiment,  and  the 
more  they  could  multiply  the  ornaments  of  art,  the  more 
admirable  in  theb  eyes  did  the  work  appear. 

Tbe  nations  who  possessed  a  classical  poetry,  in  imitating  na- 
ture, had  discovered  the  use  of  the  epic  and  the  drama,  in  which 
the  poet  endeavors  to  express  the  true  language  of  the  human 
heart.  The  people  of  tbe  East,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hin- 
dus, never  made  this  attempt — their  poetry  is  entirely  lyric;  but 
under  whatever  name  it  may  be  known,  it  is  always  found  to  be 

9 


194  AEABIAlSr   LITERATURE. 


the  language  of  the  passions.  The  poetry  of  tlie  Arabians  is 
rhymed  Hke  our  own,  and  the  rhyming  is  often  carried  still  fur- 
ther in  the  construction  of  the  verse,  while  the  uniformity  of 
sound  is  frequently  echoed  throughout  the  whole  expression. 
The  collection  made  by  Aboul  Teman  (fl.  845  a.d.)  containhig  the 
Arabian  poems  of  the  age  anterior  to  Mohammed,  and  that  of 
Taoleti,  which  embraces  the  poems  of  the  subsequent  periods,  are 
considered  the  richest  and  most  complete  anthologies  of  Ara- 
bian poetry. 

1.  The  Arabian  Tales. — If  the  Arabs  have  neither  the  epic 
nor  the  drama,  they  have  been,  on  the  other  hand,  the  inventors 
of  a  style  of  composition  which  is  related  to  the  epic,  and  which 
supplies  among  them  the  place  of  the  drama.  We  owe  to  them 
those  tales,  the  conception  of  which  is  so  brilliant  and  the  imagin- 
ation so  rich  and  varied  :  tales  which  have  been  the  delight  of 
our  infancy,  and  which  at  a  more  advanced  age  we  can  never 
read  without  feeling  their  enchantment  anew.  Every  one  is 
acquainted  with  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments;"  but  in 
our  translation  we  possess  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  Arabian 
collection,  Avhich  is  not  confined  merely  to  books,  but  forms  the 
treasure  of  a  numerous  class  of  men  and  women,  who,  through- 
out the  East,  find  a  livelihood  in  reciting  these  tales  to 
crowds,  who  delight  to  forget  the  present,  in  the  pleasing 
dreams  of  imagination.  In  the  coffee-houses  of  the  Levant,  one 
of  these  men  will  gather  a  silent  crowd  around  him,  and  picture 
to  his  audience  those  brilliant  and  fantastic  visions,  which  are  the 
patrimony  of  eastern  imaginations  The  public  squares  abound 
with  men  of  this  class,  and  their  recitations  supply  the  place  of 
our  dramatic  representations.  The  physicians  frequently  recom- 
mend them  to  their  patients  in  order  to  soothe  pain,  to  calm 
agitation,  or  to  produce  sleep  ;  and  these  story-tellers,  accus- 
tomed to  sickness,  modulate  their  voices,  soften  their  tones,  and 
gently  suspend  them  as  sleep  steals  over  the  sufferer. 

Tlie  imagination  of  the  Arabs  in  these  tales  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  that  of  the  chivalric  nations.  The  supernatural 
world  is  the  same  in  both,  but  the  moral  world  is  different. 
The  Arabian  tales,  like  the  romances  of  chivalry,  convey 
us  to  the  fairy  realms,  but  the  human  personages  which 
they  introduce  are  very  dissimilar.  They  had  their  birth 
after  the  Arabians  had  devoted  themselves  to  commerce, 
literature  and  the  arts,  and  we  recognize  in  them  the 
style  of  a  mercantile  people,  as  we  do  that  of  a  warlike  nation 
in  the  romances  of  chivalry.     Yalor  and  military  achievements 


ARABIAX   LITJEKATUKE.  195 

here  inspire  terror  but  no  entlmsiasm,  and  on  this  account  the 
Arabian  tales  are  often  less  noble  and  heroic  than  we  usually 
expect  in  compositions  of  this  nature.  But  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Arabians  are  our  masters  in  the  art  of  producing  and  sustaining 
this  kind  of  fiction.  They  are  the  creators  of  that  brilliant 
mTtholo2:v  of  fairies  and  o-enii  which  extends  the  bounds  of  the 
world,  and  carries  us  into  the  realms  of  marTels  and  prodigies. 
It  is  from  them  that  European  nations  have  derived  that  intoxi- 
cation of  love,  that  tenderness  and  delicacy  of  sentiment,  and 
that  reverential  awe  of  women,  by  turns  slaves  and  divinities, 
which  have  operated  so  povrerfully  on  their  chivalrous  feelings. 
We  trace  their  effects  in  all  the  literature  of  the  south,  "which 
owes  to  this  cause  its  mental  character.  Manv  of  these  tales  had 
separately  found  their  way  into  the  poetic  literature  of  Europe, 
long  before  the  translation  of  the  Arabian  ^S^ights.  Some  arc 
to  be  met  within  the  old  fahliaux, in  Boccaccio  and  in  Ariosto, 
and  these  very  tales  which  have  charmed  our  infancy,  passing 
from  nation  to  nation  through  channels  frequently  unknown,  arc 
now  familiar  to  the  memory  and  form  the  delidit  of  the  imacin- 
ation  of  half  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe. 

The  author  of  the  original  Araljic  work  is  unknown,  as  is 
also  the  period  at  which  it  was  composed.  It  was  first  intro- 
duced into  Europe  from  Syria,  where  it  was  obtained,  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  Itth  century,  by  Galland,  a  French  traveller,  who 
was  sent  to  the  East  by  the  celebrated  Colbert,  to  collect  manu- 
scripts, and  by  him  first  translated  and  pubhshed. 

8.  History  and  Science. — As  early  as  the  8th  century  a.d., 
history  became  an  important  department  in  Arabian  literature. 
At  later  periods,  historians  who  wrote  on  all  subjects  were  nu- 
merous. Several  authors  wrote  universal  history  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  world  to  their  own  time  ;  every  state,  province,  and 
city  possessed  its  individual  chronicle.  Many,  in  imitation  of 
Plutarch,  wrote  the  hves  of  disting^uished  men  :  and  there  was 
such  a  passion  for  every  species  of  composition,  and  such  a  desire 
to  leave  no  subject  untouched,  that  there  was  a  serious  history 
written  of  celebrated  horses,  and  another  of  camels  that  had 
risen  to  distinction.  They  possessed  historical  dictionaries,  and 
made  use  of  all  those  inventions  which  curtail  labor,  and  dispense 
with  the  necessity  of  research.  Every  art  and  science  had  its 
history,  and  of  these  this  nation  possessed  a  more  complete  col- 
lection than  any  other,  either  ancient  or  modern.  The  style 
of  the  Arabian  historians  is  simple  and  unadorned. 

Philosophy  was  passionately  cultivated  by  the  Arabians,  and 


196  ARABIAN   LlTERxVTUEE. 

upon  it  was  founded  the  fame  of  many  ingenious  and  sagacious 
men,  whose  names  are  still  revered  in  Europe.  Among  them,  were 
Averrhoes  of  Cordova  (d.  1198),  the  great  commentator  on  tlie 
works  of  Aristotle,  and  Avicenna  (d.  1037),  a  profound  philo- 
sopher as  well  as  a  celebrated  writer  on  medicine.  Arabian 
philosophy  penetrated  rapidly  into  the  West,  and  had  greater 
influence  on  the  schools  of  Europe  than  any  branch  of  Arabic 
literature  ;  and  yet  it  was  the  one  in  which  the  progress  was,  in 
fact,  the  least  real.  The  Arabians,  more  ingenious  than  pro- 
found, attached  themselves  rather  to  the  subtleties  than  to  the 
connection  of  ideas  ;  their  object  was  more  to  dazzle  than  to  in- 
struct, and  they  exhausted  their  imaginations  in  search  of  mys- 
teries. Aristotle  was  worshipped  by  them,  as  a  sort  of  divinity 
In  their  opinion  all  philosophy  was  to  be  found  in  his  writings, 
and  they  explained  every  metaphysical  question  according  to  the 
scholastic  standard. 

The  interpretation  of  the  Koran  formed  another  important 
part  of  their  speculative  studies,  and  their  literature  abounds 
with  exegetic  works  on  their  sacred  book,  as  well  as  with  com- 
mentaries on  Mohammedan  law.  The  learned  Arabians  did 
not  confine  themselves  to  the  studies  which  they  could  only  pro- 
secute in  their  closets  ;  they  undertook,  for  the  advancement  of 
science,  the  most  perilous  journeys,  and  we  owe  to  Aboul  Feda 
(1273-1331)  and  other  Arabian  travellers  the  best  works  on 
geography  written  in  the  middle  ages. 

The  natural  sciences  were  cultivated  by  them  with  great  ardor, 
and  many  naturalists  among  them  merit  the  gratitude  of  poste- 
rity. Botany  and  chemistry,  of  which  they  were  in  some  sort 
the  inventors,  gave  them  a  better  acquaintance  with  nature  than 
the  Greeks  or  Romans  ever  possessed,  and  the  latter  science  was 
applied  by  them  to  all  the  necessary  arts  of  life.  Above  all,  agri- 
culture was  studied  by  them  with  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
climate,  soil  and  growth  of  plants.  From  the  8th  to  the  11th 
century,  they  established  medical  schools  in  the  principal  cities 
of  their  dominions,  and  published  valuable  works  on  medical 
science.  They  introduced  more  simple  principles  into  mathe- 
matics, and  extended  the  use  and  application  of  that  science.  They 
added  to  arithmetic  the  decimal  system,  and  the  Arabic  numerals, 
which,  however,  are  of  Hindu  origin  ;  they  simplified  the 
trigonometry  of  the  Greeks,  and  gave  algebra  more  useful  and 
general  applications.  Bagdad  tind  Cordova  had  celebrated 
schools  of  astronomy  and  observatories,  and  their  astronomers 
made  important  discoveries  ;  a  great  number  of  scientific  words 
are  evidently  Arabic,  such  as  algebra,  alcohol,  zenith,  nadir,  etc., 


ARABIAN    LITERATUEE.  197 

and  many  of  the  inyentions,  ^yhicll  at  the  present  day  add  to  the 
comforts  of  life,  are  due  to  the  Arabians.  Pajicr,  now  so  neces- 
sary to  the  progress  of  intellect,  was  brought  by  them  from 
Asia.  In  China,  from  all  antiquity,  it  had  been  manufactured 
from  silk,  but  about  the  year  30  of  the  Hegira  (649  a.d.)  the 
manufacture  of  it  was  introduced  at  Samarcand,  and  when  that 
city  was  conc[uered  by  the  Arabians,  they  hrst  employed  cotton 
in  the  place  of  silk,  and  the  invention  spread  with  rapidity 
throughout  their  dominions.  The  Spaniards,  in  fabricating  paper, 
substituted  flax  for  cotton,  which  was  more  scarce  and  dear;  but 
it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  that  paper  mills 
were  established  in  the  Christian  states  of  Spain,  from  whence 
the  invention  passed,  in  the  14th  century  only,  to  Treviso 
and  Padua.  Tournaments  were  first  instituted  among  the  Ara- 
bians, from  whom  they  were  introduced  into  Italy  and  France. 
Gunpowder,  the  discovery  of  which  is  generally  attributed  to  a 
German  chemist,  was  known  to  the  Arabians  at  least  a  century 
before  any  trace  of  it  appeared  in  European  history.  The  com- 
pass, also,  the  invention  of  which  has  been  given  alternately  to 
the  Italians  and  French  in  the  13th  centurv,  was  known  to  the 
Arabians  in  the  11th.  The  number  of  Arabic  inventions,  of 
which  we  enjoy  the  benefit  without  suspecting  it,  is  prodigious. 
Such,  then,  was  the  brilliant  hght  which  literature  and  science 
displayed  from  the  9  th  to  the  14th  century  of  our  era  in  those 
vast  countries  which  had  submitted  to  the  yoke  of  Islamism.  In 
this  immense  extent  of  territory,  twice  or  thrice  as  laro-e  as 
Europe,  nothing  is  now  found  but  ignorance,  slavery,  terror  and 
death.  Few  men  are  there  capable  of  reading  the  works  of  their 
illustrious  ancestors,  and  of  the  few  who  could  comprehend  them, 
none  are  able  to  procure  them.  The  prodigious  literary  riches 
of  the  Arabians  no  longer  exist  in  any  of  the  countries  where 
the  Arabians  or  Mussulmans  rule.  It  is  not  there  that  we  must 
seek  for  the  fame  of  their  great  men  or  for  their  writings.  What 
has  been  preserved  is  in  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  in  the  con- 
vents of  the  monks,  or  in  the  royal  libraries  of  Europe. 


ITALIAN  LITEEATUEE. 

Introduction.— 1.  Italian  Literature  and  its  Divisions.— 2.  The  Language. 

Period  First.— 1.  Early  Poetry  and  Prose.— 2.  ^ante  ;  the  Divine  Comedy.— 8.  Pe- 
trarch.—i.  Boccaccio  and  other  prose  writers  ;  Villani,  Sacchetti.— 5.  The  first  decline 
of  Italian  Literature  ;  the  fifteenth  Century, 

Period  Second.— 1.  The  close  of  the  fifteenth  Century  ;  Lorenzo  de'  Medici— 2.  The 
origin  of  the  Drama  and  Ptomantic  Epic ;  Poliziano,  Pulci,  Boiardo. — 3.  Romantic  Epic 
Poetry;  Ariosto.— 4.  Heroic  Epic  Poetry;  Tasso.— 5.  Lyric  Poetry;  Bembo,  Molza, 
Tarsia,  V.  Colonna..— 6.  Dramatic  Poetry;  Trissino,  Rucellai,  the  writers  of  Comedy. 
—7.  Pastoral  Drama  and  Didactic  Poetry;  Beccari,  Sannazzaro,  Tasso,  Guarini, 
Rucellai,  Alamanni.— S.  Satirical  Poetry,  Novels  and  Tales ;  Berni,  Grazzini,  Firenzu- 
ola,  Bandello,  and  others.— 9.  History ;  Machiavelli,  Guicciardini,  Nardi,  and  others. 
— 10  Grammar  and  Rhetoiic  ;  the  Acmdemy  del  la,  C/'USca,  Bella,  Casa,  Speroni,  and 
others.— 11.  Science,  Philosophy  and  Politics;  the  Academy  del  Cimenio,  Galileo, 
Torricelli,  Borelli,  Patrizi,  Telesio,  Campanella,  Bruno,  Castlglione,  Machiavelli,  and 
others. — 12.  Decline  of  the  Literature  in  the  seventeenth  Century. — 13.  Epic  and  Lyric 
Poetry;  Jlarini,  Filicaja. — 14.  Mock  Heroic  Poetry,  the  Drama  and  Satire;  Tassoni, 
Bracciolini,  Andi-eini,  and  others. — 15.  History  and  epistolary  writings  ;  Davila,  Benti- 
voglio,  Sarpi,  Redi. 

Period  Tuird.— 1.  Historical  Development  of  the  Third  Period.— 2.  The  Melodrama; 
Rinuccini,  Zeno,  Metastasio. — 3.  Comedy;  Goldoni,  C.  Gozzi,  and  others. — 4.  Tragedy  ; 
Maffei,  Alfieri,  Monti,  Manzoni,  Nicolini,  and  others.— 5.  Lyric,  Epic,  and  Didactic 
Poetry;  Parini,  Monti,  Ugo  Foscolo,  Leopardi,  Grossi,  Lorenzi,  and  others.  — G.  Heroic- 
Comic  Poetrj',  Satire,  and  Fable;  Fortiguerri,  Passeroni,  G.  Gozzi,  Parini,  Giusti, 
and  others. — 7.  Romances  ;  Verri,  Manzoni,  D'Azeglio,  Cantu,  Guerrazzi,  and  others. — 

8.  History;     Muratori,  Vico,   Giannone,  Botta,   Colletta,    Tiraboschi,    and    others. — 

9.  Esthetics,  Criticism,   Philology,   and  Philosophy;   Baretti,  Parini,  Giordani,  Gioja, 
Romagnosi,  Galluppi,  Rosmini,  GiobertL 

IXTRODUCTION. 

1.  Italian  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — Tlie  fall  of  tlie 
Western  Empire,  the  iiivasions  of  the  nortlierii  tribes,  and  the 
subsequent  wars  and  calamities,  did  not  entirely  extinguish  the 
fire  of  genius  in  Italy.  As  we  liave  seen,  the  Crusades  had 
opened  the  East  and  revealed  to  Europe  its  literary  and  artistic 
treasures  ;  the  Arabs  had  established  a  celebrated  school  of 
medicine  in  Salerno,  and  had  made  known  the  ancient  classics  ; 
a  school  of  jurisprudence  was  opened  in  Bologna,  where  Roman 
law  was  expounded  by  eminent  lecturers  ;  and  the  spirit  of 
chivalry,  while  it  softened  and  refined  human  character,  awoke 
the  desire  of  distinction  in  arms  and  poetry.     The  origin  of  the 

193 


ITALIAN    LITERATURE.  199 

Italian  republics,  giving  scope  to  individual  agency,  marked 
another  era  in  civilization  ;  wliile  the  appearance  of  the  Italian 
language  quickened  the  national  mind  and  led  to  a  new  literature. 
The  spirit  of  freedom,  awakened  as  early  as  the  11th  century, 
received  new  life  in  the  12th,  when  the  Lombard  cities,  becoming 
independent,  formed  a  powerful  league  against  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa.  The  instinct  of  self-defence  thus  developed  increased 
the  necessity  of  education.  Mcanv\'hile,  a  kingdom  was  formed  in 
Sicily,  where,  at  the  court  of  Frederick  II.,  the  new  language  re- 
ceived its  first  impulse  to  refinement,  and  poetry  was  first  culti- 
vated. In  the  loth  and  14th  centuries,  Italian  literature 
acquired  its  national  character  and  rose  to  its  highest  splendor, 
through  the  writings  of  Dante,  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio,  whose 
infiuence  has  been  more  or  less  felt  in  succeeding  centuries. 
Dante,  above  all,  has  been  the  ruling  spirit  of  Italian  literature, 
which  has  risen  or  declined,  as  the  inspu'ations  of  this  great 
genius  have  been  more  or  less  regarded. 

The  Uterary  history  of  Italy  may  be  divided  into  three  peri- 
ods, each  of  which  presents  two  distinct  phases,  one  of  progress 
and  one  of  decline.  The  first  period,  extending  from  1100  to 
14:75,  embraces  the  origin  of  the  literature,  its  development 
through  the  works  of  Dante,  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio  in  the  loth 
and  llth  centuries,  and  its  first  decline  in  the  15th,  when  it  was 
Eupplauted  by  the  absorbing  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics. 

The  second  period,  commencing  1475,  embraces  the  age  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  Leo  X.,  when  literature  began  to  revive  ; 
the  age  of  Ariosto,  Tasso,  Machiavelli  and  Galileo,  when  it 
reached  its  meridian  splendor  ;  its  subsequent  decline,  through 
the  school  of  Marini  ;  and  its  last  revival  towards  the  close  of 
the  17  th  century. 

The  third  period,  extending  from  the  close  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury to  the  present  time,  includes  the  development  of  Italian 
literature,  its  decline  under  French  influence,  and  its  subsequent 
national  tendency,  through  the  writings  of  Metastasio,  Goldoni, 
Alfieri,  Parini,  Monti,  Manzoni  and  Leopardi. 

2.  The  Language. — The  ancient  popular  dialects  of  Italy 
cominc^  in  contact  with  the  Latin,  or  rather  with  the  lan<j:uage 
spoken  by  the  Roman  people,  called  Lingua  Romana,  and  at  a 
later  period  with  the  idioms  of  the  people  who  successively  in- 
vaded the  country,  were  moulded  in  new  forms  and  organized  into 
new  languages.  One  of  these  dialects,  which  had  preserved 
much  of  the  primitive  Roman  structure,  was  spoken  as  early  as 
the  13th  century  at  the  court  of  Frederick  II.  at  Palermo, 


200  ITALIAN    LITERATURE. 

where  it  began  to  be  used  by  the  primitive  bards  of  Italy. 
From  that  com't  it  received  a  more  elegant  form,  and  those 
laws  of  grammar  which,  originally  founded  upon  custom,  early 
obtained  the  ascendency  over  it.  Soon  after,  it  came  into 
general  use  in  Tuscany  ;  and  previous  to  the  close  of  the  IStli 
century  it  had  received  great  stability  from  several  writers  in 
verse  and  in  prose,  until  with  Dante  it  was  carried  to  a  degree 
of  perfection  which  it  has  ever  since  maintained.  Of  all  modern 
languages,  the  Italian  possesses  the  greatest  flexibility.  By  its 
copiousness,  its  freedom  of  arrangement  and  construction,  and 
the  great  beauty  and  harmony  of  its  sounds,  it  happily  adapts 
itself  to  almost  all  subjects,  either  in  prose  or  in  poetry  ;  and  it 
is  perhaps  the  most  perfect  of  all  the  modern  dialects  which 
have  arisen  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient. 

The  Italian,  together  with  the  French  and  Spanish  languages, 
are  called  by  the  general  appellation  of  Komanic,  or  Romance 
tongues,  to  distmguish  them  as  those  transmitted  by  the  Roman 
empire,  from  the  dialects  of  the  northern  invaders.  According 
to  the  opinion  of  some  modern  scholars,  the  Romance  idioms  were 
not  of  Roman  origin,  but  originated  at  a  period  far  beyond  the 
historic  age,  and  were  derived  from  a  now  unknown  lan2:uage 
belonging  to  the  Indo-European  famih^,  which  in  various  dialects 
prevailed  in  Italy,  Gaul  and  Spain. 

PERIOD  FIRST. 

The  Rise  of  Italian"  Literature  axd  its  First  Decline 

(1200-1475). 

1.  Early  Poetry  and  Prose  of  Italy. — In  the   bco-inniiiir 
of  the  13th  century,  the  poetical  genius  of  the   Italians  was 
awakened  by  the  Proven9al  muse  at  the  courts  of  Frederick  II. 
and  of  Charles  of  Anjou.     From  that  time,  there  were  many 
Italian  bards  who  sang  in  the  Proven9al  language  and  took  a 
high  rank  among  the  troubadours.     Soon  after  in  the  same  cen- 
tury, at  first  in  Sicily,  then  in  Tuscany  and  elsewhere,  a  multi- 
tude of  poets  arose  who  composed  their  verses  in  the  Italian 
language,  while  they  borrowed  the  forms  and  the  structure  of 
their  verse  from  the  troubadours.     Frederick  himself,  his  sons 
Maufredi  and  Enzio  and  Pier  delle  Yigne,  his  chancellor  (fl.  1235), 
amused  themselves  in  writino-  and  sinking  Italian  love  stanzas  ; 
and  their  example  was  followed  by  many  bards  of  that  age. 
With  all  these  poets  love  was  the  subject  of  their  song  ;  not  the 
love  that  nature  inspires,  but  such  as  the  false  and  affected  taste 


ITALIAX   LITEUATUKE.  201 

of  the  times  demanded.  The  chief  merit  of  these  bards  was  that 
they  abandoned  the  degenerate  Latin  to  the  schools  and  monas- 
teries, and  consecrated  by  their  poetry  the  vernacular  tongue, 
which  had  before  served  only  for  the  common  intercourse  of  the 
people. 

From  the  favor  with  which  story-tellers  were  received  in  the 
courts  and  castles  of  the  princes  and  lords  of  Italy,  prose  writing 
was  early  cultivated,  especially  in  Tuscany,  where  it  flourished 
before  the  14th  centurv.  Of  these  stories,  the  "  Xovellino  "  is 
one  of  the  best  collections.  It  consists  of  one  hundred  tales, 
full  of  life  and  simphcity,  some  of  which  belong  to  the  age 
of  Frederick  II.  The  first  literary  work,  however,  of  any  con- 
siderable length,  is  the  "  History  of  Florence,"  by  Malaspini 
(d.  1281),  written  without  method  and  unadorned  in  style. 
This  history  was  continued  by  a  nephew  of  Malaspini,  and  after- 
wards brought  down  by  Dino  Compagni  to  1312.  The  great 
events  which  occurred  in  the  country  at  that  period,  in  which 
the  author  took  an  active  part,  his  perfect  knowledge  of  his 
subject,  his  political  wisdom  and  his  patriotism,  have  all  con- 
tributed to  give  to  him  a  high  place  among  the  historians  of 
Italy.  His  style  is  forcible,  and  his  work  interesting,  both  in 
a  historical  and  artistic  point  of  view. 

2.  Daxte. — Xo  poet  had  yet  arisen  gifted  with  absolute 
power  over  the  empire  of  the  soul ;  no  philosopher  had  pierced 
into  the  depths  of  feeling  and  of  thought,  when  Dante,  the 
greatest  name  of  Italy  and  the  father  of  Italian  literature, 
appeared  in  the  might  of  his  genius,  and  availing  himself  of  the 
rude  and  imperfect  materials  within  his  reach,  constructed  his 
magnificent  work.  Dante  was  born  at  Florence  in  1265,  of  the 
noble  family  of  Alighieri,  which  was  attached  to  the  papal,  or 
Guelph  party,  in  opposition  to  the  imperial,  or  Ghibellhae.  He 
was  but  a  child  when  death  deprived  him  of  his  father  ;  but  his 
mother  took  the  greatest  pains  with  his  education,  placing  him 
under  the  tuition  of  Brunetto  Latini,  and  other  masters  of  emi- 
nence. He  early  made  great  progress,  not  only  in  an  acquaint- 
ance with  classical  literature  and  politics,  but  in  music,  drawing, 
horsemanship  and  other  accomphshments  suitable  to  his  station. 
As  he  grew  up,  he  pursued  his  studies  in  the  universities  of 
Padua,  Bologna  and  Paris  ;  he  became  an  accomplished  scho- 
lar, and  at  the  same  time  appeared  in  public  as  a  gallant  and 
high-bred  man  of  the  world.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  took 
arms  on  the  side  of  the  Florentine  Guelphs,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  two  battles  against  the  Ghibellines  of  Arezzo  and 

0* 


202  ITALIAN    LITERATURE. 

Pisa.  But  before  Dante  was  either  a  stiideat  or  a  soldier,  he 
had  become  a  lover  ;  and  this  character,  above  all  others,  was 
impressed  upon  him  for  life.  At  a  May-day  festival,  when  only 
nhie  years  of  ag-e,  he  had  singled  out  a  girl  of  his  own  age,  by  the 
name  of  Bice,  or  Beatrice,  who  thenceforward  became  the  object 
of  his  constant  and  passionate  affection.  Ilis  attachment  was 
of  a  singularly  pure  and  romantic  character,  and  the  lady  reci- 
procated it  with  corresponding  tenderness  and  delicacy  ;  but 
before  his  twenty-fifth  year  she  was  separated  from  him  by 
death.  His  passion,  he  informs  us,  was  not  extinguished  but 
refined  by  this  event ;  not  buried  with  her  body  but  translated 
with  her  soul,  which  was  its  object.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
affection  of  Beatrice  for  the  poet  troubled  her  spirit  amid  the 
bliss  of  Paradise,  and  the  visions  of  the  eternal  world  with  which 
he  was  favored  were  a  device  of  hers  for  reclaiming  liim  from 
sin,  and  preparing  him  for  everlasting  companionship  with  herself. 
He  subsequently  married  a  lady  belonging  to  one  of  tlie  most 
powerful  and  turbulent  families  in  Tuscany,  Madonna  Gemma, 
by  whom  he  had  five  sons  and  a  daughter,  whom  he  called 
Beatrice. 

At  the  age  of  thirty-five  he  was  elected  prior,  or  supreme 
magistrate  of  Florence,  an  honor  from  which  he  dates  all  his  sub- 
sequent misfortunes.  During  his  priorship,  the  citizens  were  di- 
vided into  two  factions  called  the  Neri  and  Bianchi,  as  bitterly 
opposed  to  each  other  as  both  had  been  to  the  GhibelUnes.  In 
the  absence  of  Dante  on  an  embassy  to  Home,  a  pretext  was 
found  by  tlie  Neri,  his  opponents,  -for  exciting  the  populace 
against  him.  His  dwelling  was  demolished,  his  property  confis- 
cated, himself  and  his  friends  condemned  to  perpetual  exile,  with 
the  provision  that,  if  taken,  they  should  be  burned  alive.  After 
a  fruitless  attempt,  by  himself  and  his  party,  to  surprise  Florence, 
he  quitted  his  companions  in  disgust,  and  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  wandering  from  one  court  of  Italy  to  another,  eat- 
ing the  bitter  bread  of  dependence,  which  was  granted  him  often 
as  an  alms.  The  greater  part  of  his  poem  was  composed  during 
this  period;  but  it  appears  that  till  the  end  of  his  Hfe  he  con- 
tinued to  retouch  the  work. 

The  last  and  most  generous  patron  of  Dante  was  Guido  di 
Polenta,  lord  of  Ravenna,  and  lather  of  Franccsca  da  Rimini, 
whose  fatal  love  has  been  the  theme  of  poets  and  painters. 
Polenta  treated  him,  not  as  a  dependant  but  as  an  honored  guest, 
and  in  a  dispute  with  the  Republic  of  Venice  he  employed  the 
poet  as  his  ambassador,  to  eifect  a  reconcihation ;  but  he  was 
refused  even  an  audience,  and,  returning  disappointed  and  ])rokeu- 


ITALIAX   LITEKATUEE.  203 

Ticarted  to  Ravenna,  he  died  soon  after  at  the  age  of  lifty-oix 
(1321),  having  been  in  exile  nineteen  years. 

His  ft.'llow-citizens,  who  had  closed  tlieir  hearts  and  their  gates 
against  him  while  living,  now  deeply  bewailed  his  death;  and, 
during  the  two  succeeding  centuries,  embassy  after  embassy  was 
vainly  sent  from  Florence  to  recover  his  honored  remains. 
IJsot  long  after  his  death,  when  the  municipality  of  Florence  was 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  those  who  had  exiled  him 
and  confiscated  his  property,  provided  that  his  poem  should  be 
read  and  expounded  to  the  people  in  a  church.  Boccaccio  was 
appointed  to  this  professorship.  Before  the  end  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, the  "  Divine  Comedy"  had  gone  through  sixty  editions. 

The  Divine  Comedy  is  one  of  the  greatest  monuments  of 
human  genius.  It  is  an  allegory  conceived  in  the  form  of  a 
vision,  which  was  the  most  popular  style  of  poetry  at  that  age. 
At  the  close  of -the  century,  in  the  year  1300,  Dante  supposes 
himself  to  be  wandering  in  the  deserts  near  Jerusalem,  and  to  be 
favored  with  the  means  of  access  to  the  realms  of  shadows.  He 
is  there  met  by  Virgil,  who  takes  upon  himself  the  office  of  guide. 
By  the  decree  of  the  Most  High,  they  are  enabled  to  pass  the 
gates  of  hell,  and  to  penetrate  into  the  dismal  region  beyond. 
This,  as  represented  by  Dante,  consists  of  nine  circles,  forming 
an  inverted  cone,  of  the  size  of  the  earth,  each  succeeding  cu'cle 
beinix  lower  and  narrower  than  the  former,  while  Lucifer  is 
chained  in  the  centre  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  dreadful  crater. 
Each  circle  contains  various  cavities,  where  the  punishments  vary 
in  proportion  to  the  guilt,  and  the  suffering  increases  in  intensity 
as  the  circles  descend  and  contract.  In  the  first  circle  were 
neither  cries  nor  tears,  but  the  eternal  sighs  of  those  Avho,  having 
never  received  Christian  baptism,  were,  according  to  the  poet's 
creed,  forever  excluded  from  the  abodes  of  bhss.  In  the  next 
circle,  appropriated  to  those  whose  souls  had  been  lost  by  the  in- 
dulgence of  guilty  love,  the  poet  recognizes  the  unhappy  Fran- 
cesca  da  Runini,  whose  history  forms  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
episodes  of  the  poem.  The  third  circle  includes  gluttons;  the 
fourth  misers  and  spendthrifts;  each  succeeding  circle  embracing 
what  the  poet  deems  a  deeper  shade  of  guilt,  and  inflicting  ap- 
propriate punishment.  The  Christian  and  heathen  systems  of 
theology  are  here  freely  interwoven.  AVe  have  Minos  visiting 
the  Stygian  Lake,  where  heretics  are  burning;  we  meet  Cerberus 
and  the  harpies,  and  we  accompany  the  poet  across  several  of  the 
fabulous  rivers  of  Erebus.  A  fearful  scene  appears  in  the  deepest 
circle  of  the  infernal  abodes.  Here,  among  those  who  have 
betrayed  their  country,  and  are  entombed  in  eternal  ice,  is  Count 


204  ITALIAN    LITERATURE. 

Ugolino,  wlio,  by  a  series  of  treasons,  liad  made  himself  master 
of  Pisa.  He  is  gnawing  with  savage  ferocity  the  skull  of  the 
archbishop  of  that  state,  who  had  condemned  him  and  his 
children  to  die  by  starvation.  The  arch-traitor,  Satan,  stands 
fixed  in  the  centre  of  hell  and  of  the  earth.  All  the  streams 
of  guilt  keep  flowing  back  to  him  as  their  source,  and  from  be- 
neath his  threefold  visage  issue  six  gigantic  wings  with  which 
he  vainly  struggles  to  raise  himself,  and  thus  produces  winds 
which  freeze  him  more  firmly  in  the  marsh. 

After  leaving  the  infernal  regions,  and  entering  purgatory, 
they  find  an  immense  cone  divided  into  seven  circles,  each 
of  which  is  devoted  to  the  expiation  of  one  of  the  seven  mortal 
sins.  The  proud  are  overwhelmed  with  enormous  weights  ;  the 
envious  are  clothed  in  garments  of  horse-hair,  their  eye-lids 
closed  ;  the  choleric  are  suffocated  with  smoke;  the  indolent  are 
compelled  to  run  about  continually;  the  avaricious  are  prostrated 
upon  the  earth;  epicures  are  afflicted  with  hunger  and  thirst;  and 
the  incontinent  expiate  their  crimes  in  fire.  In  this  portion  of 
the  work,  however,  while  there  is  much  to  admire,  there  is  less 
to  excite  and  sustain  the  interest.  On  the  summit  of  the  purga- 
torial mountain  is  the  terrestrial  paradise,  whence  is  the  ouly 
ascent  to  the  celestial.  Beatrice,  the  object  of  his  early  and  con- 
stant affection,  descends  hither  to  meet  the  poet.  Yirgil  disap- 
pears, and  she  becomes  his  only  guide.  She  conducts  him 
through  the  nine  heavens,  and  makes  him  acquainted  with  the 
great  men  who,  by  their  virtuous  lives,  have  deserved  the  highest 
enjoyments  of  eternity.  In  the  ninth  celestial  sphere,  Dante  is 
favored  with  a  manifestation  of  divinity,  veiled,  however,  by 
three  hierarchies  of  attending  angels.  Ho  sees  the  Yirgin  Mary, 
and  the  saints  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  by  these  per- 
sonages, and  by  Beatrice,  all  his  doubts  and  difficulties  are  finally 
solved,  and  the  conclusion  leaves  him  absorbed  in  the  beatific 
vision. 

The  power  of  the  human  mind  was  never  more  forcibly  demon- 
strated, in  its  most  exquisite  masterpieces,  than  in  the  poem  of 
Dante.  Without  a  prototype  in  any  existing  language,  equally 
novel  in  all  its  various  parts,  and  in  the  combination  of  the  whole, 
it  stands  alone  as  the  first  monument  of  modern  genius,  the  first 
great  work  which  appeared  in  the  reviving  literature  of  Europe. 
It  possesses  unity  of  design  and  execution,  and  bears  the  visible 
impression  of  a  mighty  genius,  capable  of  embracing  at  once  the 
parts  and  the  whole  of  its  scheme;  of  employing  with  facility  the 
most  stupendous  materials,  and  of  observing  all  the  required  nice- 
ties of  proportion.     But  this  poem  cannot  with  propriety  be  re* 


ITALIAN   LITERATURE.  205 

ferred  to  any  particular  class  of  composition,  and  its  author  is  only 
to  be  judged  by  the  rules  he  thought  fit  to  impose  upon  himself. 
In  his  powerful  hands  the  Italian  language  of  the  13th  century 
displays  a  richness  of  expression,  a  purity,  and  an  elegance,  which 
he  was  the  first  to  elicit,  and  by  v.iiich  it  has  ever  since  been  dis- 
tinguished. The  personages  whom  he  mentions  are  moving  and 
breathing  beings  ;  his  pictures  are  nature  itself ;  his  language 
speaks  at  once  to  the  imagination  and  the  judgment,  and  it  would 
be  difficult  to  point  out  a  passage  in  his  poem  which  would  not 
form  a  subject  for  the  pencil.  While  the  faults  of  Dante  belong 
to  the  a2,*e  in  which  he  lived,  his  manifold  excellences  are  due  to 
his  transcendent  genius  alone. 

The  measure  in  which  the  poem  is  written,  called  the  TerzaRima, 
consists  of  three  lines  so  arranged  that  the  first  and  third  rhvme 
together,  the  middle  one  with  the  first  and  third  of  the  succeed- 
ing triplet.  Each  Mne  consists  of  eleven  syllables,  with  deter- 
mined accents,  the  only  measure  used  in  the  epic  poetry  and  in 
the  sonnets  of  Italy.     The  whole  work  includes  100  cantos. 

The  modesty  of  the  poet  induced  him  to  give  his  poem  the 
title  of  a  comedy,  in  order  to  place  it  in  a  rank  inferior  to  the 
epic,  and  to  indicate  that  it  was  written  in  a  language  which  had 
not  yet  been  used  in  the  treatment  of  lofty  subjects.  To  this, 
the  epithet  Divine  was  added  by  his  countrymen,  a  title  hap- 
pily bestowed  upon  a  production  which  stands  without  a  rival. 
JBesides  this  great  poem,  Dante  wrote  the  "  New  Life,"  a  compo- 
sition partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  in  which  he  relates  the 
history  of  his  love  ;  the  "  Rhymes,"  or  sonnets  and  odes  ;  the 
"  Banquet,"  a  vrork  full  of  philosophy  and  patriotism  ;  and  trea- 
tises in  Latin,  on  "  Monarchy,"  and  "  Yulgar  Eloquence." 

3.  Petrarch. — Petrarch  (1304-13^4)  belonged  to  a  Floren- 
tine family  respected  for  their  moral  worth.  His  father  was  the  per- 
sonal friend  of  Dante,  and  a  partaker  of  the  same  exile.  While 
at  Avignon,  then  the  seat  of  the  papal  court,  on  one  occasion 
he  made  an  excursion  to  the  fountain  of  Yaucluse,  taking  with 
him  his  son,  the  future  poet,  then  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  age. 
The  wild  and  solitary  aspect  of  the  place  inspired  the  boy  with 
an  enthusiasm  beyond  his  years,  leaving  an  impression  which  was 
never  afterwards  effaced,  and  which  affected  his  future  life  and 
writings.  As  Petrarch  grew  up,  unlike  the  haughty,  taciturn, 
and  sarcastic  Dante,  he  seems  to  have  made  friends  wherever  he 
went.  With  splendid  talents,  engaging  manners,  a  handsome 
person,  and  an  affectionate  and  generous  disposition,  he  became 
the  darling  of  his  age,  a  man  whom  princes  delighted  to  honor. 


206  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-three,  he  first  met  Laura  cle  Sacle  in  a 
church  at  Avignon.  She  was  only  twenty  years  of  age,  and  liad 
been  for  three  years  the  wife  of  a  patrician  of  that  city.*  Laura 
was  not  more  distinguished  for  her  beauty  and  fortune,  than  for 
the  unsuUied  purity  of  her  manners  in  a  licentious  court,  where 
she  was  one  of  the  chief  ornaments.  The  sight  of  her  beauty 
inspired  the  young  poet  with  an  affection  which  was  as  pure 
and  virtuous  as  it  was  tender  and  passionate.  He  poured 
forth  in  song  the  fervor  of  his  love  and  the  bitterness  of 
his  grief.  Upwards  of  three  hundred  sonnets,  written  at 
various  times,  commemorate  all  the  little  circumstances  of 
this  attachment,  and  describe  the  favors  which,  during  an  ac- 
quaintance of  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  never  exceeded  a  kind 
word,  a  look  less  severe  than  usual,  or  a  passing  expression  of 
regret  at  parting.  He  was  not  permitted  to  visit  at  Laura's 
house  ;  he  had  no  opportunity  of  seeing  her  except  at  mass,  at 
the  brilliant  levees  of  the  pope,  or  in  private  assemblies  of  beauty 
and  fashion;  but  she  forever  remained  the  dominant  object  of  his 
existence.  He  purchased  a  house  at  Yaucluse,  and  there,  shut 
in  by  lofty  and  craggy  heights,  the  river  Sorgue  traversing  the 
valley  on  one  side,  amidst  hilis  clothed  with  umbrageous  trees, 
cheered  only  by  the  song  of  birds,  the  poet  passed  his  lonely 
days.  Again  and  again  he  made  tours  through  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Flanders,  daring  one  of  which  he  was  crowned  with  the  poet's 
laurel  at  Rome,  but  he  always  returned  to  Yaucluse,  to  Avig- 
non, to  Laura.  Thus  years  passed  away.  Laura  became  the 
mother  of  a  numerous  family,  and  time  and  care  made  havoc  of 
her  youthful  beauty.  Meanwhile,  the  sonnets  of  Petrarch  had 
spread  her  fame  throughout  France  and  Italy,  and  attracted 
many  to  the  court  of  Avignon,  who  were  suiprised  and  disap- 
pointed at  the  sight  of  her  whom  they  had  believed  to  be  the 
loveliest  of  mortals.  In  1347,  during  the  absence  of  the  poet 
from  Avignon,  Laura  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague,  just  twenty- 
one  years  from  the  day  that  Petrarch  first  met  her.  Now  all 
his  love  was  deepened  and  consecrated,  and  the  effusions  of  his 
poetic  genius  became  more  melancholy,  more  passionate  and 
more  beautiful  than  ever.  He  declined  the  offices  and  honors 
that  his  countrymen  offered  him,  and  passed  his  life  in  retire- 
ment. He  was  found  one  morning  by  his  attendants  dead  in  his 
library,  his  head  resting  on  a  book. 

The  celebrity  of  Petrarch  at  the  present  day  depends  chiefly 
on  his  lyrical  poems,  which  served  as  models  to  all  the  distin- 
guished poets  of  southern  Europe.  They  are  restricted  to  two 
forms:  the  sonnet,  borrowed  from  the  SiciUans,  and  the  canzone, 


ITALIAN    LITEKATUKE.  207 

from  the  Provenyals.  The  subject  of  ahnost  all  these  poems  is 
the  same — the  hopeless  affection  of  the  poet  for  the  high-minded 
Laura.  This  love  was  a  kind  of  religious  and  enthusiastic  pas- 
sion, such  as  mystics  imagine  they  feel  towards  the  Deity,  or  such 
as  Plato  believes  to  be  the  bond  of  union  between  elevated 
minds.  There  is  no  poet  in  any  language  more  perfectly  pure 
than  Petrarch — more  completely  above  all  reproach  of  laxity  or 
immorality.  This  merit,  which  is  equally  due  to  the  poet  and  to 
his  Laura,  is  the  more  remarkable,  considering  the  models  which 
he  followed  and  the  court  at  which  Laura  lived.  The  labor  of 
Petrarch  in  polishing  his  poems  did  much  towards  perfecting 
the  language,  which  through  him  became  more  elegant  and 
more  melodious  ;  he  introduced  into  the  l}Tic  poetry  of  Italy 
the  pathos  and  the  touching  sweetness  of  Ovid  and  TibuUus, 
as  well  as  the  simplicity  of  Anacreon. 

Petrarch  attached  little  value  to  his  Italian  poems  ;  it  was  on 
his  Latin  works  that  he  founded  his  hopes  of  renown.  But  his 
highest  title  to  immortal  fame  is  his  prodigious  labor  to  promote 
the  study  of  ancient  authors.  Wherever  he  travelled,  he  sought 
with  the  utmost  avidity  for  classic  manuscripts,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  estimate  the  effect  produced  by  his  enthusiasm.  He  corres- 
ponded with  all  the  eminent  literati  of  his  day,  and  inspired  them 
with  his  own  tastes.  Isow  for  the  first  time  there  appeared  a 
kind  of  literary  republic  in  Europe  united  by  the  magic  bond  of 
Petrarch's  influence,  and  he  was  better  known  and  exercised  a 
more  extensive  and  powerful  influence  than  many  of  the  sove- 
reigns of  the  day.  He  treated  with  various  princes  rather  in  the 
character  of  an  arbitrator  than  an  ambassador,  and  he  not  only 
directed  the  tastes  of  his  own  age,  but  he  determined  those  of 
succeeding  generations. 

4.  Boccaccio  and  other  Prose  Writers. — The  14th  century 
forms  a  brilliant  era  in  Italian  literature,  distinguished  beyond 
any  other  period  for  the  creative  powers  of  genius  which  it  ex- 
hibited. In  this  century,  Dante  gave  to  Europe  his  great  epic 
poem,  the  lyric  muse  awoke  at  the  call  of  Petrarch,  while  Boc- 
caccio created  a  style  of  prose,  harmonious,  flexible  and  engag- 
ing, and  alike  suitable  to  the  most  elevated  and  to  the  most 
playful  subjects, 

Boccaccio  (1313-1315)  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine  merchant ; 
he  early  gave  evidence  of  superior  talents,  and  his  father  vamly 
attempted  to  educate  him  to  follow  his  own  profession.  He 
resided  at  Naples,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  a  lady 
celebrated  in  his  writings  under  the  name  of  Fiammetta.     It  was 


208  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

at  licr  desire  that  most  of  his  early  pieces  were  written,  and  the 
very  exceptionable  moral  character  which  attaches  to  them 
must  be  attributed,  in  part,  to  her  depraved  tastes.  The  source 
of  Boccaccio's  highest  reputation,  and  that  which  entitles  him 
to  rank  as  the  third  founder  of  the  national  literature,  is  his 
"  Decameron,"  a  collection  of  tales  written  during  the  period 
when  the  plague  desolated  the  south  of  Europe,  with  a  view  to 
amuse  the  ladies  of  the  court  during  that  dreadful  visitation. 
The  tales  are  united  under  the  supposition  of  a  party  of  ten  who 
had  retired  to  one  of  the  villas  in  the  environs  of  Naples  to 
strive,  in  the  enjoyment  of  innocent  amusement,  to  escape  the 
danger  of  contagion.  It  was  agreed  that  each  person  should 
tell  a  new  story  during  the  space  of  ten  days,  whence  the  title 
Decameron.  The  description  of  the  plague,  in  the  intro- 
duction, is  considered  not  only  the  finest  piece  of  writing 
from  Boccaccio's  pen,  but  one  of  the  best  historical  descriptions 
that  have  descended  to  us.  The  stories,  a  hundred  in  num- 
ber, are  varied  with  considerable  art,  both  in  subject  and 
in  style,  from  the  most  pathetic  and  sportive  to  the  most 
licentious.  The  great  merit  of  Boccaccio's  composition  consists 
in  his  easy  elegance,  his  naivete,  and,  above  all,  in  the  correct- 
ness of  his  language. 

The  groundwork  of  the  Decameron  has  been  traced  to  an  old 
Indian  romance,  which,  after  passing  through  all  the  languages 
of  the  East,  was  translated  into  Latin  as  early  as  the  12th  cen- 
tury ;  the  originals  of  several  of  these  tales  have  been  found  in  the 
ancient  French  Fahliaux,  while  others  are  believed  to  have  been 
borrowed  from  popular  recitation  or  from  real  occurrences.  But 
if  Boccaccio  cannot  boast  of  being  the  inventor  of  all,  or  even 
any  of  these  tales,  he  is  still  the  father  of  this  class  of  modern 
Italian  literature,  since  he  was  the  first  to  transplant  into  the 
world  of  letters,  what  had  hitherto  been  only  the  subject  of 
social  mirth.  These  tales  have  in  their  turn  been  repeated  anew 
in  almost  every  language  of  Europe,  and  have  afforded  reputa- 
tions to  numerous  imitators.  Ouc  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
unexceptionable  tales  in  the  Decameron  is  that  of  Griselda,  the 
last  in  the  collection.  It  i§  to  be  regretted  that  the  author  did 
not  prescribe  to  himself  the  same  purity  in  his  images  that  he  did 
in  his  phraseology.  Many  of  these  tales  are  not  only  immoral 
but  grossly  indecent,  though  but  too  faithfd  a  representation  of 
the  manners  of  the  age  in  which  they  were  written.  The  De- 
cameron was  published  towards  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  ; 
and,  from  the  first  discovery  of  printing,  it  was  freely  circulated 
in  Italy,  until  the  Council  of  Trent  proscribed  it  in  the  middle 


ITALIAN   LITEKATURE.  209 

of  tlie  16th  century.     It  was,  however,  again  published  in  15tG, 
purified  and  abridged. 

Boccaccio  is  the  author  of  two  romances,  one  called  "Fiam- 
metta,"  the  other  the  **Filocopo;"  the  former  distinguished  for 
the  fervor  of  its  expression,  the  latter  for  the  variety  of  its  ad- 
ventures and  incidents.  He  wrote  also  two  romantic  poems,  in 
which  he  first  introduced  the  ottava  rimci,  or  the  stanza  composed 
of  six  lines,  which  rhyme  interchangeably  with  each  other,  and 
are  followed  by  a  couplet.  In  these  he  strove  to  revive  ancient 
mythology,  and  to  identify  it  with  modern  literature.  His  Latin 
compositions  are  voluminous,  and  materially  contributed  to  the 
advancement  of  letters. 

While  Boccaccio  labored  so  successfully  to  reduce  the  lan- 
guage to  elegant  and  harmonious  forms,  he  strove  like  Petrarch 
to  excite  his  contemporaries  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  classics. 
He  induced  the  senate  of  Florence  to  establish  a  professorship 
of  Greek,  entered  his  name  among  the  first  of  the  students, 
and  procured  manuscripts  at  his  own  expense.  Thus  Hellenic 
literature  was  introduced  into  Tuscany,  and  thence  into  the  rest 
of  Europe. 

Boccaccio,  late  in  life,  assumed  the  ecclesiastical  habit,  and 
entered  on  the  study  of  theology.  When  the  Florentines 
founded  a  professorship  for  the  reading  and  exposition  of  the 
Divine  Comedv,  Boccaccio  was  made  the  first  incumbent.  The 
result  of  his  labors  was  a  life  of  Dante,  and  a  commentary  on 
the  first  seventeen  cantos  of  the  Inferno.  With  the  death  of 
Petrarch,  who  had  been  his  most  intimate  friend,  his  last  tie  to 
earth  was  loosed  ;  he  died  at  Certaldo  a  few  months  later,  in 
the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  His  dv/clhng  is  still  to  be  seen, 
situated  on  a  hill,  and  looking  down  on  the  fertile  and  beautiful 
valley  watered  by  the  river  Elsa. 

Of  the  other  prose  writers  of  the  14th  century  the  most  re- 
markable are  the  three  Florentine  historians  named  Yillani,  the 
eldest  of  whom  (1310-1348)  wrote  a  history  of  Florence,  which 
was  continued  afterwards  by  his  brother  and  by  his  nephew  ;  a 
work  highly  esteemed  for  its  historical  interest,  and  for  its  purity 
of  language  and  style;  and  Franco  Sacchetti  (1335-1400),  who 
approaches  the  nearest  to  Boccaccio.  His  "  Novels  and  Tales" 
are  valuable  for  the  purity  and  eloquence  of  their  style,  and  for 
the  picture  they  afford  of  the  manners  of  his  age. 

5.  The  First  Decline  of  Italian  Literature. — The  pas- 
sionate study  of  the  ancients,  of  which  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio 
had  given  an  example,  suspended  the  progress  of  Italian  htera- 


210  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

ture  in  the  latter  part  of  the  14th  century,  and  through  almost 
all  the  15lh.  The  attention  of  the  literary  men  of  this  time  was 
wholly  engrossed  by  the  study  of  the  dead  languages,  and  of 
manners,  customs  and  religious  systems  equally  extinct.  They 
present  to  our  observation  boundless  erudition,  a  just  si^irit  of 
criticism,  and  nice  sensibility  to  the  beauties  and  defects  of  the 
great  authors  of  antiquity  ;  but  we  look  in  vain  for  that  true 
eloquence,  which  is  more  the  fruit  of  an  intercourse  with  the 
world  than  of  a  knowledge  of  books.  They  were  still  more  un- 
successful in  poetry,  in  which  theh'  attempts,  all  in-  Latm,  are 
few  in  number,  and  their  verses  harsh  and  heavy,  without 
originality  or  vigor.  It  was  not  until  the  period  when  Itahan 
poetry  began  to  be  again  cultivated,  that  Latin  verse  acquired 
any  of  the  characteristics  of  genuine  inspiration. 

But  towards  the  close  of  the  15th  century  the  dawn  of  a  new 
literary  era  appeared,  which  soon  shone  with  meridian  hght.  At 
this  time,  the  universities  had  become  more  and  more  the  subjects 
of  attention  to  the  governments  ;  the  appointment  of  eminent 
professors,  and  the  privileges  connected  with  these  institutions, 
attracted  to  them  large  numbers  of  students,  and  the  concourse 
was  often  so  great  that  the  lectures  were  delivered  in  the 
churches  and  in  public  squares.  Those  repubhcs  which  still  ex- 
isted, and  the  princes  who  had  risen  on  the  ruins  of  the  more 
ephemeral  ones,  rivalled  each  other  in  theh'  patronage  of  literary 
men  :  the  popes,  who  in  the  preceding  ages  had  denounced  all 
secular  learning,  now  became  its  munificent  patrons  ;  and  two 
of  them,  Nicholas  Y.  and  Pius  II.,  were  themselves  scholars  of 
high  distinction.  The  Dukes  of  ]\lilan,  and  the  Marquises  of 
JNlantua  and  Ferrara,  surrounded  themselves  in  their  capitals 
with  men  illustrious  in  science  and  letters,  and  seemed  to  vie 
with  each  other  in  the  favors  which  they  lavished  upon  them. 
In  the  hitherto  free  republic  of  I'lorence,  which  had  given  birth 
to  Dante,  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio,  literature  found  support  in 
a  family  which,  at  no  distant  period,  employed  it  to  augment 
tlieir  power,  and  to  rule  the  city  with  an  almost  despotic  sway. 
The  Medici  had  been  lono^  distino'uished  for  the  wealth  thev  had 
acquired  by  commercial  enterprise,  and  for  the  high  offices  which 
they  held  in  the  republic.  Cosmo  de'  Medici  had  acquired  a 
degree  of  power  which  shook  the  very  foundations  of  the  State. 
He  was  master  of  the  moneyed  credit  of  Europe,  and  almost 
the  equal  of  the  kings  with  whom  he  negotiated  ;  but  in  the 
midst  of  the  projects  of  his  ambition  he  opened  his  palace  as  an 
asylum  to  the  scholars  and  artists  of  the  age,  turned  its  gardens 
into  an  academy,  and  effected  a  revolution  in  philosophy  by  set- 


n  AT  J.  AX   LTTEIIAITTRE.  211 

ting  lip  the  authority  of  Plato  against  that  of  Aristotle.  Hi3 
banks,  which  were  scattered  over  Europe,  were  placed  at  the 
service  of  literature  as  well  as  commerce.  His  agents  abroad 
sold  spices  and  Ijougbt  manuscripts  ;  the  vessels  which  returned 
to  him  from  Constantinople,  Alexandria  and  Smyrna,  were  often 
laden  with  volumes  in  the  Greek,  Syriac  and  Cbaldaic  lan- 
guages. Being  banished  to  Venice,  he  continued  his  protection 
of  letters,  and  on  his  return  to  Florence  he  devoted  himself  more 
than  ever  to  the  cause  of  literature.  In  the  south  of  Italy, 
Alphonso  v.,  and,  indeed,  all  the  sovereigns  of  that  age,  pursued 
the  same  course,  and  chose  for  their  chancellors  and  ambassadors 
the  same  scholars  who  educated  their  sons,  and  expounded  the 
classics  in  their  literary  circles. 

This  i^atronage,  however,  was  confined  to  the  progress  of 
ancient  letters,  while  the  native  literature,  instead  of  redeeming 
the  promise  of  its  infancy,  remained  at  this  time  mute  and  inglo- 
rious. Yet  the  resources  of  poets  and  orators  were  multiplying 
a  thousand  fold.  The  exalted  characters,  the  austere  laws,  the 
energetic  virtues,  the  graceful  mythology,  the  thrilling  eloquence 
of  antiquity,  were  annihilating  the  puerihties  of  the  old  Italian 
rhymes,  and  creating  purer  and  nobler  tastes.  The  clay  which 
was  destined  for  the  formation  of  great  men  was  undergoing  a 
new  process;  a  fresh  mould  was  cast,  the  forms  at  first  appeared 
lifeless,  but  ere  the  end  of  the  15th  century  the  breath  of  genius 
entered  into  them,  and  a  new  era  of  life  began. 

PERIOD   SECOXD. 

REVIVAL  OF    Italian   Literature    and   its    second  decline 

(147G-1675). 

1.  The  Close  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. — The  first  man 
who  contributed  to  the  restoration  of  Italian  poetry,  was  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici  (1418-1492),  the  grandson  of  Cosmo.  In  the  bril- 
liant societv  that  he  G:athered  around  him,  a  new  era  was 
opened  in  Italian  literature.  Himself  a  poet,  he  attempted  to 
restore  poetry  to  the  condition  in  which  Petrarch  had  left  it  ; 
although  superior  in  some  respects  to  that  poet,  he  had  less 
power  of  versification,  less  sweetness  and  harmony,  but  his 
ideas  were  more  natural,  and  his  style  was  more  simple.  He 
attempted  all  kinds  of  poetical  composition,  and  in  all  he  dis- 
played the  versatility  of  his  talents  and  the  exuberance  of 
bis  imagination.  But  to  Lorenzo  poetry  was  but  an  amusement, 
scarcely  regarded  in  his  brilliant  political  career.     He  concen* 


212  ITALIAN    LITERATURE. 

trated  in  himself  all  the  power  of  the  republic — ^he  was  the 
arbiter  of  the  whole  political  state  of  Italy,  and  from  the 
splendor  with  which  he  surrounded  himself,  and  his  celebrity,  he 
received  the  title  of  Lorenzo  the  magnificent.  He  continued  to 
collect  manuscripts,  and  to  employ  learned  men  to  prepare  them 
for  printing.  His  Platonic  Academy  extended  its  researches 
into  new  paths  of  study.  The  cohection  of  antique  sculpture, 
the  germ  of  the  gallery  of  Florence,  which  had  been  established 
by  Cosmo,  he  enriched,  and  gave  to  it  a  new  destination,  which 
was  the  occasion  of  imparting  fresh  life  and  vigor  to  the  liberal 
arts.  He  appropriated  a  part  of  his  gardens  to  serve  as  a 
school  for  the  study  of  the  antique,  and  placed  his  statues,  busts 
and  other  models  of  art  in  the  shrubberies,  terraces  and  build- 
ings. Young  men  were  liberally  paid  for  the  copies  which  they 
made  while  pursuing  their  studies.  It  was  this  institution  that 
kindled  the  flame  of  genius  in  the  breast  of  JNIichael  Angelo,  and 
to  it  must  be  attributed  the  splendor  which  was  shed  by  the 
fine  arts  over  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  and  which  extended 
rapidly  from  Florence  throughout  Italy,  and  over  a  great  part 
of  Europe.  Among  the  friends  of  Lorenzo  may  be  mentioned 
Pico  della  Mirandola  (1463-1494),  one  of  the  most  prominent 
men  of  his  ag-e,  who  left  in  his  Latin  and  Italian  works  monu- 
ments  of  his  vast  erudition  and  exuberant  talent. 

The  15th  century  closed  brightly  on  Florence,  but  it  was  other- 
wise throughout  Italy.  Some  of  its  princes  still  patronized  the 
sciences,  but  most  of  them  were  engaged  in  the  intrigues  of 
ambition  ;  and  the  storms  which  were  gathering  soon  burst  on 
Florence  itself.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  Lorenzo,  nearly  the 
whole  of  Italy  fell  under  the  rule  of  Charles  YIII.,  and  the 
voice  of  science  and  literature  was  drowned  in  the  clash  of 
arms  ;  military  violence  dispersed  the  learned  men,  and  pillage 
destroyed  or  scattered  the  literary  treasures.  Literature  and 
the  arts,  banished  from  their  lonsr-loved  home,  sought  ano- 
ther  asylum.  We  find  them  again  at  Home,  cherished  by 
a  more  powerful  and  fortunate  protector,  Pope  Leo  X., 
the  son  of  Lorenzo  (1475-1521).  Though  his  patronage 
was  confined  to  the  fine  arts  and  to  the  lighter  kinds  of 
composition,  yet  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  newly  invented 
art  of  printing,  the  discovery  of  Columbus,  and  the  reformation, 
new  energies  were  imparted  to  the  age,  the  ItaUan  mind  was 
awakened  from  its  slumber,  and  prepared  for  a  new  era  in 
literature. 

2.  The  origin  of  the  Drama  and  Romantic  Epic. — Among 


ITALIAN   LITERATURE.  213 

the  gifted  individuals  in  the  circle  of  Lorenzo,  the  highest  rank 
may  be  assigned  to  Poliziano  (1454-1494:).  He  revived  on  the 
modern  stage  the  tragedies  of  the  ancients,  or  rather  created  a 
new  kind  of  pastoral  tragedy,  on  which  Tasso  did  not  disdain  to 
employ  his  genius.  His  "  Orpheus,"  composed  within  ten  days, 
was  performed  at  the  Mantuan  court  in  1483,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  first  dramatic  composition  in  Italian.  The  univer- 
sal homage  paid  to  Yirgil  had  a  decided  influence  on  this  kind 
of  poetry.  His  Bucolics  w^re  looked  upon  as  dramas  more 
poetical  than  those  of  Terence  and  Seneca,  The  comedies  of 
Flautus  were  represented,  and  the  taste  for  theatrical  perform- 
ances was  eagerly  renewed.  In  these  representations,  however, 
the  object  in  view  was  the  restoration  of  the  classics  rather 
than  the  amusement  of  the  public  ;  and  the  new  dramatists  con- 
fined themselves  to  a  faithful  copy  of  the  ancients.  But  the 
Orpheus  of  Poliziano  caused  a  revolution.  The  beauty  of  the 
verse,  the  charm  of  the  music,  and  the  decorations  which 
accompanied  its  recital,  produced  an  excitement  of  feeling  and 
intellect  that  combined  to  open  the  way  for  the  true  dramatic 
art. 

At  the  same  time,  several  eminent  poets  devoted  their  atten- 
tion to  that  style  of  composition,  which  was  destined  to  form  the 
glory  of  Ari^sto.  The  trouveres  chose  Charlemagne  and  his  pala- 
dins as  the  heroes  of  their  poems  and  romances,  and  these,  com- 
posed for  the  most  part  in  French  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries, 
were  early  circulated  in  Italy.  Their  origin  accorded  with  the 
vivacity  of  the  prevailing  religious  sentiment,  the  violence  of  the 
passions  and  the  taste  for  adventures,  which  distinguished  the 
first  crusades ;  while  from  the  general  ignorance  of  the  times, 
their  supernatural  agency  was  readily  admitted.  But  at  the 
close  of  the  15th  century,  when  the  poets  possessed  themselves 
of  these  old  romances,  in  order  to  give  a  variety  to  the  adven- 
tures of  then*  heroes,  the  belief  in  the  marvellous  was  much 
diminished,  and  they  could  not  be  recounted  without  a  mix- 
ture of  mockery.  The  spuit  of  the  age  did  not  admit  in  the 
Italian  language  a  subject  entirely  serious.  He  wlio  made  pre- 
tensions to  fame  was  compelled  to  write  in  Latin,  and  the 
choice  of  the  vulgar  tongue  was  the  indication  of  a  humorous 
subject.  The  language  had  adopted  since  the  time  of  Boccaccio 
a  character  of  naivete  mingled  with  satire,  which  still  remains, 
and  which  is  particularly  remarkable  in  Ariosto. 

The  "  Morgante  Maggiore  "  of  Pulci  (1431-1410)  is  the  first 
of  these  romantic  poems.  It  is  alternately  burlesque  and  serious, 
and  it  abounds  with  passages  of  great  pathos  and  beauty.     The 


214  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

"Orlando  Innamorato  "  of  Boiardo  (1430-14:94)  is  a  poem  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  Pulci.  It  was,  however,  remodelled  by 
Berni  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  the  author,  and  from  the 
variety  and  novelty  of  the  adventures,  the  richness  of  its  descrip- 
tions, the  interest  excited  by  its  hero,  and  the  honor  rendered  to 
the  female  sex,  it  excels  the  Morgante. 

3.  Romantic  Eric  Poetry, — The  romances  of  chivalry,  which 
had  been  thus  versified  by  Pulci  and  Boiardo,  were  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  epic  poetry  by  the  genius  of  Ariosto  (1474-1533). 
He  was  born  at  Keggio,  of  which  place  his  father  was  governor. 
As  the  means  of  improving  his  resources,  he  early  attached  him- 
self to  the  service  of  Cardinal  D'Este,  and  afterwards  to  that  of 
the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  At  the  age  of  thirty  years  he  commenced 
his  "  Orlando  Furioso,"  and  continued  the  composition  for 
eleven  years.  While  the  work  was  in  progress,  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  reading  the  cantos,  as  they  were  finished,  at  the  courts 
of  the  cardinal  and  duke,  which  may  account  for  the  manner  in 
which  this  hundred-fold  talc  is  told,  as  if  delivered  spon- 
taneously before  scholars  and  princes,  who  assembled  to  listen  to 
the  marvellous  adventures  of  kniglits  and  ladies,  giants  and 
magicians,  from  the  lips  of  the  story-teller.  Ariosto  excelled  in 
the  practice  of  reading  aloud  with  distinct  utterance  and  animated 
elocution,  an  accomplishment  of  peculiar  value  at  a  time  when 
books  were  scarce,  and  the  emoluments  of  authors  depended 
more  on  the  gratuities  of  their  patrons  than  the  sale  of  their 
works.  In  each  of  the  four  editions  which  he  published,  he 
improved,  corrected  and  enlarged  the  original.  No.  poet,  per- 
hajis,  ever  evinced  more  fastidious  taste  in  adjusting  the  nicer 
points  that  alfected  the  harmony,  dignity  and  fluency  of  his  com- 
l)osition,  yet  the  whole  seems  as  natural  as  if  it  had  flowed 
extem[)oraneoasly  from  his  pen.  Throughout  life  it  was  the  lot 
of  Ariosto  to  struggle  against  the  difticulties  inseparable  from 
narrow  and  precarious  circumstances.  His  patrons,  among 
them  Leo  X.,  were  often  culi)ablc  in  exciting  expectations, 
and  afterwards  disappointing  them.  The  earliest  and  latest 
works  of  Ariosto,  though  not  his  best,  were  dramatic.  He 
wrote  also  some  satires  in  the  form  of  epistles.  He  died  in  the 
58th  vear  of  his  age,  and  his  ashes  now  rest  under  the  mag- 
nificcnt  monument  in  the  new  church  of  the  Benedictines  in 
Ferrara.  The  house  in  which  the  poet  lived,  tlic  chair  in 
Miiich  he  was  wont  to  study,  and  the  inkstand  whence  he  filled 
his  pen,  are  still  shown  as  interesthig  memorials  of  his  life  and 
labors. 


ITALIAN   LITEEATURE.  215 

Ariosto,  like  Pulci  and  Boiarclo,  undertook  to  sino"  the 
paladins  and  their  amours  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  during  the 
fabulous  wars  of  this  emperor  against  the  Moors.  In  his  poem 
he  seems  to  have  designedly  thrown  off  the  embarrassment  of  a 
unity  of  action.  The  Orlando  Furioso  is  founded  on  three  prin- 
cipal narratives,  distinct  but  often  intermingled  ;  the  history  of 
the  war  between  Charlemagne  and  the  Saracens,  Orlando's  love 
for  Angelica,  his  madness  on  hearing  of  her  infidelity,  and 
lluggiero's  attachment  to  Bradamante.  These  stories  are  inter- 
woven with  so  many  incidents  and  episodes,  and  there  is  in  the 
poem  such  a  prodigious  quantity  of  action,  tliat  it  is  difficult  to 
assign  its  central  point.  Indeed,  Ariosto,  playing  with  his 
readers,  seems  to  delight  in  continually  misleading  them,  and 
allows  them  no  opportunity  of  viewing  the  general  subject  of  the 
poem.  This  want  of  unity  is  essentially  detrimental  to  the 
general  impression  of  the  work,  and  the  author  has  succeeded  in 
throwing  around  its  individual  parts  an  interest  which  does  not 
attach  to  it  as  a  whole.  The  world  to  which  the  poet  trans- 
ports his  readers  is  truly  poetic  ;  all  the  factitious  wants  of  com- 
mon life,  its  cold  calculations  and  its  imaginary  distinctions  dis- 
appear ;  love  and  honor  reign  supreme,  and  the  prompting  of 
the  one  and  the  laws  of  the  other  are  alone  permitted  to  stimu- 
late and  regulate  a  life,  of  which  war  is  the  only  business  and 
gallantry  the  only  pastime.  The  magic  and  sorcery,  borrowed 
from  the  East,  which  pervade  these  chivalric  fictions,  lead  us  still 
further  from  the  world  of  realities.  Nor  is  it  the  least  charm, 
that  all  the  wonders  and  prodigies  here  related  are  made  to 
appear  quite  probable  from  the  apparently  artless,  truthful  style 
of  the  narrations.  The  versification  of  the  Orlando  is  more 
distinguished  for  sweetness  and  elegance  than  for  strength  ;  but, 
in  point  of  harmony,  and  in  the  beauty,  pathos  and  grace  of  his 
descriptions,  no  poet  surpasses  Ariosto. 

4.  Heroic  Eric  Poetry.-  -While  in  the  romantic  epic  of  the 
middle  ages  unity  of  design  was  considered  unnecessary,  and 
truthfulness  of  detail,  fertility  of  imagination,  strength  of  color- 
ing, and  vivacity  of  narration  Were  alone  required,  heroic  poetry 
was  expected  to  exhibit,  on  the  most  extensive  scale,  those  laws 
of  symmetry  which  adapt  all  the  parts  to  one  object,  which  com- 
bine variety  with  unity,  and,  as  it  were,  initiate  us  into  the 
secrets  of  creation,  by  disclosing  the  single  idea  which  governs 
the  most  dissimilar  actions,  and  harmonizes  the  most  opposite  in- 
terests. It  was  reserved  to  Torquato  Tasso  to  raise  the  Itahan 
language  to  this  kind  of  epic  poetry. 


216  ITALIAN   LITEEATURE. 

Tasso  (1544-1595)  was  born  in  Sorrento,  and  many  marvels 
are  told  by  his  biographers  of  the  precocity  of  his  genius.  PoKti- 
cal  convulsions  earlv  drove  his  father  into  exile.  He  went  to 
Rome  and  sent  for  his  son,  then  ten  years  of  age.  When  the  ex- 
iles were  no  longer  safe  at  Rome,  an  asylum  was  olfercd  them  at 
Pesaro  by  the  Duke  of  TJrbino.  Here  young  Tasso  j^ursued 
his  studies  in  all  the  learning  and  accomplishments  of  the  age. 
In  his  17th  year  he  had  completed  the  composition  of  an  epic 
poem  on  the  adventures  of  Rinaldo,  which  was  received  with 
passionate  admiration  throughout  Italy.  The  appearance  of  this 
poem  proved  not  only  the  beginning  of  the  author's  fame,  but 
the  dawn  of  a  new  day  in  Italian  literature.  In  1565,  Tasso 
was  nominated  by  the  Cardinal  D'Este  as  gentleman  of  his  house- 
hold, and  his  reception  at  the  court  was  in  every  respect  most 
pleasing  to  his  youthful  ambition.  He  was  honored  by  the  ulti- 
mate acquaintance  of  the  accomplished  princesses  Lucretia  and 
Leonora,  and  to  this  dangerous  friendship  must  be  attributed 
most  of  his  subsequent  misfortunes,  if  it  be  true  that  he  cherished 
a  secret  attachment  for  Leonora. 

During  this  prosperous  period  of  his  life,  Tasso  prosecuted  his 
great  epic  poem,  the  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  and  as  canto  after 
canto  was  completed  and  recited  to  the  princesses,  he  found  in 
then*  applause  repeated  stimulus  to  proceed.  While  steadily 
engaged  in  his  great  work,  his  fancy  gave  bu'th  to  numerous 
fugitive  poems,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  ''  Amiuta." 
After  its  representation  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  all  Italy  re- 
sounded with  the  poet's  fame.  It  was  translated  into  all  the 
languages  of  Europe,  and  the  name  of  Tasso  would  have  been 
immortal  even  though  he  had  never  composed  an  epic.  The 
various  vexations  he  endured  regarding  the  pubhcation  of  his 
work  at  its  conclusion,  the  wrongs  he  suffered  from  both  patrons 
and  rivals,  together  with  disappointed  ambition,  rendered  him  the 
subject  of  feverish  anxiety  and  afterwards  the  prey  of  restless  fear 
and  continual  suspicion.  His  mental  malady  increased,  and  he  wan- 
dered from  place  to  place  without  finding  any  permanent  home. 
Assuming  the  disguise  of  a  shepherd,  lie  travelled  to  Sorrento, 
to  visit  his  sister;  but  soon  tired -of  seclusion,  he  obtained  per- 
mission to  return  to  the  court  of  Ferrara.  He  was  coldly  re- 
ceived by  the  duke,  and  was  refused  an  interview  with  the  prin- 
cesses. He  left  the  place  in  indignation,  and  wandered  from  one 
city  of  Italy  to  another,  reduced  to  the  appearance  of  a  wretched 
itinerant,  sometimes  kindly  received,  somethnes  driven  away  as  a 
vagabond,  always  restless,  suspicious,  and  unhappy.  In  this  mood 
lie  again  returned  to  Ferrara,  at  a  moment  when  the  duke  was 


ITALIAX   LITERATURE.  217 

too  much  occupied  with  the  solemnities  of  his  own  marriage  to 
attend  to  the  compkiints  of  the  poet.  Tasso  became  infuriated, 
retracted  all  the  praises  he  had  bestowed  on  the  house  of  Este, 
and  indulged  in  the  bitterest  invectives  against  the  duke,  by 
whose  orders  he  was  afterwards  committed  to  the  hospital  for 
lunatics,  where  he  was  closely  confined,  and  treated  with  extreme 
rigor.  If  he  had  never  been  insane  before,  he  certainly  now 
became  so.  To  add  to  his  misfortune,  his  poem  was  printed 
without  his  permission,  from  an  imperfect  copy,  and  while  editors 
and  printers  enriched  themselves  with  the  fruit  of  his  labors,  the 
poet  himself  was  languishing  in  a  dungeon,  despised,  neglected, 
sick,  and  destitute  of  the  common  conveniences  of  life,  and  above 
all,  deafened  by  the  frantic  cries  with  which  the  hospital  conti- 
nually resounded.  When  the  first  rigors  of  his  imprisonment  were 
relaxed,  Tasso  pursued  his  studies,  and  poured  forth  his  emotions 
in  every  form  of  verse.  Some  of  his  most  beautiful  minor  poems 
were  composed  during  this  period.  After  more  than  seven  years' 
confinement,  the  poet  was  liberated  at  the  intercession  of  the 
Duke  of  Mantua.  From  this  time  he  wandered  from  city  to 
city  ;  the  hallucinations  of  his  mind  never  entirely  ceased. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1594,  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
Rome,  where  he  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-two. 

Tasso  was  particularly  happy  in  choosing  the  most  engaging 
subject  that  could  inspire  a  modern  poet — the  struggle  between 
the  Christians  and  the  Saracens.  The  Saracens  considered  them- 
selves called  on  to  subjugate  the  earth  to  the  faith  of  Moham- 
med; the  Christians  to  enfranchise  the  sacred  spot  where  their 
divine  founder  suffered  death.  The  religion  of  the  age  was 
wholly  warlike.  It  was  a  profound,  disinterested,  enthusiastic, 
and  poetic  sentiment,  and  no  period  has  beheld  such  a  briUiant 
display  of  valor.  The  belief  in  the  supernatural,  which  formed 
a  striking  characteristic  of  the  tmie,  seemed  to  have  usurped  the 
laws  of  nature  and  the  common  course  of  events. 

The  faith  against  which  the  crusaders  fought  appeared  to  them 
the  worship  of  the  powers  of  darkness.  They  believed  that  a 
contest  might  exist  between  invisible  beings  as  between  different 
nations,  and  when  Tasso  armed  the  dark  .powers  of  enchantment 
against  the  Christian  knights,  he  only  developed  and  embellished 
a  popular  idea. 

The  scene  of  the  Jerusalem  Delivered,  so  rich  in  recollections 
and  associations  with  all  our  religious  feelings,  is  one  in  which 
nature  displays  her  riches  and  treasures,  and  where  descriptions, 
in  turn  the  most  lovely  and  the  most  austere,  attract  the  pen  of 
the  poet.     All  the  nations  of  Christendom  send  forth  their  war- 

10 


218  ITALIAN   LITERATURE, 

riors  to  the  army  of  the  cross,  and  the  whole  world  thus  becomes 
his  patrimony.  Whatever  interest  the  taking  of  Troy  might 
possess  for  the  Greeks,  or  the  vanity  of  the  Romans  might  at- 
tach to  the  adventures  of  JEneas,  whom  they  adopted  as  their 
progenitor,  it  may  be  asserted  that  neither  the  Iliad  nor  the 
^neid  possesses  the  dignity  of  subject,  the  interest  at  the  same 
time  divine  and  human,  and  the  varied  dramatic  action  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  Jerusalem  Delivered. 

The  whole  course  of  the  poem  is  comprised  in  the  campaign  of 
1093,  when  the  Christian  army,  assembled  on  the  plain  of  Tor- 
tosa,  marched  towards  Jerusalem,  which  they  besieged  and  cap- 
tured. From  the  commencement  of  the  poem,  the  most  tender 
sentunents  are  combined  with  the  action,  and  love  has  been  as- 
signed a  nobler  part  than  has  been  given  to  it  in  any  other  epic 
poem.  Love,  enthusiastic,  respectful,  and  full  of  homage,  was 
an  essential  characteristic  of  chivalry  and  the  source  of  the 
noblest  actions.  While  with  the  heroes  of  the  classic  epic  it 
was  a  weakness,  with  the  Christian  knights  it  was  a  devotion. 
In  this  work  are  happily  combined  the  classic  and  romantic 
styles.  It  is  classic  in  its  plan,  romantic  in  its  heroes;  it  is  con- 
ceived in  the  spirit  of  antiquity,  and  executed  in  the  spirit  of 
medieval  romance.  It  has  the  beauty  which  results  from  unity 
of  design  and  from  the  harmony  of  all  its  parts,  united  with  the 
romantic  form,  which  falls  in  with  the  feelings,  the  passions,  and 
the  recollections  of  Europeans.  Notwithstanding  some  defects, 
which  must  be  attributed  rather  to  the  taste  of  his  age  than  to 
his  genius,  in  the  history  of  literature  Tasso  may  be  placed  by 
the  side  of  Homer  and  VirgiL 

5.  Lyric  Poetry. — Lyric  poetry,  which  had  been  brought  to 
such  perfection  by  Petrarch  in  the  14th  century,  but  almost  lost 
sight  of  in  the  15th,  was  cultivated  by  all  the  Italian  poets  of 
this  period.  Petrarch  became  the  model,  which  every  aspirant 
endeavored  to  imitate.  Hence  arose  a  host  of  poetasters,  who 
wrote  with  considerable  elegance,  but  without  the  least  power 
of  imagination.  We  must  not,  however,  confound  with  the  ser- 
vile imitators  of  Petrarch  those  who  took  nothing  from  his  school 
but  purity  of  language  and  elegance  of  style,  and  who  conse- 
crated the  lyre  not  to  love  alone,  but  to  patriotism  and  religion. 
First  of  these  are  Poliziano  and  Lorenzo  dc'  Medici,  in  whose 
ballads  and  stanzas  the  language  of  Petrarch  reappeared  with  all 
its  beauty  and  harmony.  Later,  Cardinal  Bembo  (1470-1547), 
Molza  (1489-1544),  tarsia  (1476-1535),  Guidiccioni  (1480- 
1541), Delia  Casa  (1503-1556),Costanzo  (1507-1585),  and  later 


ITALIAN   LITEKATUEE.  219 

still,  Chiabrera  (1552-1637),  attempted  to  restore  Italian  poetry 
to  its  primitive  elegance.  Tiieir  sonnets  and  eanzoui  contributed 
much  to  the  revival  of  a  purer  style,  although  their  elegance  is 
often  too  elaborate  and  their  thoughts  and  feelings  too  artificial. 
Besides  these,  Ariosto,  Tasso,  Machiavelli  and  Michael  Angelo, 
whose  genius  was  practised  in  more  ambitious  tasks,  did  not 
disdain  to  shape  and  polish  such  diminutive  gems  as  the  canzone, 
the  madri(f:al  and  the  sonnet. 

This  reform  of  taste  in  lyric  composition  was  also  promoted  by 
several  women,  among  whom  the  most  distinguished  at  once  for 
beauty,  vu'tue,  and  talent,  was  Yittoria  Colonna  (1490-1547). 
She  was  daughter  of  the  high  constable  of  Naples,  and  married  to 
the  Marquis  of  Fescara.  Early  left  a  widow,  she  abandoned  herself 
to  sorrow.  That  fidelity  which  made  her  refuse  the  hand  of 
princes  in  her  youth,  rendered  her  incapable  of  a  second  attach- 
ment in  her  widowhood.  The  solace  of  her  life  was  to  mourn 
the  loss  and  cherish  the  memory  of  Pescara.  After  passing  se- 
veral years  in  retirement,  Yittoria  took  up  her  residence  at  Rome, 
and  became  the  intimate  friend  of  the  distinguished  men  of  her 
time.  Her  verses,  though  deficient  in  poetic  fancy,  are  full  of 
tenderness  and  absorbing  passion.  Yittoria  Colonna  was  reck- 
oned by  her  contgnporaries  as  a  being  almost  more  than  human, 
and  the  epithet  divine  was  usually  prefixed  to  her  name.  By  her 
death-bed  stood  Michael  Angelo,  who  w^as  considerably  her 
junior,  but  who  enjoyed  her  friendship  and  regarded  her  with 
enthusiastic  veneration.     He  wrote  several  sonnets  in  her  praise. 

6.  Dramatic  Poetry. — Tragedy,  in  the  hands  of  the  Komans, 
had  exhibited  no  national  characteristics,  and  disappeared  with 
the  decline  of  their  literature.  When  Europe  began  to  breathe 
again,  the  natural  taste  of  the  multitude  for  games  and  specta- 
cles revived  ;  the  church  entertained  the  people  with  its  repre- 
sentations, which,  however,  were  destitute  of  all  literary  charac- 
ter. At  the  commencement  of  the  14th  century  we  find  traces 
of  Latin  tragedies,  and  these,  during  the  15th  century,  were  fre- 
quently represented,  as  we  have  seen,  more  as  a  branch  of 
ancient  art  and  learning,  than  as  matter  of  recreation.  After 
the  "Orpheus"  of  Poliziano  had  appeared  on  the  stage,  the 
first  drama  in  the  Italian  tongue,  Latin  tragedies  and  comedies 
were  translated  into  the  Italian,  but  as  yet  no  one  had  ventured 
beyond  mere  translation. 

Leo  X.  shed  over  the  dramatic  art  the  same  favor  which  he 
bestowed  on  the  other  liberal  arts,  and  the  theatricals  of  the 
Yatican  were  of  the  most  splendid  description.     During  his  pou- 


220  ITALIAN   LITERATUEE. 

tificate,  Trissino  (1478-1550),  dedicated  to  Mm  the  tragedy  of 
**  Sofonisba,"  formed  on  the  Greek  model,  the  first  regular  tra- 
gedy which  had  appeared  since  the  revival  of  letters.  Its  subject 
is  found  entire  in  the  work  of  Livy,  and  the  invention  of  the  poet 
has  added  little  to  the  records  of  the  historian.  The  piece  is  not 
divided  into  acts  and  scenes,  and  the  only  repose  given  to  the 
action  is  by  the  chorus,  who  sing  odes  and  lyric  stanzas.  The 
story  is  well  conducted,  the  characters  are  all  dramatic,  and  the 
incidents  arise  spontaneously  out  of  each  other;  but  the  style  of 
the  tragedy  has  neither  the  sublimity  nor  the  originality  which 
becomes  this  kind  of  composition,  and  which  distinguished  the 
genius  of  the  dramatic  poets  of  Athens. 

The  example  of  Trissino  was  followed  by  Rucellai  (1475- 
1525),  who  left  two  dramas,  "Rosamunda"  and  ''Orestes," 
written  in  blank  verse,  with  a  chorus,  much  resembling  the 
Greek  tragedies.  This  poet  used  much  more  license  with  his 
subject  than  Trissino  ;  his  plot  is  less  simple  and  pathetic,  but 
abounds  in  horror,  and  his  style  is  florid  and  rhetorical.  Tasso, 
Speroui  (1500-1588),  Gu'aldi  (1504-1573),  and  others,  at- 
tempted also  this  species  of  composition,  and  their  dramas  are 
considered  the  best  of  the  age. 

As  the  tragic  poets  of  this  century  servilely  imitated  Sopho- 
cles and  Euripides,  the  comic  writers  copied  Plautus  and 
Terence.  The  comedies  of  Ariosto,  of  which  there  are  five,  dis- 
play considerable  ingenuity  of  invention  and  an  elegant  vivacity 
of  language.  The  dramatic  works  of  Machiavelli  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  middle  comedy  of  the  Greeks.  They  depict  and 
satirize  contemporaneous  rather  than  obsolete  manners,  but  the 
characters  and  plots  awaken  little  interest. 

Bentivoglio  (1506-1573),  Salviati  (1540-1589),  Firenzuola 
(1493-1547),  Caro  (1507-1566),  Cardinal  Bibiena  (1470- 
1520),  Aretino  (1492-1556),  and  others,  are  among  the  princi- 
pal comic  writers  of  the  age,  who  displayed  more  or  less  dra- 
matic talent.  Of  all  the  Italian  comedies  composed  in  the 
16th  century,  however,  scarcely  one  was  the  work  of  eminent 
genius.  A  species  of  comic  drama,  known  under  the  name  of 
Commedia  delU  arte,  took  its  rise  in  this  century.  The  charac- 
teristic of  these  plays  is  that  the  story  only  belongs  to  the 
poet,  the  dialogue  being  improvised  by  the  actors.  The  four 
principal  characters  denominated  masks,  were  Pantaloon,  a  mer- 
chant of  Venice,  a  doctor  of  laws  from  Bolocna,  and  two  ser- 
vants  known  to  us  as  Harlequin  and  Columhiuc.  When  we 
add  to  these  a  couple  of  sons,  one  virtuous  and  the  other  profli- 
gate ;  a  couple  of  daughters,  and  a  pert,  intriguing  chamber- 


ITALIAN   LITERATURE.  221 

maid,  we  have  nearly  the  whole  draviatis  perso7icB  of  these  plays. 
The  extempore  dialogue  by  which  the  plot  was  developed  was 
replete  with  drollery  and  wit,  and  there  was  no  end  to  the 

novelty  of  the  jests. 

7.  Pastoral  Drama  and  Didactic  Poetry. — The  pastoral 
drama,  which  describes  characters  and  passions  in  their  primitive 
simphcity,  is  thus  distinguished  from  tragedy  and  comedy.  It  is 
probable  that  the  idyls  of  the  Greeks  afforded  the  first  germ 
of  this  species  of  composition,  but  Beccari,  a  poet  of  Ferrara 
(1510-1590),  is  considered  the  father  of  the  genuine  pastoral 
drama.  Before  him  Sannazzaro  (1458-1530)  had  written  the 
"Arcadia,"  which,  however,  bears  the  character  of  an  eclogue 
rather  than  that  of  a  drama.  It  is  WTitten  in  the  choicest 
Italian  ;  its  versification  is  melodious,  and  it  abounds  with 
beautiful  descriptions  ;  as  an  imitation  of  the  ancients,  it  is 
entitled  to  the  highest  rank.  The  beauty  of  the  Itahan  laud- 
scape  and  the  softness  of  the  Italian  climate  seem  naturally 
fitted  to  dispose  the  poetic  soul  to  the  dreams  of  rural  life,  and 
the  language  seems,  by  its  graceful  simplicity,  peculiarly  adapted 
to  express  the  feehngs  of  a  class  of  people  whom  we  picture  to 
ourselves  as  ino-enuous  and  infantine  in  their  natures.  The  man- 
ners  of  the  Italian  peasantry  are  more  truly  pastoral  than  those 
of  any  other  people,  and  a  bucolic  poet  in  that  fair  region  need 
not  wander  to  Arcadia.  But  Sannazzaro,  like  all  the  early 
pastoral  poets  of  Italy,  proposed  to  himself,  as  the  highest 
excellence,  a  close  imitation  of  Yirgil  ;  he  took  his  shepherds 
from  the  fabulous  ages  of  antiquity,  borrowed  the  mythology  of 
the  Greeks,  and  completed  the  machinery  with  fauns,  nymphs 
and  satyrs.  Like  Sannazzaro,  Beccari  place*  his  shepherds  in 
Arcadia,  and  invests  them  with  ancient  manners  ;  but  he  goes 
beyond  mere  dialogue  ;  he  connects  their  conversations  by  a 
series  of  dramatic  actions.  The  representation  of  one  of  these 
poems  incited  Tasso  to  the  composition  of  his  "  Aminta,"  the 
success  of  which  was  due  less  to  the  interest  of  the  story  than  to 
the  sweetness  of  the  poetry,  and  the  soft  voluptuousness  which 
breathes  in  every  line.  It  is  written  in  flowing  verse  of  various 
measures  without  rhyme,  and  enriched  with  lyric  choruses  of 
uncommon  beauty. 

The  imitations  of  the  Aminta  were  numerous,  but  with  one 
exception,  which  has  disputed  the  palm  with  its  model,  they  had 
an  ephemeual  existence.  Guarini  (1537-1612)  was  the  author 
of  the  "  Pastor  Fido,"  which  is  the  principal  monument  of  his 
genius  ;  its  chief  merit  lies  in  the  poetry  in  which  the  tale  ii 


222  ITALIAN    LITEPwATURE. 

embodied,  tlic  simplicity  and  clearness  of  the  diction,  the  tender- 
ness of  the  sentiments,  and  the  vehement  passion  which  gives 
life  to  the  whole.  This  drama  was  first  performed  in  1585  at 
Turin,  during  the  nuptial  festivities  of  the  prince  of  Savoy.  Its 
success  was  triumphant,  and  Guarini  was  justly  considered  as 
second  only  to  Tasso  among  the  poets  of  the  age.  Theatrical 
music,  which  was  now  beginning  to  be  cultivated,  found  its  way 
into  the  acts  of  the  pastoral  drama,  and  in  one  scene  of  the 
Pastor  Fido,  it  is  united  with  dancing  ;  thus  was  opened  the 
way  for  the  Italian  Opera. 

Among  the  didactic  poets,  R-ucellai  may  be  first  mentioned. 
His  poem  of  "  The  Bees  "  is  an  imitation  of  the  fourth  book 
of  the  Georgics  ;  he  does  not,  however,  servilely  follow  his 
model,  but  gives  an  original  coloring  to  that  which  he  borrowed. 
Alamanni  (1495-1556)  occupies  a  secondary  rank  among  epic, 
tragic  and  comic  poets,  but  merits  a  distinguished  place  in  di- 
dactic poetry.  His  poem  entitled  "  Cultivation  "  is  pure  and 
elegant  in  its  st^le. 

8.  Satirical  Poetry,  Novels  and  Tales. — In  an  age  when 
every  kind  of  poetry  that  had  flourished  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  appeared  again  with  new  lustre,  satire  was  not  want- 
ing. There  is  much  that  is  satirical  in  the  Divine  Comedy  of 
Dante.  Three  of  Petrarch's  sonnets  are  satires  on  the  court  of 
Rome  ;  those  of  Ariosto  are  valuable  not  only  for  their  flowing 
style,  but  for  the  details  they  afford  of  his  character,  taste  and 
circumstances.  The  satires  of  Alamanni  are  chiefly  political, 
and  in  general  are  characterized  by  purity  of  diction  and  by  a 
high  moral  tendency. 

There  is  a  kind  of  jocose  or  burlesque  satire  peculiar  to  Italy, 
and  in  which  the  literature  is  very  rich.  If  it  serves  the  cause 
of  wisdom,  it  is  always  in  the  mask  of  folly.  The  poet  who 
carried  this  kind  of  writing  to  the  highest  perfection,  was  Berni 
(1499-1536).  Comic  poetry,  hitherto  known  in  Italy  as  bur- 
lesque, of  which  Burcchiello  was  the  representative  in  the  15th 
century,  received  from  Berni  the  name  of  Bernesque,  in  its  more 
refined  and  elegant  character.  His  satirical  poems  are  full  of 
light  and  elegant  mockery,  and  his  style  possesses  nature  and 
comic  truth.  In  his  hand,  everything  was  transformed  into 
ridicule  ;  his  satu-e  is  almost  always  personal,  and  his  laughter 
is  not  always  restrained  by  respect  for  morals  or  for  decency. 
To  burlesque  poetry  may  be  referred  also  the  Macaronic  style, 
a  ludicrous  mixture  of  Latin  and  Italian,  introduced  bv  Merlino 
Coccajo  (1491-1544).     His  poems  are  as  full  of  lively  descri}> 


\ 


ITALIAN   LITER ATUKE.  225 

tions  and  piquant  satire,  as  tliey  are  wanting  in  decorum  and 
morality. 

The  story-tellers  of  tlie  16tli  century  are  numerous.  Some- 
times they  appear  as  followers  of  Boccaccio  ;  sometimes  they 
attempt  to  open  new  paths  for  themselves.  The  class  of  pro- 
ductions, of  which  tlie  "  Decameron"  was  the  earliest  example  in 
the  14th  century,  is  called  by  the  Itahans  "  Novelle."  In 
general,  the  interest  of  the  tale  depends  rather  on  a  number  of 
incidents  slighty  touched,  than  on  a  few  carefully  delineated  ; 
from  the  difiiculty  of  developing  character  in  a  few  isolated 
scenes,  the  story-teller  trusts  for  efl'ect  to  the  combination  of 
incident  and  style,  and  the  delineation  of  character,  which  is  the 
nobler  part  of  fiction,  is  neglected.  Italian  novelists,  too,  have 
often  regarded  the  incidents  themselves  but  as  a  vehicle  for  fine 
^vriting.  An  interesting  view  of  these  productions  is,  that  they 
form  a  vast  repository  of  incident,  in  which  we  recognize  the 
origin  of  much  that  has  since  appeared  in  our  own  and  other 
languages. 

Machiavelli  was  one  of  the  first  novelists  of  this  age.  His 
little  tale,  "  Belfagor,"  is  pleasantly  told,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  all  languages.  The  celebrated  "  Giulietta,"  of  Luigi 
da  Porta,  is  the  sole  production  of  the  author,  but  it  has  served 
to  give  him  a  high  place  among  Italian  novelists.  This  is 
Shakspeare's  Romeo  and  Juliet  in  another  shape,  though  it  is 
not  probable  that  it  was  the  immediate  source  from  which  the 
great  dramatist  collected  the  materials  for  his  tragedv.  The 
''Hundred  Tales"  of  Cinzio  Giraldi  (1504-1573)  are  distin- 
guished by  great  boldness  of  conception,  and  by  a  wild  and  tragic 
horror  which  commands  the  attention,  while  it  is  revolting  to 
the  feelings.  He  appears  to  have  ransacked  every  age  and 
country,  and  to  have  exhausted  the  catalogue  of  human  crimes 
in  procuring  subjects  for  his  novels. 

Grazzini,  called  Lasca  (1503-1583),  is  perhaps  the  best  of  the 
Italian  novelists  after  Boccaccio.  His  manner  is  light  and 
graceful.  His  stories  display  much  ingenuity,  but  are  often 
improbable  and  cruel  in  their  nature.  The  Fairy  Tales  of 
Strapparola  (b.  1500)  are  the  earliest  specimens  of  the  kind  in 
the  prose  literature  of  Italy,  and  this  work  has  been  a  perfect 
storehouse  from  which  succeeding  writers  have  derived  a  vast 
multitude  of  their  tales.  To  this,  also,  we  are  indebted  for  the 
legend  of  "  Fair  Star,"  "  Puss  in  Boots,"  "  Fortunio,"  and 
others  which  adorn  our  nursery  libraries. 

Firenzuola  (1493-1547)  occupies  a  high  rank  among  the 
Italian  novelists;  his   "Golden  Ass,"  from  Apuleius,  and  hia 


224  ITALIAN    LITERATUKE.. 

"  Discourses  of  Animals  "  arc  clistinguislied  for  their  originality 
and  purity  of  style. 

Bandello  (1480-1562)  is  the  novelist  best  known  to  foreigners, 
after  Boccaccio.  Shakspeare  and  other  English  dramatists  have 
drawn  largely  from  his  voluminous  writings.  His  talcs  are 
founded  upon  history  rather  than  fancy. 

9.  History. — Historical  composition  was  cultivated  with 
much  success  by  the  Italians  of  the  10th  century;  yet  such  was 
the  altered  state  of  things,  that,  except  at  Venice  and  Genoa, 
republics  had  been  superseded  by  princes,  and  republican 
authority  by  the  pomp  of  regal  courts.  Rome  was  a  nest  of 
intrigue,  luxury  and  corruption  ;  Tuscany  had  become  the  prey 
of  a  powerful  family ;  Lombardy  was  but  a  battle-field  for  the 
rival  powers  of  France  and  Germany,  and  the  lot  of  the  people 
was  oppression  and  humihation.  High  independence  of  mind, 
one  of  the  most  valuable  qualities  in  connection  with  historical 
research,  was  impossible  under  these  circumstances,  and  yet,  some 
of  the  Italian  writers  of  this  age  exhibit  genius,  strength  of 
character,  and  a  conscientious  sense  of  the  sacred  commission 
of  the  historian. 

Machiavclli  (1469-1527)  was  born  in  Florence  of  a  family 
which  had  enjoyed  the  first  offices  in  the  republic.  At  the  age 
of  thh'ty,  he  w^as  made  chancellor  of  the  state,  and  from  that, 
time  he  was  constantly  employed  in  public  affairs,  and  par- 
ticularly in  embassies.  Among  those  to  the  smaller  princes 
of  Italv,  the  one  of  the  longest  duration  was  to  Cnssar  Bors-ia, 
whom  he  narrowly  observed  at  the  very  important  period  when 
this  illustrious  villain  was  elevating  himself  by  his  crimes,  and 
whose  dial^olical  policy  he  had  thus  an  opportunity  of  studying. 
He  had  a  considerable  share  in  directing  the  counsels  of  the 
republic,  and  the  influence  to  which  he  owed  his  elevation  was 
that  of  the  free  party,  which  censured  the  power  of  the  Medici, 
and  at  that  time  held  them  in  exile.  When  the  latter  were 
recalled,  Machiavclli  was  dei)rived  of  all  his  offices  and 
banished.  He  then  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  the 
usurpers,  which  was  discovered,  and  he  was  put  to  the  torture, 
but  without  wresting  from  him  any  confession  which  could 
impeach  either  himself  or  those  who  had  confided  in  his  honor. 
Leo  X.,  on  his  elevation  to  the  pontificate,  restored  him  to 
liberty.  At  this  time  he  wrote  his  ''  History  of  Florence," 
in  which  he  united  eloquence  of  style  with  depth  of  reflection, 
and  which  is  an  elegant,  animated  and  picturesque  composition; 
but  it  is  not  the  fruit  of  much  research  and  industry. 


ITALIAN   LITEKATUEE.  225 

Before  this  history,  Machiavelli  wrote  his  discourses  on  the  first 
decade  of  Livy,  considered  his  best  work,  and  "  The  Art  of 
War,"  which  is  an  iuvaUiable  commentary  on  the  history  of  the 
times.  These  works  had  the  desired  effect  of  inducing  the 
Medici  family  to  use  the  poUtical  services  of  the  author,  and  at 
the  request  of  Leo  X.  he  wrote  his  essay  *^  On  the  Reform  of  the 
Florentine  Government." 

Guicciardini  (1483-1541),  the  friend  of  Machiavelli,  is  con- 
sidered the  greatest  historian  of  this  age.  He  was  born  of  an 
ancient  and  noble  family  of  Florence ;  at  an  early  age  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  law,  and  obtained  so  high  a  reputa- 
tion for  talent  and  prudence  that  the  government  confided  to  him 
several  important  diplomatic  commissions.  During  his  absence 
from  his  native  city,  the  Florentines  were  compelled  to  receive 
the  Medici.  Guicciardini  obtained  the  confidence  of  the  new 
rulers,  attached  himself  to  the  service  of  Leo  X.,  and  was  raised 
to  high  offices  and  honors  by  him  and  the  two  succeeding  popes. 
On  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici  from  Florence,  the  republican 
party  having  obtained  the  ascendency,  he  was  obliged  to  fly  from 
the  city.  From  this  time  he  manifested  an  utter  abhorrence  of 
all  popular  institutions,  and  threw  himself  heart  and  soul  into  the 
interests  of  the  Medici.  He  displayed  his  zeal  at  the  expense  of 
the  lives  and  liberties  of  the  most  vh'tuous  among  his  fellow-citi- 
zens. Having  aided  in  the  elevation  of  Cosmo,  afterwards  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  being  requited  with  ingratitude  and 
neglect,  he  retired  in  disgust  from  public  life,  and  devoted  him- 
self wholly  to  the  completion  of  his  history  of  Italy.  This  work, 
which  is  a  monument  of  his  genius  and  industry,  commences  with 
the  coming  of  Charles  VIII.  to  Italy,  and  concludes  with  the 
year  1534,  embracing  one  of  the  most  important  periods  of 
Itahan  history.  His  powerfully-drawn  pictures  exhibit  the  men 
and  the  times  so  vividly,  that  they  seem  to  pass  before  our  eyes. 
His  delineations  of  character,  his  masterly  views  of  the  course  of 
events,  the  conduct  of  leaders  and  the  changes  of  war,  claim  our 
highest  admiration.  His  faults  are  occasional  proUxity  in  de- 
scribing incidents  of  minor  interest,  and  the  too  frequent  introduc- 
tion and  unnatural  length  of  the  speeches  which  he  puts  into  the 
mouths  of  his  characters.  His  language  is  pure  and  his  style 
elegant,  though  sometimes  too  Latinized. 

Numberless  historians,  of  more  or  less  merit,  stimulated  by  the 
renown  of  Machiavelli  and  Guicciardini,  composed  annals  of  the 
states  to  which  they  belonged,  while  others  undertook  to  write 
the  histories  of  foreign  nations.  Xardi  (1496-1556),  one  of  the 
most  ardent  and  pure  patriots  of  his  age,  takes  the  first  place. 

10* 


226  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

He  wrote  the  liistory  of  the  Florcnthie  Revolution  of  152t,  a 
v,^ork  which,  though  defective  in  style,  is  distinguished  for  its 
truthfulness.  The  histories  of  Florence  by  Adriani,  Yarchi,  and 
Segni  (1499-1559),  are  considered  the  best  works  of  their  kind, 
for  elegance  of  style  and  for  interest  of  the  narrative.  Almost 
all  the  other  cities  of  Italy  had  their  historians,  but  the  palm 
must  be  awarded  to  the  Florentine  writers,  not  only  on  account 
of  their  number,  but  for  the  elegance  and  purity  of  their  style, 
for  their  impartiality  and  the  sagacity  of  their  research  into 
matters  of  fact.  Among  the  writers  of  the  second  class  may  be 
mentioned  Davanzati  (1519),  the  translator  of  Tacitus,  who 
wrote,  in  the  Florentine  dialect,  a  history  of  the  schism  of  Eng- 
land; Giambullari  (1495-1564),  who  wrote  a  history  of  Europe; 
D'Anghiera  (fl.  1536),  who,  after  having  examined  the  papers  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  and  the  official  reports  transmitted  from 
America  to  Spain,  compiled  an  interesting  work  on  "  Ocean 
Navigation  and  the  New  World."  His  style  is  incorrect;  but  this 
is  compensated  for  by  the  fidelity  of  his "  narration.  Several  of 
the  German  States,  France,  the  Netherlands,  Poland,  Hun- 
gary, and  the  East  Indies,  found  Italian  authors  in  this  age 
to  digest  and  arrange  their  chronicles,  and  give  them  historical 
form. 

To  this  period  belong  also  the  "  Lives  of  the  Most  Celebrated 
Artists,"  written  by  Vasari  (1512-1574),  himself  a  distinguished 
artist,  a  work  highly  interesting  for  its  subject  and  style,  and 
the  Autobiography  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  (b.  1500),  one  of  the 
most  curious  works  which  was  ever  written  in  any  language. 

10.  Grammar  axd  Rhetoric. — The  Italian  language  was 
used  both  in  writing  and  conversation  for  three  centuries  be- 
fore its  rules  and  principles  were  reduced  to  a  scientific  form. 
Rembo  was  the  first  scholar  who  establislied  the  grammar. 
Grammatical  writings  and  researches  were  soon  multiplied 
and  extended.  Salviati  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  gram- 
marians of  the  16th  century,  and  Buonmattei  and  Cinonio 
of  the  17th.  But  the  progress  in  this  study  was  due  less 'to 
the  grammarians,  than  to  the  Didionai-y  ddla  Crusca.  Among 
the  scholars  who  took  part  in  the  exercises  of  the  Floren- 
tine Academy,  founded  by  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  there  were  some 
who,  dissatisfied  with  the  philosophical  disputations  which  were 
the  object  of  this  institution,  organized  another  association  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  a  new  impulse  to  the  study  of  the  language. 
This  academy,  inaugurated  in  1587,  was  called  ddla  Crusca, 
literally,  of  the  Iran.     The  object  of  this  new  association  being 


ITALIAX    LITERATURE.  227 

to  sift  all  impurities  from  the  language,  a  sieve,  the  emblem  of 
the  academy,  was  placed  in  the  hall;  the  members  at  their  meet- 
ings sat  on  flour-barrels,  and  the  chair  of  the  presiding  officer 
stood  on  three  mill-stones.  The  first  work  of  the  academy  was 
to  compile  a  universal  dictionary  of  the  Italian  language,  which 
was  published  in  1612.  Though  the  Dictionary  delta  Crusca 
was  conceived  in  an  exclusive  spirit,  and  admitted,  as  linguistic 
authorities,  only  writers  of  the  14th  century,  belonging  to  Tus- 
cany, it  contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  the  Italian 
tongue. 

Every  university  of  Italy  boasted  in  the  16th  century  of  some 
celebrated  rhetoricians,  all  of  whom,  however,  were  overshadowed 
by  Yettori  (1499-1585),  distinguished  for  the  editions  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  classics  published  under  his  superintendence, 
and  for  his  commentaries  on  the  rhetorical  books  of  Aristotle. 
B.  Cavalcanti  (1503-1562)  was  also  celebrated  in  this  depart- 
ment, and  his  "Rhetoric"  is  the  best  work  of  the  age  on  that 
subject. 

The"  oratory  of  this  period  is  very  imperfect.  Orations  were 
written  in  the  style  of  Boccaccio,  which,  however  suitable  for 
the  narration  of  merry  tales,  is  entirely  unfit  for  oratorical 
compositions.  Among  those  who  most  distinguished  them- 
selves in  this  department  are  Delia  Casa  (1503-1556),  whose 
harangues  against  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  are  full  of  elo- 
quence ;  Speroni  (1500-1588),  whose  style  is  more  perfect 
than  that  of  any  other  writer  of  the  16th  century  ;  and 
Lollio  (d.  1568),  whose  orations  are  the  most  polished.  At 
that  time,  in  the  forum  of  Venice,  eloquent  orators  pleaded  the 
causes  of  the  citizens,  and  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  cen- 
tury, Savonarola  (1452-1498),  a  preacher  of  Florence,  thundered 
against  the  abuses  of  the  Roman  church,  and  suffered  death  in 
consequence.  Among  the  models  of  letter-writing,  Caro  takes 
the  first  place.  His  familiar  letters  are  written  with  that 
graceful  elegance  which  becomes  this  kind  of  composition.  The 
letters  of  Tasso  are  full  of  eloquence  and  philosophy,  and  are 
written  in  the  most  select  Italian. 

11.  Science,  Philosophy  and  Politics. — The  sciences,  during 
this  period,  went  hand  in  hand  with  poetry  and  history.  Libra- 
ries and  other  aids  to  learning  were  multiplied,  and  academies 
were  organized  with  other  objects  than  those  of  enjoyment  of 
mere  poetical  triumphs  or  dramatic  amusements.  The  Academy 
del  Cimento  was  founded  at  Florence  in  1657  by  Leopold  de' 
Medici,  for  promoting  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  and  similar 


228  ITALIAN    LITERATUKE. 

institutions  were  established  in  Rome,  Bologna  and  ISTaples,  and 
other  cities  of  Italy,  besides  the  Royal  Academy  of  London 
(1G60),  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  (1CG6).  From 
the  period  of  the  first  institution  of  universities,  that  of  Bologna 
had  maintained  its  preeminence.  Padua,  Ferrara,  Pavia,  Turin, 
Florence,  Siena,  Pisa,  and  Rome  were  also  seats  of  learning. 
The  men  who  directed  the  scientific  studies  of  their  country  and 
of  Europe  were  almost  universally  attached  as  professors  to  these 
institutions.  Indeed,  at  this  period,  through  the  genius  of  Galileo 
and  his  school,  European  science  first  dawned  in  Italy.  Galileo 
(1564-1641)  was  a  native  of  Pisa,  and  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  university  of  that  city.  Being  obliged  to  leave  it  on  ac- 
count of  his  scientific  opinions,  at  that  time  at  variance  with 
universally  received  principles,  he  removed  to  the  university  of 
Padua,  where  for  eighteen  years  he  enjoyed  the  high  considera- 
tion of  his  countrymen.  He  returned  to  Pisa,  and  at  the  age  of 
seventy  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  the  Inquisition,  and  required 
to  renounce  his  doctrines  relative  to  the  Coperuican  system,  of 
which  he  was  a  zealous  defender,  and  his  hfe  was  spared  only  on 
condition  of  his  abjuring  his  opinions.  It  is  said  that  on  rising 
from  his  knees,  after  making  the  abjuration  of  his  belief  that 
the  earth  moved  round  the  sun,  he  stamped  his  foot  on  the 
floor  and  said  :  "It  does  move,  though."  To  Galileo  science  is 
indebted  for  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  weight,  the  scientific 
construction  of  the  system  of  Copernicus,  the  pendulum,  the  im- 
provement of  many  scientific  instruments,  the  invention  of  the 
hydrostatic  balance,  the  thermometer,  proportional  compasses, 
and,  above  all,  the  telescope.  He  discovered  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter,  tlie  phases  of  Yenus,  the  mountains  of  tlie  moon,  the 
spots  and  the  rotation  of  the  sun.  Science,  which  had  consisted 
for  centuries  only  of  scholastic  subtleties  and  barren  dialectics, 
he  established  on  an  experimental  basis.  In  his  works  he  unites 
delicacy  and  purity  with  vivacity  of  style. 

Among  the  scholars  of  Galileo,  who  most  efficaciously  contri- 
buted to  the  progress  of  science,  may  be  mentioned  Torricelli 
(1608-1647),  the  inventor  of  the  barometer,  an  elegant  and 
profound  writer  ;  Borelli  (1608-1679),  the  founder  of  animal 
mechanics,  or  the  science  of  the  movements  of  animals,  distin- 
guished for  his  works  on  astronomy,  mathematics,  anatomy,  and 
natural  philosophy  ;  Cassini  (1625-1712),  a  celebrated  astrono- 
mer, to  whom  France  is  indebted  for  its  meridian  ;  Cavalieri 
(1598-1648),  distinguished  for  his  works  on  geometry,  which 
paved  the  way  to  the  discovery  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus. 

In  the  scientific  department  of  the  earlier  part  of  this  period 


ITALIAN    LITERATURE.  229 

may  also  be  mentioned  Tartaglia  (d.  165t)  and  Cardano  (1501- 
1576),  celebrated  for  their  researches  on  algebra  and  geometry; 
Tignola  (1507-1573)  and  Palladio  (1518-1580),  whose  works 
on  architecture  are  still  held  in  high  estimation,  as  well  as  the 
work  of  Marchi  (fl.  1550)  on  mihtary  construction.  Later, 
Redi  (1626-1697)  distinguished  himself  as  a  natural  philosopher, 
a  physician  and  elegant  writer,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  and  Mal- 
pighi  (1628-1694)  and  Bellini  (164:3-1704)  were  anatomists  of 
high  repute.  Scamozzi  (1550-1616)  emulated  the  glory  formerly 
won  by  Palladio  in  architecture,  and  Montecuccoii  (1608-1681), 
a  great  general  of  the  age,  ably  illustrated  the  art  of  strategy. 

The  16th  century  abounds  in  philosophers  who,  abandonding 
the  doctrines  of  Plato,  which  had  been  in  great  favor  in  the 
15th,  adopted  those  of  Aristotle.  Some,  however,  dared  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  philosophical  authority,  and  to  walk  in 
new  paths  of  speculation.  Patrizi  (1529-1597)  was  one  of  the 
tirst  who  undertook  to  examine  for  himself  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  and  to  attack  the  authority  of  Aristotle.  Telesio 
(1509-1588),  a  friend  of  Patrizi,  joined  him  in  the  work  of 
overthrowing  the  Peripatetic  idols  ;  but  neither  of  them  dared 
to  renounce  entirely  the  authority  of  antiquity.  The  glory 
of  having  claimed  absolute  freedom  in  philosophical  speculation 
belongs  to  Cardano,  already  mentioned,  to  Campanella  (1568- 
1639),  who  for  the  boldness  of  his  opinions  was  put  to  the 
torture  and  spent  thirty  years  in  prison,  and  to  Giordano  Bruno 
(1550-1600),  a  subhme  thinker  and  a  bold  champion  of  freedom, 
who  was  burned  at  the  stake. 

Among  the  n^oral  philosophers  of  this  age  may  be  mentioned 
Speroni,  whose  writings  are  distinguished  by  harmony,  freedom 
and  eloquence  of  style  ;  Tasso,  whose  dialogues  unite  loftiness  of 
thought  with  elegance  of  style  ;  Castiglione  (1468-1529), 
whose  "Cortigiano"  is  in  equal  estimation  as  a  manual  of  ele- 
gance of  manners  and  as  a  model  of  pure  Italian,  and  Delia  Casa, 
whose  ''  Galateo  "  is  a  complete  system  of  politeness,  couched  in 
elegant  language,  and  a  work  to  which  Lord  Chesterfield  was 
much  indebted. 

Political  science  had  its  greatest  representative  in  Machiavclli, 
who  wrote  on  it  with  that  profound  knowledge  of  the  human 
heart  which  he  had  acquired  in  public  life,  and  with  the  habit  of 
unweaving,  in  all  its  intricacies,  the  pohtical  perfidy  which  then 
prevailed  in  Italy.  The  "  Prince  "  is  the  best  known  of  his  politi- 
cal works,  and  from  the  infamous  principles  which  he  has  here 
developed,  though  probably  with  good  intentions,  his  name  is 
allied  with   everything  false   and   perfidious   in   politics.     The 


230  ITALIAN    I-ITEKATUEE. 

o])jcct  of  the  treatise  is  to  show  how  a  new  prince  may  estabhsh 
and  consolidate  his  power,  and  how  the  Medici  might  not  only 
confirm  their  authority  in  Florence,  but  extend  it  over  the 
whole  of  the  Peninsula.  At  the  time  that  Machiavelli  wrote, 
Italy  had  been  for  centuries  a  theatre  where  might  was  the  only 
right.  He  was  not  a  man  given  to  illusive  fancies,  and  through- 
out a  long  political  career  nothing  had  been  permitted  to  escape 
his  keen  and  penetrating  eye.  In  all  the  affairs  in  which  he 
had  taken  part  he  had  seen  that  success  was  the  only  thing 
studied,  and  therefore  to  succeed  in  an  enterprise,  by  whatever 
means,  had  become  the  fundamental  idea  of  his  political  theory. 
His  Prince  reduced  to  a  science  the  art,  long  before  known  and 
practised  by  kings  and  tyrants,  of  attaining  absolute  power  by 
deception  and  cruelty,  and  of  maintaining  it  afterwards  by  the 
dissimulation  of  leniency  and  virtue.  It  does  not  appear  that 
any  exception  was  at  first  taken  to  the  doctrines  which  have 
since  called  forth  such  severe  reprehension,  and  from  the  mo- 
ment of  its  appearance  the  Prince  became  a  favorite  at  every 
court.  But  soon  after  the  death  of  Machiavelli,  a  violent  out- 
cry was  raised  against  him,  and  although  it  was  first  heard 
with  amazement,  it  soon  became  general.  The  Prince  was  laid 
under  the  ban  of  several  successive  popes,  and  the  name  of 
Machiavelli  passed  into  a  proverb  of  infamy.  His  bones  lay 
undistinguished  for  nearly  two  centuries,  when  a  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  through  the 
influence  of  an  English  nobleman. 

12.  Decline  of  tj^e  Literature  ix  the  I^th  Century. 
— The  IGth  century  reaped  the  fruits  that  had  been  sown  in 
the  15th,  but  it  scattered  no  seeds  for  a  harvest  in  the  17th, 
which  was  therefore  doomed  to  general  sterility.  In  the 
reigns  of  Charles  V.  and  Philij)  II.  the  chains  of  civil  and  re- 
ligious despotism  were  forged  which  subdued  the  intellect  and 
arrested  the  genius  of  the  people.  The  Spanish  viceroys  ruled 
with  an  iron  hand  over  Milan,  Naples,  Sicily  and  Sardinia. 
Poverty  and  superstition  wasted  and  darkened  the  minds  of  the 
people,  and  indolence  and  love  of  pleasure  introduced  almost 
universal  degeneracy.  But  the  Spanish  yoke,  which  weighed  so 
heavily  at  both  extremities  of  the  Peninsula,  did  not  extend  to 
the  republic  of  Yenice,  or  to  the  duchy  of  Tuscany  ;  and  the 
heroic  character  of  the  princes  of  Savoy  alone  would  have 
served  to  throw  a  lustre  over  this  otherwise  darkened  period. 
In  literature,  too,  there  were  a  few  who  resisted  the  torrent  of 
b»<d  taste,  amidst  many  who  opened  the  way  for  a  crowd  of  fol- 


ITALIAN    LITERATURE.  231 

lowers  iu  the  false  route,  and  gave  to  the  age  that  character  of 
extravagance  for  which  it  is  so  peculiarly  distinguished. 

The  literary  works  of  the  17  th  century  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  the  first  of  which,  under  the  guidance  of  Marini, 
attained  the  lowest  degree  of  corruption,  and  remain  in  the 
annals  of  literature  as  monuments  of  bombastic  style  and  bad 
taste.  The  second  embraces  those  writers  who  were  aware  of 
the  faults  of  the  school  to  which  they  belonged,  and  who,  while 
they  endeavored  to  follow  a  better  style,  partook  more  or  less 
of  the  character  of  this  age.  To  this  class  may  be  referred 
Chiabrera,  already  named,  and  more  particularly  Filicaja  and 
other  poets  of  the  same  school.  The  third  class  is  composed  of  a 
few  writers  who  preserved  themselves  faithful  to  the  principles 
of  true  taste,  and  among  them  are  Menzini,  Salvator  Rosa,  Redi, 
and  more  particularly  TassonL 

13.  Eric  AND  Lyric  Poetry. — Marini  (1569-1625),  the 
celebrated  innovator  on  classic  Italian  taste,  is  considered  as 
the  first  who  seduced  the  poets  of  the  ITth  century  into  a 
labored  and  affected  style.  He  was  born  at  Naples  and  edu- 
cated for  the  legal  profession,  for  which  he  had  httle  taste,  and 
on  pubhshing  a  volume  of  poems,  his  indignant  father  turned  him 
out  of  doors.  But  his  popular  qualities  never  left  him  without 
friends.  He  was  invited  to  the  Court  of  France,  obtained  the 
favor  of  Mary  de'  Medici,  and  the  situation  of  gentleman  to  the 
king.  He  became  exceedingly  popular  among  the  French 
nobility,  many  of  whom  learned  Italian  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
reading  his  works.  It  was  here  that  he  published  the  most 
celebrated  of  his  poems,  entitled  "Adonis."  He  afterwards 
purchased  a  beautiful  villa  near  Naples,  to  which  he  retired,  and 
where  he  soon  after  died.  The  "  Adonis  "  of  Marini  is  a  mixture 
of  the  epic  and  the  romantic  style,  the  subject  being  taken  from  the 
well-known  story  of  Venus  and  Adonis.  He  renounced  all  keep- 
ing and  probability,  both  in  his  incidents  and  descriptions;  if  he 
could  present  a  series  of  enchanting  pictures,  he  was  little  soli- 
citous as  to  the  manner  of  their  arrangement.  But  the  work  has 
much  beauty  and  imagination,  and  is  often  animated  by  the 
true  spirit  of  poetry.  Its  principal  faults  are  that  it  is  sadly 
wire-drawn,  and  abounds  in  puns,  endless  antitheses  .and  in- 
ventions for  surprising  or  bewildering  the  reader;  graces  which 
were  greatly  admired  by  the  contemporaries  of  the  poet.  Marini 
was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  was  not  only  extolled  in  his  own 
country  above  its  classic  authors,  and  in  France,  but  the 
Spaniards  held  him  in  the  highest  esteem,  and  imitated  and  even 


232  ITALIAN   LITEKATUHE. 

surpassed  him  in  his  own  eccentric  career.  He  had  also  innumera' 
ble  imitators  in  Italy,  many  of  whom  attained  a  high  reputation 
during  their  lives,  and  afterwards  sunk  into  complete  oblivion. 

Fiiicaja  (1G42-1709)  stands  at  the  head  of  the  lyric  poets 
of  the  17  th  century.  His  inspiration  seems  first  to  have 
been  awakened  when  Vienna  was  besieged  by  the  Turks  in 
1683,  and  gallantly  defended  by  the  Christian  powers.  His 
verses  on  this  occasion  awoke  the  most  enthusiastic  admiration, 
and  called  forth  the  eulogies  of  princes  and  poets.  The  admira- 
tion which  he  excited  in  his  day,  is  scarcely  to  be  wondered  at  ; 
for,  though  this  judgment  has  not  been  ratified  by  posterity, 
Fiiicaja  has  at  least  the  merit  of  having  raised  the  poetry  of 
Italy  from  the  abject  service  of  mere  amorous  imbecility  to  the 
noble  office  of  embodying  the  more  manly  and  virtuous  senti- 
ments ;  and  though  his  style  is  infected  with  the  bombastic  spirit 
of  the  age,  it  is  even  in  this  respect  singularly  moderate,  com- 
pared with  that  of  his  contemporaries, 

14.  Mock  Heroic  Poetry,  the  Drama  and  Satire. — The 
full  maturity  of  the  st3de  of  mock-heroic  poetry  is  due  to 
Tassoni  (15G5-1635).  He  first  attracted  public  notice  by  dis- 
puting the  authority  of  Aristotle,  and  the  poetical  merits  of 
Petrarch.  In  1622,  he  published  his  "  Rape  of  the  Bucket,"  a 
burlesque  poem  on  the  petty  wars  which  were  so  common  be- 
tween the  towns  of  Italy  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  The 
heroes  of  Modena  had,  in  1325,  discomfited  the  Bolognese,  and 
pursued  them  to  the  very  heart  of  their  city,  whence  they  carried 
off,  as  a  trophy  of  their  victory,  the  bucket  belonging  to  the 
public  well.  Tlie  expedition,  undertaken  by  tlie  Bolognese  for 
its  recovery,  forms  the  basis  of  the  twelve  mock-heroic  cantos  of 
Tassoni.  To  understand  this  poem  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
vulgarisms  and  idioms  which  are  frequently  introduced  in  it. 

About  the  same  period,  Bracciolini  (1566-1645)  produced 
another  comic-heroic  poem,  entitled  the  "Ridicule  of  the  Gods," 
in  which  the  ancient  deities  are  introduced  as  mingling  with  the 
peasants,  and  declaiming  in  the  low,  vulgar  dialect,  and  making 
themselves  most  agreeably  ridiculous.  Somewhat  later,  appeared 
one  more  example  of  the  same  species  of  epic,  "The  Malmantile," 
by  Lippi  (1606-1664).  This  poem  is  considered  a  pure  model 
of  the  dialect  of  the  Florentines,  which  is  so  graceful  and  har- 
monious even  in  its  homeliness. 

The  17th  century  was  remarkable  for  the  prodigious  number 
of  its  dramatic  authors,  but  few  of  them  equalled  and  none  ex- 
celled those  of  the  preceding  age.     The  opera,  or  melo-drama, 


ITALIAN   LITERATURE.  233 

wliicli  bad  arisen  out  of  the  pastoral,  seemed  to  monopolize 
whatever  talent  was  at  the  disposal  of  the  stage,  and  branches 
formerly  cultivated  sank  below  mediocrity.  Amid  the  crowd  of 
theatrical  corrupters,  the  name  of  Andreini  (15*14-1652)  de- 
serves peculiar  mention,  not  from  any  claim  to  exemption  from 
the  general  censure,  but  because  his  comedy  of  "  Adam  "  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  foundation  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost." 
Andreuii  was  but  one  of  the  common  throng  of  dramatic 
writers,  and  it  has  been  fiercely  contended  by  some,  that  it  is 
impossible  that  the  idea  of  so  sublime  a  poem  should  have  been 
taken  from  so  ordinary  a  composition  as  his  '*  Adam."  His 
piece  was  represented  at  Milan  as  early  as  1613,  and  so  has  at 
least  the  claim  of  priority. 

Menzini  (1646-1708)  and  Salvator  Rosa  (1615-1675)  were 
the  representatives  of  the  satire  of  this  century  ;  the  former 
distinguished  for  the  purity  of  his  language  and  the  harmony 
of  his  verse  ;  the  latter  for  his  vivacity  and  sprightliness. 

15.  History  and  Epistolary  Writings. — The  number  of  his- 
torical works  in  this  century  is  much  greater  than  in  that  of  the 
preceding,  but  they  are  generally  far  from  possessing  the  same 
merit  or  commanding  the  same  interest.  The  historians  seem  to 
have  lost  all  feeling  of  national  dignity  ;  they  do  not  venture  to 
unveil  the  causes  of  pubhc  events,  or  to  indicate  their  results. 
Even  those  that  dared  treat  of  Italy  or  its  provinces,  confined 
themselves  to  the  reio-nino-  dvnasties,  and  overlooking:  the  causes 
which  most  deeply  affected  the  happiness  of  the  people,  described 
only  the  festivities,  battles  and  triumphs  of  their  princes.  A 
large  number  of  historians  chose  foreign  subjects  ;  the  history 
of  France  was  remarkable  for  the  number  of  Italians  who  en- 
deavored to  relate  it  in  this  age.  Tlfe  work  of  Davila  (1576- 
1630)  on  ''The  Civil  Wars  of  France,"  however,  throws  all 
the  rest  into  the  shade.  What  gives  to  it  peculiar  value  is 
the  carefulness  with  which  the  materials  were  collected,  in  con- 
nection with  the  opportunities  its  author  enjoyed  for  gaining 
information.  This  history  is  considered  as  superior  to  that  of 
Guicciardini  in  its  matter,  as  the  latter  excels  it  in  style.  It  is 
v\'anting  in  that  elegance  which  characterized  the  Florentine 
historians  of  the  16th  century.  Bentivoglio  (1579-1644)  was  an 
eminent  rival  of  Davila  ;  he  wrote  the  history  of  the  civil  wars 
of  Flanders  ;  a  work  remarkable  for  the  elegance  and  correct- 
ness of  its  style.  Above  all,  stand  the  works  of  Sarpi,  who  lived 
betv/een  1552  and  1623,  and  who  defended  with  great  courage 
the  authority  of  the  Senate  of  Venice  agamst  the  power  of  the 


234  ITALIAN    LITERATURE. 

Popes,  notwitlistaiicling  their  excommunication  and  continued 
persecution.  His  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent  contains  a 
curious  account  of  the  intrigues  of  the  Court  of  Home  at  the 
period  of  the  Reformation. 

It  was  chiefly  in  the  more  showy  departments  of  hterature 
that  the  extravagance  of  the  Marinists  was  most  conspicuous, 
and  the  decay  of  native  genius  was  most  apparent.  But  this 
genius  had  turned  into  other  paths,  which  it  pursued  with  a 
steady,  though  less  brilliant  course.  Of  all  branches  of  prose 
composition,  the  epistolary  was  the  most  carefully  cultivated. 
The  talent  for  letter-writing  was  often  the  means  of  considerable 
emolument,  as  all  the  petty  princes  of  Italy  and  the  cardinals  of 
Rome  were  ambitious  of  having  secretaries  who  would  give 
them  eclat  in  their  correspondence,  and  these  situations,  which 
were  steps  to  higher  preferment,  were  eagerly  sought  ;  hence 
the  prodigious  number  of  collections  of  letters  which  have  at  all 
times  inundated  Italy — specimens  by  which  those  who  believed 
themselves  elegant  writers  endeavored  to  make  known  their 
talent.  The  letters  of  Bentivoglio  have  obtained  European 
celebrity.  They  are  distinguished  for  elegance  of  style  as  well 
as  for  the  interest  of  those  historical  recollections  which  they 
transmit;  they  are  considered  superior  to  his  history.  But 
of  all  the  letters  of  this  or  of  the  preceding  age,  none  are 
more  rich,  more  varied,  or  more  pleasing  than  those  of  Redi, 
who  threw  into  this  form  his  discoveries  in  natural  history. 
The  driest  subjects,  even  those  of  language  and  grammar,  are 
here  treated  in  an  interesting  and  agreeable  manner. 


PERIOD  THIRD. 

The  second  revival  of  Itaijax   Literature,  and  its  present 

CONDITION  (1675-1859). 

1.  Historical  development  of  the  third  period. — At  the 
close  of  the  17th  century,  a  new  dawn  arose  in  the  history  of 
Italian  letters,  and  the  general  corruption  which  had  extended 
to  every  branch  of  literature  and  paralyzed  the  Italian  mind, 
began  to  be  arrested  by  the  appearance  of  writers  of  better 
taste  ;  the  affectations  of  the  Marinists  and  of  the  so-called 
Arcadian  poets  were  banished  from  literature  ;  science  was  ele- 
vated and  its  dominion  extended,  the  melodrama,  comedy  and 
tragedy  re-created,  and  a  new  spirit  infused  into  every  branch  of 
composition.     Amidst  the  clash  of  arms  and  the  vicissitudes  of 


ITALIAN    LITERATURE.  235 

long  and  bloody  wars,  Italy  began  to  awake  from  her  lethargy, 
to  the  aspiration  for  greater  and  better  things,  and  her  intel- 
lectual condition  soon  underwent  important  changes  and 
improvements.  In  the  18th  century,  in  Naples,  Yico  trans- 
formed history  into  a  new  science.  Cirillo  distinguished  himself 
in  medical  science,  Mazzocchi  in  archcoloffv,  Genovesi  and 
Galiani  in  political  economy  ;  Filangeri  contended  with  Mon- 
tesquieu for  the  palm  of  legislative  philosophy ;  and  new  hght 
was  thrown  on  criminal  science  by  Mario  Pagano.  In  Rome, 
letters  and  science  flourished  under  the  patronage  of  Benedict 
XIY., Clement  XIV.,  and  Pius  YI.,  under  whose  auspices  Quirico 
Visconti  undertook  his  "  Pio  Clementine  Museum "  and  his 
"  Greek  and  Roman  Iconography,"  the  two  greatest  archeo- 
logical  works  of  all  ages.  Padua  was  immortalized  by  the 
works  of  Cesarotti,  Belzoni  and  Stratico  ;  Venice  by  Goldoni ; 
Verona  by  Mafifei,  the  critic  and  the  antiquarian,  as  well  as  the 
first  reformer  of  Italian  tragedy.  Tuscany  took  the  lead  of  the 
intellectual  movement  of  the  country  under  Leopold  and  his  suc- 
cessor Ferdinand,  when  Florence,  Pisa  and  Siena  again  became 
seats  of  learning  and  of  poetry  and  the  arts.  Maria  Theresa  and 
Joseph  II.  fostered  the  intellectual  progress  of  Lombardy; 
Spallanzani  published  his  researches  on  natural  philosophy; 
Volta  discovered  the  pile  which  bears  his  name  ;  a  new  era  in 
poetry  was  created  by  Parini ;  another  in  criminal  jurisprudence 
by  Beccaria  ;  history  was  reconstructed  by  Muratori ;  mathe- 
matics promoted  by  Lagrange,  and  astronomy  by  Oriani ;  and 
Alfieri  restored  Italian  letters  to  then*  primitive  splendor. 

At  the  close  of  the  18th  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th, 
Italy  became  the  theatre  of  political  and  military  revolutions, 
whose  influence  could  not  fail  to  prove  fatal  to  the  literature  of 
the  country.  The  galleries,  museums,  and  the  libraries  of  Rome, 
Florence,  and  other  cities,  were  despoiled  by  military  vandalism, 
and  all  their  treasures,  manuscripts  and  masterpieces  of  art 
carried  to  Paris  as  trophies  of  the  victories  of  Napoleon  ;  the 
entire  peninsula  was  subject  to  French  influence,  which,  though 
beneficial  to  its  material  progress,  could  not  fail  to  be  detri- 
mental to  national  literature.  All  new  works  were  composed 
in  French,  and  indifferent  or  bad  translations  from  the  French 
were  widely  circulated  ;  the  French  language  was  substituted 
for  the  Italian,  and  the  national  literature  seemed  about  to  dis- 
appear. But  Italian  genius  was  not  wholly  extinguished  ; 
a  few  writers,  among  whom  was  Monti,  powerfully  opposed  this 
new  tendency,  and  preserved  in  its  purity  the  language  of  Dante 
and  Petrarch.     Gradually  the  national  spirit  revived,  and  litera- 


230  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

ture  was  again  moulded  in  accordance  with  the  national  charac- 
ter. Notwithstanding  the  political  calamities  of  which,  since 
the  treaty  of  Yienna  in  1815,  Italy  has  been  continually  the 
victim,  the  literature  of  the  country  has  awakened  and  fostered 
a  sentiment  of  nationality,  and  Italian  independence  is  at  this 
present  moment  the  aspiration  of  the  entire  people. 

2.  The  Melodrama. — The  first  result  of  the  revival  of  letters 
at  the  close  of  the  17th  century,  was  the  reform  of  the  theatre. 
The  melodrama,  or  Italian  opera,  arose  out  of  the  pastoral 
drama,  which  it  superseded.  The  astonishing  progress  of  musical 
science  succeeded  that  of  poetry  and  sculpture,  which  fell  into 
decline  with  the  decay  of  literature.  Music,  rising  into  excel- 
lence and  importance  at  a  time  when  poetry  was  on  the  decline, 
acquired  such  superiority,  that  verse,  instead  of  being  its  mistress, 
became  its  handmaid.  The  first  occasion  of  this  inversion  was 
in  the  year  1594,  when  Kinuccini,  a  Florentine  poet,  associated 
himself  with  three  musicians  to  compose  a  mythological  drama. 
This  and  several  other  pieces  by  the  same  author  met  with  a 
brilliant  reception.  Poetry,  written  only  in  order  to  be  sung, 
thus  assumed  a  different  character  ;  Rinuccini  abandoned  the 
form  of  the  canzone  which  had  hitherto  been  used  in  the  lyrical 
part  of  the  drama,  and  adopted  the  Pindaric  ode.  Many  poets 
followed  in  the  same  path  ;  more  action  was  given  to  the 
dramatic  parts,  and  greater  variety  to  the  music,  in  which  the 
airs  were  agreeablv  blended  with  the  recitative  duets  ;  and  other 
harmonized  pieces  were  also  added,  and  after  the  lapse  of  a 
century,  Apostolo  Zeno  (1669-1750)  still  further  improved  the 
melodrama.  But  it  was  the  spirit  of  Metastasio  that  breathed 
a  soul  of  fire  into  this  ingenious  and  happy  form  created  by 
others. 

Metastasio  (1698-1782)  gave  early  indications  of  genius,  and 
when  only  ten  years  of  age,  used  to  collect  an  audience  in  his 
father's  shop,  by  his  talent  for  improvisation.  He  thus  attracted 
the  notice  of  Gravina,  a  celebrated  patron  of  letters,  who  adopted 
him  as  his  son,  changed  his  somewhat  ignoble  name  of  Trepassi 
to  JNIetastasio,  and  had  him  educated  in  every  branch  necessary 
for  a  literary  career.  He  still  continued  to  improvise  verses  on 
any  given  subject  for  the  amusement  of  company.  His  youth, 
his  harmonious  voice  and  prepossessing  appearance,  added 
greatly  to  the  charm  of  his  talent.  It  was  one  generally  culti- 
vated in  Italy  at  this  time,  and  men  of  mature  years  often  pre- 
sented themselves  as  rivals  of  the  boy.  This  occupation  becom- 
ing injurious  to  the  youth,  Gravina  forbade  him  to  compose 


ITALIAN   LITERATURE.  237 

extempore  verses  any  more,  and  this  rule,  imposed  on  him  at 
sixteen,  he  never  afterwards  infringed.  When  Metastasio  was 
in  his  twentieth  year,  Gravina  died,  leaving  to  him  bis  fortune,- 
most  of  which  he  squandered  in  two  years.  He  afterwards  went 
to  Naples,  where,  under  a  severe  master,  to  whose  control  he 
submitted  himself  entirelv,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  severest 
study,  and  for  two  years  resisted  every  solicitation  to  compose 
verses.  At  length,  under  promise  of  secrecy,  he  wrote  a  drama. 
All  jS'aples  resounded  with  its  praise,  and  the  author  was  soon 
discovered.  Metastasio  from  this  time  followed  the  career  for 
which  nature  seemed  to  have  formed  him,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  opera,  which  he  considered  to  be  the  natural  drama  of 
Italy.  An  invitation  to  become  the  court  poet  of  Vienna  made 
his  future  life  both  stable  and  prosperous.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  YI.,  in  1740,  several  other  European  sovereigns  made 
advantageous  overtures  to  the  poet,  but  as  Maria  Theresa  was 
disposed  to  retain  him,  he  would  not  leave  her  in  her  adverse 
circumstances.  The  remainder  of  his  life  he  passed  in  Germany, 
and  his  latter  years  were  as  monotonous  as  they  were  pros- 
perous. 

Metastasio  seized  with  a  daring  hand  the  true  spirit  of  the 
melodrama,  and  scorning  to  conhne  himself  to  unity  of  place, 
opened  a  wide  field  for  the  display  of  theatrical  variety,  on  which 
the  charm  of  the  opera  so  much  depends.  The  language  in 
which  he  clothed  the  favorite  passion  of  his  drama,  exhibits  all 
that  is  delicate  and  yet  ardent,  and  he  develops  the  most 
elevated  sentiments  of  loyalty,  patriotism  and  fihal  love.  The 
flow  of  his  verse  in  the  recitative  is  the  most  pure  and  har- 
monious known  in  any  language,  and  the  strophes  at  the  close 
of  each  scene  are  scarcely  surpassed  by  the  first  masters  in  lyric 
poetry.  Metastasio  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing,  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  least  difficult  of  the  Italian  poets,  and  the  tyro 
in  the  study  of  Italian  classics  may  begin  with  his  works,  and 
at  once  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  poetic  harmony  at  their  highest 
source. 

3.  Comedy. — The  revolution,  so  frequently  attempted  in 
Italian  comedy  by  men  whose  genius  was  unequal  to  the  task, 
was  reserved  for  Goldoni  (1707-1792)  to  accomplish.  His 
life,  written  by  himself,  presents  a  picture  of  Italian  manners  in 
their  gayest  colors.  He  was  a  native  of  Venice,  and  from  his 
early  youth  was  constantly  surrounded  by  theatrical  people.  At 
eight  years  of  age  he  composed  a  comedy,  and  at  fourteen  he 
ran  away  from  school  with  a  company  of  strolling  players.     He 


238  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

afterwards  prepared  for  the  niedieal,  then  for  the  legal  profession, 
and  finally,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  he  was  installed  poet  to 
a  company  of  players.  He  now  attempted  to  introduce  the 
reforms  that  he  had  long  meditated  ;  he  attained  a  purer  style, 
and  became  a  censor  of  the  manners  and  a  satirist  of  the  follies 
of  his  country.  His  dialogue  is  extremely  animated,  earnest 
and  full  of  meaning  ;  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  national 
manners,  he  possessed  the  rare  faculty  of  representing  them  in 
the  most  life-like  manner  on  the  stage.  The  lanj^uaji-e  used  bv 
the  inferior  characters  of  his  comedies  is  the  Yeuetian  dialect. 

In  his  latter  days,  Goldoni  was  rivalled  by  Carlo  Gozzi 
(1722-1806),  who  parodied  his  pieces,  and,  it  is  thought,  was 
the  cause  of  his  retirement,  in  the  dechne  of  life,  to  Paris. 
Gozzi  introduced  a  new  style  of  comedy,  by  reviving  the 
famihar  fictions  of  childhood  ;  he  selected  and  dramatized  the 
most  brilliant  fairy  tales,  such  as  "Blue  Beard,"  "The  King  of 
the  Genii,"  etc.,  and  gave  them  to  the  public  with  magnificent 
decorations  and  surprising  machinery.  If  his  comedies  display 
little  resemblance  to  nature,  they  at  least  preserve  the  kind  of 
probability  which  is  looked  for  in  a  fairy  tale.  Many  years 
elapsed  after  Goldoni  and  Gozzi  disappeared  from  the  arena, 
before  there  was  any  successor  to  rival  their  compositions. 

Among  those  who  contributed  to  the  perfection  of  Italian 
comedy,  may  be  mentioned  Albergati  (fl.  1774),  Gherardo 
de'  Rossi  (1754-1827),  and  above  all,  Nota  (d.  1847),  who 
is  preeminent  among  the  new  race  of  comic  authors  ;  although 
somewhat  cold  and  didactic,  he  at  least  fulfills  the  important 
office  of  holding  the  mirror  up  to  nature.  He  exhibits  a  faith- 
ful picture  of  Italian  society,  and  applies  the  scourge  of  satire 
to  its  most  prevalent  faults  and  follies. 

4.  Tragedy. — ^The  reform  of  Italian  tragedy  was  early 
attempted  by  Martelli  (d.  1727)  and  by  Scipione  Maff'ei  (1675- 
1755).  But  Martelli  was  only  a  tame  imitator  of  French 
models,  while  Maff'ei,  possessing  real  talent  and  feeling,  deserved 
the  extended  reputation  he  acquired.  His  "Merope"  is  con- 
sidered as  the  last  and  the  best  specimen  of  the  elder  school  of 
Italian  tragedy.  It  is  free  from  striking  defects  rather  than 
rich  in  peculiar  beauties,  and  evinces  the  tasteful  scholar  more 
than  the  inspired  poet.  Its  excellence  consists  rather  in  its 
general  effect  than  in  detached  passages. 

The  honor  of  raising  tragedy  to  its  highest  standard  was 
reserved  for  Alfieri  (1749-1803).  He  was  born  in  Piedmont, 
and  from  his  autobiography  we  learn  his  remarkable  personal 


ITALIAN    LITERATURE.  239 

character,  which  exercised  so  powerful  an  intluencc  over  his 
works.  He  was  possessed  of  an  impetuosity  which  continually 
urged  him  towards  some  indefinite  object,  a  craving  for  some- 
thing more  free  in  politics,  more  elevated  in  character,  more 
ardent  in  love,  and  more  perfect  in  friendship  ;  of  desires  for  a 
better  state  of  things,  which  drove  him  from  one  extremity  of 
Europe  to  another,  but  without  discovering  it  in  the  realities  of 
this  every-day  world.  Finally,  he  turned  to  the  contemplation 
of  a  new  universe  in  his  own  poetical  creations,  and  calmed  his 
agitations  by  the  production  of  those  master-pieces  Avhich  have 
secured  his  immortality.  His  aim  in  life,  in  the  pursuit  of  which 
he  never  deviated,  was  that  of  founding  a  new  and  classic  school 
of  tragedy.  He  proposed  to  himself  the  severe  simplicity  of  the 
Greeks  with  respect  to  the  plot,  while  he  rejected  the  pomp  of 
poetry  which  compensates  for  interest  among  the  classic  writers 
of  antiquity.  Energy  and  conciseness  are  the  distinguishing 
features  of  his  style ;  and  this,  in  his  earlier  dramas,  is  carried 
to  the  extreme.  He  brings  the  whole  action  into  one  focus  ; 
the  passion  he  Avould  exhibit  is  introduced  into  the  first  verse  and 
kept  in  view  to  the  last.  No  event,  no  character,  no  conver- 
sation unconnected  with  the  advancement  of  the  plot  is  permitted 
to  appear  ;  all  confidants  and  secondary  personages  are,  there- 
fore, excluded,  and  there  seldom  appear  more  than  four  inter- 
locutors. These  tragedies  breathe  the  spirit  of  patriotism  and 
freedom,  and  for  this  character,  even  independently  of  their 
intrinsic  merit,  Alfieri  is  considered  as  the  reviver  of  the 
national  character  in  modern  times,  as  Dante  was  in  the  14th 
century.  "  Saul"  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece  ;  it  represents 
a  noble  character  suffering  under  those  weaknesses  which  some- 
times accompany  great  virtues,  and  governed  by  the  fatality  not 
of  destiny,  but  of  human  nature. 

Among  the  earliest  and  most  distinguished  of  those  who  followed 
in  the  path  of  Alfieri,  was  Monti  (1754-1828).  He  was  born 
in  a  village  near  Ravenna,  and  early  found  himself  among  the  re- 
volutions of  his  time.  Though  endowed  with  a  sublime  imagina- 
tion and  exquisite  taste,  his  character  was  weak  and  vain,  and  he, 
in  turn,  celebrated  every  party  as  it  became  the  successful  one. 
Educated  in  the  school  of  Dante,  he  introduced  into  Italian 
poetry  those  bold  and  severe  beauties  which  adorned  its  infancy. 
His  "  Aristodemus "  is  one  of  the  most  affecting  tragedies  in 
Italian  literature.  The  story  is  founded  on  the  narrative  of 
Pausanias.  It  is  simple  in  its  construction,  and  its  interest  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  principal  personage.  In  the  lofti- 
ness of  the  characters  of  his  tragedies,  and  the  energy  of  senti- 


240  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

ment  and  simplicity  of  action  vrhich  characterize  them,  we  recog- 
nize the  school  of  Alheri,  while  in  harmony  and  elegance  of  style 
and  poetical  language,  Monti  is  superior. 

Another  follower  of  the  school  of  Alfieri  is  TJgo  Foscolo(in8- 
182T),  one  of  the  greatest  writers  of  this  age,  and  whose  inspira- 
tion was  derived  from  a  lofty  patriotism.  At  the  time  of  the 
French  revolution  he  joined  the  Italian  army,  with  the  object  of 
restoring  independence  to  his  country.  Disappointed  in  this  hope, 
he  left  Italy  for  England,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
writings.  The  best  of  his  tragedies,  "  Ricciarda,"  is  founded 
on  events  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  the  middle  ages.  While 
some  of  its  scenes  and  situations  are  forced  and  unnatural,  some 
of  the  acts  are  wrought  with  consummate  skill  and  effect,  and 
the  conception  of  the  characters  is  tragic  and  original.  Foscolo 
adopts  in  his  tragedies  a  concise  and  pregnant  style,  and  displays 
great  mastery  over  his  native  language.  Marenco  (d.  1846)  is 
distinguished  for  the  noble  and  moral  ideas,  lofty  images,  and 
affections  of  his  tragedies  ;  but  he  lacks  unity  of  design  and 
vigor  of  style.  Silvio  Pellico  (1789-1854)  was  born  in  Pied- 
mont. As  a  writer  he  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  "  My  Prisons," 
a  narrative  full  of  simplicity  and  resignation,  in  which  he  relates 
his  sufferings  during  ten  years  in  the  fortress  of  Spielberg.  His 
tragedies  are  good  specimens  of  modern  art  ;  they  abound  in  fine 
thouQ-hts  and  tender  affections,  but  thev  lack  that  liveliness  of 
dialogue  and  rapidity  of  action,  which  give  reality  to  the  situa- 
tions, and  that  knowledore  of  the  human  heart  and  unitv  and  o:ran- 
deur  of  conception  which  are  the  characteristics  of  true  genius. 

Manzoni  and  Nicolini  are  the  last  of  the  modern  representatives 
of  the  tragic  drama  of  Italy.  The  tragedies  of  Manzoni,  and 
especially  his  "  Conte  di  Carmagnola,''  abound  in  exquisite  beau- 
ties. His  style  is  simple  and  noble,  his  verse  easy  and  harmo- 
nious, and  his  object  elevated.  The  merits  of  these  tragedies, 
however,  belong  rather  to  parts,  and  while  the  reading  of  them 
is  always  interesting,  on  the  stage  they  fail  to  awaken  the  inter- 
est of  tlie  audience.  After  Manzoni,  Nicolini  is  the  most  popular 
literary  man  of  Italy  at  the  present  time.  Lofty  ideas,  generous 
passions,  splendor  and  harmony  of  poetry,  purity  of  language, 
variety  of  characters,  and  warmth  of  patriotism,  constitute  the 
merit  of  his  tragedies  ;  while  his  faults  consist  in  a  style  some- 
what too  exuberant  and  lyrical,  in  ideas  sometimes  too  vague, 
and  characters  often  too  ideal. 

5.  Lyric,  Epic  axd  Didactic  Poetry. — In  the  latter  part  of 
the   18th  century,    a    class    of  poets   who    called    themselves 


ITALIAN   LITERATURE.  241 

"  Tlie  Arcadians,"  attempted  to  overthrow  the  artificial  and  bom- 
bastic school  of  Marini ;  but  their  frivolous  and  insipid  produc- 
tions had  little  effect  on  the  literature.  The  first  poets  who  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  letters  were  Parini  and  Monti.  Parini  (1729- 
1799)  was  a  man  of  great  genius,  integrity  and  taste  ;  he  con- 
tributed more  than  any  other  writer  of  his  age  to  the  progress 
of  literature  and  the  arts.  His  lyrical  poems  abound  in  noble 
thoughts,  and  breathe  a  pure  patriotism  and  high  morality.  His 
style  is  forcible,  chaste,  and  harmonious.  The  poems  of  Monti 
have  much  of  the  fire  and  elevation  of  Pindar.  Whatever  object 
employs  his  thoughts,  his  eyes  immediately  behold  ;  and  as  it 
stands  before  him,  a  flexible  and  harmonious  language  is  ever  at 
his  command  to  pamt  it  in  the  brightest  colors.  His  "  Basvil- 
liana  "  is  the  most  celebrated  of  his  lyric  poems,  and  beyond 
every  other  is  remarkable  for  majesty,  nobleness  of  expression, 
and  richness  of  coloring. 

The  poetical  writings  of  Pindemonte  (1753-1828)  are 
stamped  with  the  melancholy  of  his  character.  Their  subjects 
are  taken  from  contemporary  events,  and  his  inspiration  is  drawn 
from  nature  and  rural  life.  His  "Sepulchres"  breathes  the 
sweetest  and  most  pathetic  tenderness,  and  the  brightest  hopes 
of  immortality.  The  poems  of  Foscolo  have  the  grace  and  ele- 
gance of  the  Greek  poets  ;  but  in  his  ' '  Sepulchres  "  the  gloom  of 
his  melancholy  imagination  throws  a  funereal  light  over  the 
nothingness  of  all  things,  and  the  silence  of  death  is  unbroken  by 
any  voice  of  hope  in  a  future  life.  Torti  (1774-1852),  a  pupil 
of  Parini,  rivalled  his  master  in  the  simplicity  of  style  and  purity 
of  his  images  ;  while  Leopardi  (1798-1837)  impressed  upon 
his  lyric  poems  the  peculiarities  of  his  own  character.  A  sublime 
poet  and  a  profound  scholar,  his  muse  was  inspired  by  a  deep 
sorrow,  and  his  poems,  while  they  are  exquisitely  elegant,  breathe 
a  hopeless  melancholy,  and  express  the  bitterest  irony  and  dis- 
gust of  men  and  life.  Berchet  (1790-1851)  is  considered  as 
the  Italian  Beranger,  and  his  songs  glow  with  patriotic  fire. 
Those  of  Silvio  Pellico,  always  sweet  and  truthful,  bear  the  stamp 
of  a  calm  resignation,  hope  and  piety.  The  list  of  modern  lyric 
poets  closes  with  Manzoni,  whose  hymns  are  models  of  this  style 
of  poetry. 

In  the  epic  department,  the  third  period  does  not  afford  any 
poems  of  a  high  order.  But  the  translation  of  the  Iliad  by 
Monti,  that  of  the  Odyssey  by  Pindemonte,  for  their  purity  of 
language  and  beauty  of  style,  may  be  considered  as  epic  additions 
to  Italian  literature.  *'  The  Longobards  of  the  First  Crusade," 
written  by  Grossi  (1791-1853),  excels  in  beauty  and  splendor 

11 


242  ITALIAN   LITERATURE. 

of  poetry  all  the  epic  poems  of  this  age,  thoiigli  it  lacks  unity  of 
design  and  comprehensiveness  of  thought. 

Among  the  didactic  poems  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Invita- 
tion of  Lesbia,"  by  Mascheroni  (1750-1800),  a  distinguished 
poet  as  well  as  a  celebrated  mathematician.  This  poem,  which 
describes  the  beautiful  productions  of  nature  in  the  Museum 
of  Pavia,  is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  didactic  poetry.  The 
**  Riseide,"  or  cultivation  of  rice,  by  Spolverini  (1695-1*162), 
and  the  ''Silkworm,"  by  Betti  (1732-1788),  are  charac- 
terized by  poetical  beauties.  The  poem  on  the  ''  Immortality  of 
the  Soul,"  by  Fiorentino  (1*^42-1815),  though  defective  in  style, 
is  distinguished  by  its  elevation  of  ideas  and  sentiments.  "  The 
Cultivation  of  Mountains,"  by  Lorenzi  (1732-1822),  is  rich  in 
beautiful  images  and  thoughts.  "  The  Cultivation  of  Olive 
Trees,"  by  Ariel  (1782-1836),  his  '*  Corals,"  and  other  poems, 
especially  in  their  descriptions,  are  graceful  and  attractive.  "  The 
Seasons"  of  Barbieri  (1774-1852),  though  bearing  marks  of 
imitation  from  Pope,  is  written  in  a  pure  and  elegant  style. 

6.  Heroic-Comic  Poetry,  Satire  and  Fable. — The  period 
of  heroic-comic  poetry  closes  in  the  18th  century.  "  The  Ricciar- 
detto"  of  Fortiguerri  (1674-1735)  is  the  last  of  the  poems  of 
chivalry,  and  with  it  terminated  the  long  series  of  romances 
founded  on  the  adventures  of  Charlemagne  and  his  paladins. 
The  "  Cicero"  of  Passeroni  (1713-1803)  is  a  rambling  compo- 
sition in  a  style  similar  to  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy,  which,  it 
appears,  was  suggested  by  this  work. 

Satiric  poetry,  which  had  flourished  in  the  preceding  period, 
was  enriched  by  new  productions  in  the  18th  and  19th  centuries. 
G.  Gozzi  (1713-1789)  attacked  in  his  satires  the  vices  and  pre- 
judices of  his  fellow-citizens,  in  a  forcible  and  elegant  style  ;  and 
Parini,  the  great  satirist  of  the  18th  century,  founded  a  school 
of  satire,  which  proved  most  beneficial  to  the  country.  His 
jjoem,  "  The  Day,"  is  distinguished  by  line  irony  and  by  the  se- 
verity with  which  he  attacks  the  effeminate  habits  of  his  age. 
He  lashes  the  affectations  and  vices  of  the  Milanese  aristocracy 
with  a  sarcasm  worthy  of  Juvenal.  The  satires  of  D'Elci,  Gua- 
dagnoh,  and  others  are  characterized  by  wit  and  beauty  of  versi- 
fication. Those  of  Leopardi  are  bitter  and  contemptuous,  while 
Giusti  (1809-1850),  the  political  satirist  of  his  age,  scourged  the 
petty  tyrants  of  his  country  with  Ijiting  severity  and  pungent 
wit  ;  the  circulation  of  his  satires  throughout  Italy,  in  defiance 
of  its  despotic  governments,  greatly  contributed  to  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848. 


ITALIAN   LITERATURE.  243 

In  the  department  of  fable  may  be  mentioned  Robert!  (1719- 
178G),  Fasseroni,  Pignotti  (1739-1812),  and  Clasio  (1754- 
1825),  distinguished  for  invention,  purity,  and  simplicity  of  style. 

7.  Romances. — Though  the  tales  of  Boccaccio  and  the  story- 
tellers of  the  Ibth  century  paved  the  way  to  the  romances  of  the 
present  time,  it  was  only  at  a  late  period  that  the  Itahans  gave 
their  attention  to  this  kind  of  composition.  In  the  18th 
century  we  find  only  two  specimens  of  romance,  "  The  Congress 
of  Citera,"  by  Algarotti,  of  which  Yoltaire  said  that  it 
was  written  with  a  feather  drawn  from  the  wings  of  love  ;  and 
the  "  Roman  Nights,"  by  Alexander  Ye'rri  (H 41-1 81 6).  In 
his  romance  he  introduces  the  shades  of  celebrated  Romans, 
particularly  of  Cicero,  and  an  ingenious  comparison  of  ancient 
and  modern  institutions  is  made.  The  style  is  picturesque  and 
poetical,  though  somewhat  florid. 

This  kind  of  composition  has  found  more  favor  in  the  19th 
century.  First  among  the  writers  of  this  age  is  Manzoni,  whose 
"  Betrothed"  is  a  model  of  romantic  literature.  The  variety, 
originality  and  truthfulness  of  the  characters,  the  perfect  know- 
ledge of  the  human  heart  it  displays,  the  simplicity  and  vivacity 
of  its  style,  from  the  principal  merits  of  this  work.  The 
"  Marco  Yisconti "  of  Grossi  is  distinguished  for  its  pathos  and 
for  the  purity  and  elegance  of  its  style. 

The  "  Ettore  Fieraniosca "  of  Massimo  d'Azeglio  is  dis- 
tinguished  from  the  works  already  spoken  of  by  its  martial  and 
national  spirit.  His  *'  Nicolo  de  Lapi,"  though  full  of  beauties, 
partakes  in  some  degree  of  the  faults  common  to  the  French 
school.  After  these,  the  "  Margherita  Pusterla "  of  Cantii, 
the  "  Luisa  Strozzi "  of  Rosini,  the  "  Lamberto  Malatesta  "  of 
Rovani,  the  "  Angiola  Maria  "  of  Carcano,  are  the  best  histori- 
cal romances  of  Italian  literature.  Both  in  an  artistic  and 
moral  point  of  view,  they  far  excel  those  of  Guerrazzi,  which  re- 
present the  French  school  of  George  Sand  in  Italy,  and  whose 
"  Battle  of  Benevento,"  "  Isabella  Orsini,"  ''  Siege  of  Florence," 
and  "  Beatrice  Cenci,"  while  they  are  WTitten  in  pure  language 
and  abound  in  minor  beauties,  are  exaggerated  in  their  charac- 
ters, bombastic  and  declamatory  in  style,  and  overloaded  in 
description. 

The  "  Last  Letters  of  Jacopo  Ortis,"  by  Foscolo,  belongs  to 
that  kind  of  romance  which  is  called  sentimental.  Overcome  bv 
the  calamities  of  his  country,  with  his  soul  full  of  fiery  passion  and 
jsad  disappointment,  Foscolo  wrote  this  romance,  the  protest  of 
his  heart  against  evils  which  he  could  not  heal. 


244  ITALIAN   LITERATURE, 

8.  History. — Among  the  most  promiueut  of  the  numerous 
historians  of  this  period,  a  few  only  can  be  named.  Muratori 
(1GT2-1750),  for  his  vast  erudition  and  profound  criticism,  has 
no  rivals.  He  made  the  most  accurate  and  extensive  researches 
and  discoveries  relating  to  the  history  of  Italy,  from  the  5th  to 
the  16th  century,  which  he  published  in  twenty-seven  foho 
volumes  ;  the  most  valuable  collection  of  historical  documents 
which  ever  appeared  in  Italy.  He  wrote,  also,  a  work  on 
''  Italian  Antiquities,"  illustrating  the  history  of  the  middle 
ages  through  ancient  monuments,  and  the  "  Annals  of  Italy," 
a  history  of  the  country  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era 
to  his  own  age.  Though  its  style  is  somewhat  defective,  the 
richness  and  abundance  of  its  erudition,  its  clearness  and 
arrangement,  impart  to  this  work  great  value  and  interest. 

Maffei,  already  spoken  of  as  the  first  reformer  of  ItaUan 
tragedy,  surpassed  Muratori  in  the  purity  of  his  style,  and  was 
only  second  to  him  in  the  extent  and  variety  of  his  erudition. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  the  antiquities  and  monuments  of 
Italy. 

Bianchini  (16G2-1729),  a  celebrated  architect  and  scholar, 
wi'ote  a  "  Universal  History,"  which,  though  not  complete,  is 
characterized  as  a  work  of  great  genius.  It  is  founded  ex- 
clusively on  the  interpretations  of  ancient  monuments  in  marble 
and  metal. 

Yico  (16T0-1744),  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of  history, 
embraced  with  his  comprehensive  mind  the  history  of  all  nations, 
and  from  the  darkness  of  centuries  he  created  the  science  of 
humanity,  which  he  called  "  Scienza  Nuova."  Yico  does  not 
propose  to  illustrate  any  special  historical  epoch,  but  follows  the 
general  movement  of  mankind  in  the  most  remote  and  obscure 
times,  and  estaljlishes  the  rules  which  must  guide  us  in  inter- 
preting ancient  historians.  By  gathering  from  different  epochs, 
remote  from  each  other,  the  songs,  symbols,  monuments,  laws, 
etymologies,  and  religious  and  philosophical  doctrines — in  a 
word,  the  infinite  elements  which  form  the  life  of  mankind — he 
establishes  the  unity  of  human  history.  The  ''  Scienza  Nuova  " 
is  one  of  the  great  monuments  of  human  genius,  and  it  hag 
inspired  many  works  on  the  philosophy  of  history,  especially 
among  the  Germans,  such  as  those  of  Hegel,  Niebuhr,  and  others. 

Giannone  (1676-1748)  is  the  author  of  a  "Civil  History  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  a  work  full  of  juridical  science  as  well 
as  of  historical  interest.  Having  attacked  with  much  violence 
the  encroachments  of  the  church  of  Rome  on  the  rights  of 
the  State,  he  became  the  victim  of  a  persecution  which  ended 


ITALIAN   LITEEATUEE.  245 

in  his  death  in  the  fortress  of  Turin,  Giannone,  in  his  history, 
gave  the  first  example  in  modern  times  of  that  intrepidity  and 
courage  which  belong  to  the  true  historian. 

Botta  (It 66-1 837)  is  among  the  first  historians  of  the 
present  age.  He  was  a  physician  and  a  scholar,  and  devoted 
to  the  freedom  of  his  country.  He  filled  important  political 
offices  in  Piedmont,  under  the  administration  of  the  French 
government.  In  1809,  he  published,  in  Paris,  his  '*  History  of 
the  American  Revolution,"  a  work  held  in  high  estimation 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Italy.  In  the  political  changes 
which  followed  the  fall  of  Xapoleon,  Botta  suffered  many 
pecuniary  trials,  and  was  even  obliged  to  sell,  by  weight,  to  a 
druggist,  the  entire  edition  of  his  history,  in  order  to  pay  for 
medicmes  for  his  sick  wife.  Meanwhile,  he  wrote  a  history  of 
Italy,  from  1189  to  1814,  which  was  received  with  great  en- 
thusiasm through  Italy,  and  for  which  the  Academy  della 
Crusca,  in  1830,  granted  to  him  a  pecuniary  reward.  This  was 
followed  by  the  "  History  of  Italy,"  in  continuation  of  Guicciar- 
diui,  from  the  fall  of  the  Florentine  Republic  to  1789,  a  gigantic 
work,  with  which  he  closed  his  historical  career.  The  histories 
of  Botta  are  distinguished  by  clearness  of  narrative,  vividness 
and  beauty  of  description,  by  the  prominence  he  gives  to  the 
moral  aspect  of  events  and  characters,  and  by  purity,  richness 
and  variety  of  style. 

Colletta  (1775-1831)  was  born  in  Naples  ;  under  the  go- 
vernment of  Murat  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  general,  and  fell  with 
his  patron.  His  *'  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  from 
1734  to  1825,  is  modelled  after  the  annals  of  Tacitus.  The 
style  is  simple,  clear,  and  concise,  the  subject  is  treated  without 
digressions  or  episodes;  it  is  conceived  in  a  partial  spirit,  and 
is  a  eulogium  of  the  administration  of  Joachim  ;  but  no  writer 
can  rival  Colletta  in  his  descriptions  of  strategic  movements, 
of  sieges  and  battles. 

Balbo  (1789-1853)  was  born  in  Turin  ;  during  the  admmis- 
tration  of  Napoleon  he  filled  many  important  political  offices, 
and  afterwards  he  entered  the  military  career.  Devoted  to  the 
freedom  of  his  country,  he  strove  to  promote  the  progress  of 
Italian  independence.  In  1847,  he  published  the  "  Hopes  of 
Italy,"  the  first  political  work  that  had  appeared  in  the 
peninsula  since  the  restoration  of  1814  ;  it  was  the  spark  which 
kindled  the  movements  of  1848.  In  the  events  of  that  and  of 
the  succeeding  year,  he  ranked  among  the  most  prominent 
leaders  of  the  national  party.  His  historical  works  are  a  "  Life 
of  Dante,"  considered  the  best  on  the   subject ;    "  Historical 


246  ITALIAN    LITERATUKE. 

Contemplations,"  in  which  he  developed  the  history  of  mankind 
from  a  philosophical  point  of  view;  and  "The  Compendium  of  the 
History  of  Italy,"  which  embraces  in  a  synthetic  form  all  the 
history  of  the  country  from  the  earliest  times  to  1814.  His  style 
is  pure,  clear,  and  sometimes  eloquent,  though  often  concise 
and  abrupt. 

Cantu,  a  living  historian,  has  written  a  universal  history,  in 
which  he  attempts  the  philosophical  style.  Though  vivid  in 
his  narratives,  descriptions  and  details,  he  is  often  incorrect 
in  his  statements,  and  rash  in  his  judgments  ;  his  work,  though 
professing  liberal  views,  is  essentially  conservative  in  its  tendency. 
The  same  faults  may  be  discovered  in  his  more  recent  "  History 
of  the  Italians." 

Tiraboschi  (1731-1194)  is  the  great  historian  of  Italian 
literature  ;  his  work  is  biographical  and  critical,  and  is  the  most 
extensive  literary  history  of  Italy.  His  style  is  simple  and  ele- 
gant, and  his  criticism  profound  ;  but  he  gives  greater  prominence 
to  the  biogra])hies  of  writers  than  to  the  consideration  of  their 
works.  Tliis  history  was  continued  by  Corniani  (1*142-1813), 
and  afterwards  by  Ugoni  (1784-1855). 

•  9.  ^Esthetics,  CRixicisir,  Philology  and  Philosophy. — 
Italian  literature  is  comparatively  delicient  in  aesthetics,  the 
science  of  tiie  beautiful.  The  treatise  of  Gioberti  on  the 
''  Beautiful,"  the  last  work  which  has  appeared  on  this  subject, 
is  distinguished  for  its  profound  doctrines  and  brilliant  style. 
Philology  and  criticism  first  began  to  flourish  at  the  close  of  the 
17th  century,  and  are  well  represented  at  the  present  time.  The 
revival  of  letters  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  criticism  of 
Gravina  (16G4-1718),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  jurisconsults 
and  scholars  of  his  age,  who,  through  his  work,  "  The  Poetical 
Reason,"  greatly  contributed  to  the  reform  of  taste.  Zeno, 
]\[alTei,  and  Muratori  also  distinguished  themselves  in  the  art 
of  criticism,  and  by  their  works  aided  in  overthrowing  the  school 
of  Marini.  At  a  later  date,  Caspar  Gozzi,  through  liis  "  Obser- 
ver," a  periodical  publication  modelled  after  the  "  Spectator"  of 
Addison,  undertook  to  correct  the  literary  taste  of  the  country; 
for  its  hivention,  pungent  wit  and  satire,  and  the  purity  and  cor- 
rectness of  its  style,  it  is  considered  one  of  the  best  compositions 
of  this  kind.  Baretti  (1716-1789)  propagated  in  England  the 
taste  for  Italian  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  published  his 
"  Literary  Scourge,"  a  criticism  of  the  ancient  and  modern  writers 
of  Italy.  His  style,  though  always  i)ure,  is  often  caustic.  He 
VvTote  several  books  in  the  English  language,  one  of  which  is  in  de- 


ITALIAN   LITEEATURE.  247 

fence  of  Shakspeare  against  Yoltaire.  Cesarotti  (1130-1808), 
though  emhient  as  a  critic,  introduced  into  the  Italian  language 
some  innovations,  which  contributed  to  its  corruption  ;  while  the 
nice  judgment,  good  taste,  and  pure  style  of  Pariui  place  hun  at 
the  head  of  this  department.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  period 
vre  find,  in  the  criticisms  of  Monti,  vigorous  logic  and  a  splendid 
and  attractive  style.  Foscolo  is  distinguished  for  his  acumen  and 
pungent  wit.  The  works  of  Perticari  (1779-1822)  are  writ- 
ten with  extreme  polish,  erudition,  judgment,  and  dignity  ;  in 
Leopardi,  philosophical  acumen  equals  the  elegance  of  his  style. 
Giordani  (d.  1848),  as  a  critic  and  an  epigraphist,  deserves 
to  be  noticed  for  his  fine  judgment  and  pure  taste  ;  and  also 
Tommaseo  and  Cattaneo,  who  are  both  epigrammatic,  witty  and 
pungent. 

The  golden  age  of  philology  dates  from  the  time  of  Lorenzo  de^ 
Medici  to  the  Itth  century;  it  then  declined  until  the  18th.  It 
revived  in  the  works  of  Maffei,  Muratori,  Zeno,  and  others.  In 
the  same  century  this  study  was  greatly  promoted  by  Foscolo, 
Monti,  and  Cesari  (17G0-1 828),  who,  among  other  philological 
works,  published  a  new  edition  of  the  Dictionary  della  Crusca, 
revised  and  augmented.  Of  the  modern  writers  on  philology, 
Gherardiui  and  Tommaseo  are  the  most  prominent. 

The  revival  of  philosophy  in  Italy  dates  from  the  age  of 
Galileo,  when  the  authority  of  the  Peripatetics  was  overthrown, 
and  a  new  method  introduced  into  scientific  researches.  From 
that  time  to  the  present,  this  science  has  been  represented  by 
opposite  schools,  the  one  characterized  by  sensualism  and  the 
other  by  rationalism.  The  experimental  method  of  Galileo 
paved  the  way  to  the  first,  which  holds  that  experience  is  the 
only  source  of  knowledge,  a  doctrine  which  gained  ground  in  the 
17th  century,  and  became  universally  accepted  in  the  18th, 
through  the  influence  of  Locke  and  Condillac,  and  continued  to 
prevail  during  the  first  part  of  the  19th.  Gioja  (1767-1829) 
and  Komagnosi  (1761-1835)  are  the  greatest  representatives  of 
this  system,  in  the  last  part  of  this  period.  But  while  the  former 
developed  sensualism  in  philosophy  and  economy,  the  latter  ap- 
plied it  to  political  science  and  jurisprudence.  The  numerous 
works  of  Gioja  are  distinguished  for  their  practical  value  and 
clearness  of  style,  though  they  lack  eloquence  and  purity  ;  those 
of  Romagnosi  are  more  abstract,  and  couched  in  obscure  and 
often  incorrect  language,  but  they  are  monuments  of  vast  erudi- 
tion, acute  and  profound  judgment,  and  powerful  dialectics. 

Galluppi  (1778-1846),  though  unable  to  extricate  himself 
entirely  from  the  sensuahstic  school,  attempted  the  reform  of 


248  ITALIAN   LITERATUEE. 

philosophy,  which  resulted  in  a  movement  in  Italy  similar  to  that 
produced  by  Reid  and  Dugald  Stewart  in  Scotland. 

While  sensualism  was  gaining  ground  in  the  llth  and  18th 
centuries,  rationalism,  having  its  roots  in  the  Platonic  system 
which  had  prevailed  in  the  15th  and  16th,  was  remodelled  under 
the  influence  of  Descartes,  Leibnitz  and  Wolf,  and  opposed  to 
the  invading  tendencies  of  its  antagonist.  From  causes  to  be 
found  in  the  spirit  of  the  age  and  the  political  condition  of  the 
country,  this  system  was  unable  to  take  the  place  to  which  it 
was  entitled,  though  it  succeeded  in  purifying  sensuahsm  from  its 
more  dangerous  consequences,  and  infusing  into  it  some  of  its  own 
elements.  But  the  overthrow  of  that  system  was  only  recently 
completed  by  the  works  of  Rosmini  and  Gioberti.  Rosmini 
(1795-1855),  gave  a  new  impulse  to  mcitaphysical  researches, 
and  created  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Italian  philosophy. 
His  numerous  works  embrace  all  philosophical  knoAvledge  in  its 
unity  and  universality,  founded  on  a  new  basis,  and  developed 
with  deep,  broad  and  original  views.  His  philoso})hy,  both 
inductive  and  deductive,  rests  on  experimental  method,  reaches 
the  highest  problems  of  ideology  and  ontology,  and  infuses  new 
life  into  all  departments  of  science.  This  philosophical  progress 
was  greatly  aided  by  Gioberti  (1801-51),  whose  life,  however, 
was  more  particularly  devoted  to  political  pursuits.  His  work 
on  "  The  Regeneration  of  Italy  "  contains  his  latest  and  soundest 
views  on  Italian  nationality.  Another  distinguished  philosophi- 
cal and  political  writer,  is  Mamiani,  whose  recent  work  on  *'  Tbe 
Riijhts  of  Nations  "  deserves  the  attention  of  all  students  of  his- 
tory  and  political  science.  As  a  statesman,  he  belongs  to  the 
National  party,  of  which  Cavour,  himself  an  eminent  writer  on 
political  economy,  is  the  great  representative,  and  to  whose 
commanding  influence  is  to  be  attributed  the  rapid  progress 
which  the  Itahan  nation  is  now  making  towards  unity  and  inde- 
pendence. 


FEENCH    LITEEATUEE. 

IsTRODUCTiOK.— 1.  French  Literature  and  its  Divisions.— 2.  The  Language, 

Period  First.— 1.  The  Troubadours.- 2.  The  Trouveres.— 3.  French  Literature  in  the 
Fifteenth  Century;  Charles  of  Orleans,  Villon,  Ville-Hardouin,  Joinville,  Froissart, 
Philippe  de  Commines. 

PsKioD  SiiCOND.— 1.  The  Renaissance  and  the  Pvcformation ;  Marguerite  de  Valois, 
Marot,  Rabelais, Calvin,  Montaigne,  Charron,  and  others.- 2.  Light  Literature;  Ronsard, 
Jodelle,  Hardy,  Malherbe,  Scarron,  Madame  de  Rambouillet,  and  others.— 3.  Tlie 
French  Academy.— 4.  The  Drama;  Corneille.— 5.  Philosophy;  Descartes,  Pascal;  Port 
Royal.— G.  The  rise  of  the  Golden  Age  of  French  Literature;  Louis  XIV.— 7.  Tragedy  ; 
Racine. — 8.  Comedy  ;  Moliere.— 9.  Fables,  Satires,  Mock-Heroic,  and  other  Poetry ; 
La  Fontaine,  Boileau.— 10.  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit  and  of  the  Bar;  Bourdaloue,  Bos- 
suet,  Massillon,  Flechier,  Le  Maitre,  D'Aguesseau,  and  others. — 11.  Moral  Philosophy  ; 
Rochefoucauld,  La  Bruyere,  Nicole. — 12.  History  and  Memoirs  ;  Mezeray,  Fleury, 
Rollin,  Brantome,  the  Duke  of  Sully,  Cardinal  de  Retz. — 13.  Romance  and  Letter 
"Writing;  Fenelon,  Madame  de  Sevigne. 

Period  Third. — 1.  The  Dawn  of  Skepticism  ;  Bayle,  J.  B.  Rousseau,  Fontenelle, 
Lamotte. — 2.  Progress  of  Skepticism  ;  Montesquieu,  Voltaire. — 3.  French  Literature 
during  the  Revolution ;  D'Holbach,  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  J.  J.  Rousseau,  BuCfon,  Beau- 
marchais,  St.  Pierre,  and  others. — i.  French  Literature  under  the  Empire  ;  Madame 
de  Stael,  Chateaubriand,  Royer-CoUard,  Bonald,  De  Maistre. — 5.  French  Literature 
from  the  age  of  the  Restoration  to  the  present  time ;  Barante,  Guizot,  Thierry,  Miche- 
let,  Thiers,  Cousin,  Lamennais,  Comte;  the  Romantic  School ;  Beranger,  Delavigne, 
Lamartine,  Victor  Hugo,  Sand,  Sue,  Scribe,  and  others. 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  French  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — Towards  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century,  the  Franks  commenced  their  invasions 
of  Gaul,  which  ended  in  the  conquest  of  the  country,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  French  monarchy  under  Clovis.  The  period 
from  Clovis  to  Charlemagne  (487-t68)  is  the  most  obscure  of 
the  Dark  Ages.  The  principal  writers,  whose  names  have  been 
preserved,  are  St.  Remy,  the  archbishop  of  Rheims  (d.  535), 
distinguished  for  his  eloquence,  and  Gregory  of  Tours  (d.  595), 
whose  contemporary  history  is  valuable  for  the  good  faith  in 
which  it  is  written,  in  spite  of  the  ignorance  and  credulity  which 
it  displays.  The  genius  of  Charlemagne  (r.  768-814)  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  learning.  By  his  Uberality  he  attracted  the 
most  distinguished  scholars  to  his  court,  among  others  Alcuin, 
from  England,  whom  he  chose  for  his  instructor;  he  established 

11*  249 


250  FEEN'CIl    LITER ATUKE. 

schools  of  theology  and  science,  and  appouitcd  the  most  learned 
professors  to  preside  over  them.  But  in  the  century  succeeding* 
his  death,  the  country  relapsed  into  barbarism. 

In  the  south  of  France,  Provence  early  became  an  independ- 
ent kingdom,  and  consolidating  its  language,  laws,  and  manners, 
at  tlie  close  of  the  11th  century  it  gave  birth  to  the  literature 
of  the  Troubadours;  while  in  the  north,  the  language  and  litera- 
ture of  the  Trouveres,  which  were  the  germs  of  the  national 
literature  of  France,  were  not  developed  until  a  century  later. 

In  the  schools  estabhshed  by  Charlemagne  for  the  education 
of  the  clergy,  the  scholastic  philosophy  originated,  which  prevailed 
throughout  Europe  in  the  middle  ages.  The  most  distinguished 
schoolmen  or  scholastics  in  France  during  this  period,  are  Ros- 
ceUinus  (fl.  1092),  the  originator  of  the  controversy  between  the 
Nominalists  and  Realists,  which  occupied  so  prominent  a  place 
in  the  philosophy  of  the  time;  Abelard  (1079-1142),  equally 
celebrated  for  his  learning,  and  for  his  unfortunate  love  for 
Heloisc;  St.  Bernard  (1091-1153),  one  of  the  most  influential 
ecclesiastics  of  the  middle  ages  ;  and  Thomas  Aquinas  (1227- 
1274)  and  Bonaventure  (1221-1274),  Italians  who  taught  the- 
ology and  philosophy  at  Paris,  and  who  powerfully  influenced 
the  intellect  of  the  age. 

Beginning  with  the  middle  ages,  the  literary  history  of  France 
may  be  divided  into  three  periods.  The  first  period  extends 
from  1000  to  1500,  and  includes  the  literature  of  the  Trouba- 
dours, the  Trouveres,  and  of  the  15  th  century. 

The  second  period  extends  from  1500  to  1700,  and  in- 
cludes the  revival  of  the  study  of  classical  literature,  or  the 
Renaissance,  and  the  golden  age  of  French  literature  under 
Louis  XIY. 

The  third  period,  extending  from  1700  to  1859,  comprises  the 
age  of  skepticism  introduced  into  French  literature  by  Yol- 
taire,  the  Encyclopaedists  and  others,  the  Revolutionary  era,  the 
literature  of  the  Empire  and  of  the  Restoration,  and  of  the 
present  time, 

2.  The  Language. — After  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by  Juliuf- 
Caesar,  Latin  became  the  predominant  language  of  the  country 
but  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Em[)ire,  it  was  corrupted 
by  the  intermixture  of  elements  derived  from  the  northern 
invaders  of  the  country,  and  from  the  general  ignorance  and 
barbarism  of  the  times.  At  length  a  distinction  was  drawn 
between  the  lano-uao-e  of  the  Gauls  who  called  themselves 
Romans,    and   that   of  the   Latin  writers  ;  and  the   Romance 


FEENCH   UTEEATUKE.  251 

language  arose  from  the  former,  while  the  Latin  was  per- 
petuated by  the  latter.  At  the  commencement  of  the  second 
race  of  monarchs,  German  was  the  language  of  Charle- 
magne and  his  court,  Latin  was  the  written  language,  and  the 
Romance,  still  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  was  the  dialect  of  the 
people.  The  subjects  of  Charlemagne  were  composed  of  two 
different  races,  the  Germans,  inhabiting  along  and  beyond  the 
Khine,  and  the  Wallons,  who  called  tlieraselves  Romans.  The  name 
of  Wdsch  or  Wallons,  given  them  by  the  Germans,  was  the  same  as 
Gain,  wMch  they  had  received  from  the  Latins,  and  as  Kdtai, 
or  Celts,  which  they  themselves  acknowledged.  The  language 
which  they  spoke  was  called  after  them  the  llomance-Wallon, 
or  rustic  Romance,  which  was  at  first  very  much  the  same 
throughout  France,  except  that  as  it  extended  southward  the 
Latin  prevailed,  and  in  the  north  the  German  was  more  percep- 
tible. These  differences  increased,  and  the  languages  rapidly 
grew  more  dissimilar.  The  people  of  the  south  called  themselves 
Romans-provengaux,  while  the  northern  tribes  added  to  the  name 
of  Romans,  which  they  had  assumed,  that  of  Wallons,  which 
they  had  received  from  the  neighboring  people.  The  Provencal 
was  called  the  Langue  cVoc,  and  the  Wallon  the  Langue  d'oui, 
from  the  affirmative  word  in  each  language,  as  the  Italian  was 
then  called  the  Langue  de  si,  and  the  German  the  Langue 
de  ya. 

The  invasion  of  the  Kormans,  in  the  10th  century,  supplied 
new  elements  to  the  Romance  Wallon.  They  adopted  it  as 
their  language,  and  stamped  upon  it  the  impress  of  their  own 
genius.  It  thus  became  Norman-French.  In  1066,  William 
the  Conqueror  introduced  it  into  England,  and  enforced  its  use 
among  his  new  subjects  by  rigorous  laws;  thus  the  popular  French 
became  there  the  language  of  the  court,  and  of  the  educated 
classes,  while  it  was  still  the  vulgar  dialect  in  France. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  the  two  dialects 
were  known  as  the  Provengal  and  the  French.  The  former, 
though  much  changed,  is  still  the  dialect  of  the  common  people 
in  Provence,  Languedoc,  Catalonia,  Valencia,  Majorca,  and 
Minorca.  In  the  13th  century,  the  northern  French  dialect 
gained  the  ascendency,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  Paris  becoming 
the  centre  of  refinement  and  literature  for  all  France.  The 
Langue  d'oui  was,  from  its  origin,  deficient  in  that  rhythm  which 
exists  in  the  Italian  and  Spanish  languages.  It  was  formed 
rather  by  an  abbreviation  than  by  a  harmonious  transformation 
of  the  Latin,  and  the  metrical  character  of  the  language  was 
gradually  lost.     The  French  became  thus  more  accustomed  to 


252  FliEXCU    LlTEllATURE. 

rhetorical  measure  than  to  poetical  form?,  and  the  language  led 
them  rather  to  eloquence  than  poetry.  Francis  I.  established  a 
professorship  of  the  French  language  at  Paris,  and  banished 
Latin  from  the  public  documents  and  courts  of  justice.  The 
Academy,  established  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  (1G35),  put  an  end 
to  the  arbitrary  power  of  usage,  and  fixed  the  standard  of  pure 
French,  though  at  the  same  time  it  restricted  the  power  of 
genius  over  the  language.  Nothing  was  approved  by  the 
Academy  unless  it  was  received  at  court,  and  nothing  was 
tolerated  by  the  public  that  had  not  been  sanctioned  by  the 
Academy.  The  language  now  acquired  the  most  admirable  pre- 
cision, and  thus  recommended  itself  not  only  as  the  language  of 
science  lind  diplomacy,  but  of  society,  capable  of  conveying  the 
most  discriminating  observations  on  character  and  manners,  and 
the  most  delicate  expressions  of  civility,  which  involve  no  obli- 
gation. Hence  its  adoption  as  the  court  language  in  so  many 
European  countries.  Among  the  dictionaries  of  the  French 
language,  that  of  the  Academy  holds  the  first  rank. 


PERIOD  FIRST. 

Provex^al    and    French  Literatures    in   the   Middle  Ages 

(1000-1500). 

1.  The  Troubadours. — When,  in  the  10th  centurv,  the  nations 
of  the  south  of  Europe  attempted  to  give  consistency  to  the  rude 
dialects  which  had  been  produced  by  the  mixture  of  the  Latin 
with  the  northern  tongues,  the  Proven9al,  or  Langwe  d/oc,  was 
the  first  to  come  to  perfection.  The  study  of  this  language  be- 
came the  favorite  recreation  of  the  higher  classes  during  the 
10th  and  11th  centuries,  and  poetry  the  elegant  occupation  of 
those  wliose  time  was  not  spent  in  the  ruder  pastimes  of  the 
field.  Thousands  of  poets,  wlio  were  called  troubadours  (from 
trohar,  to  find  or  invent),  flourished  in  tliis  new  language  almost 
contemporaneously,  and  spread  their  reputation  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  Spain  to  that  of  Italy.  All  at  once,  however,  this 
ephemeral  reputation  vanished.  The  voice  of  tlie  troubadours 
was  silent,  the  Proven9al  was  abandoned  and  sunk  into  a  mere 
dialect,  and  after  a  brilliant  existence  of  three  centuries  (950- 
1250),  its  productions  were  ranked  among  those  of  tlie  dead 
languages.  Tiie  high  reputation  of  the  Proven9al  poets,  and 
the  rapid  decline  of  their  language,  are  two  phenomena  equally 
striking  in  the  history  of  human  culture.     This  literature,  which 


FEEXCH    LITERATURE.  253 

gave  models  to  other  nations,  yet  among  its  crowds  of  agreeable 
poems  did  not  produce  a  single  master-piece  destined  to  immor- 
tality, was  entirely  the  offspring  of  the  age,  and  not  of  individu- 
als. It  reveals  to  us  the  sentiments  and  imagination  of  modern 
nations  in  their  infancy ;  it  exhibits  what  was  common  to  all  and 
pervaded  all,  and  not  what  genius  superior  to  the  age  enabled  a 
single  individual  to  accomplish. 

Southern  France,  having  been  the  inheritance  of  several  of 
the  successors  of  Charlemagne,  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  an 
independent  kingdom  in  879,  by  Bozon,  and  under  his  sover- 
eignty, and  that  of  his  successors  for  213  years,  it  enjoyed  a 
paternal  government.  The  accession  of  the  Count  of  Barcelona 
to  the  crown,  in  1092,  introduced  into  Provence  the  spirit  both 
of  liberty  and  chivalry,  and  a  taste  for  elegance  and  the  arts, 
with  aU  the  sciences  of  the  Arabians.  The  union  of  these  noble 
sentiments  added  brilliancy  to  that  poetical  spirit  which  shone 
out  at  once  over  Provence  and  all  the  south  of  Europe,  like  an 
electric  flash  in  the  midst  of  profound  darkness,  illuminating 
all  things  with  the  splendor  of  its  flame. 

At  the  same  time  with  Provencal  poetry,  chivalry  had  its  rise ; 
it  was,  in  a  manner,  the  soul  of  the  new  literature,  and  gave  to 
it  a  character  different  from  anything  in  antiquity.  Love,  in 
this  age,  while  it  was  not  more  tender  and  passionate  than 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  more  respectful,  and 
women  were  regarded  with  something  of  that  religious  venera- 
tion which  the  Germans  evinced  towards  their  prophetesses.  To 
this  was  added  that  passionate  ardor  of  feeling  peculiar  to  the 
people  of  the  South,  the  expression  of  which  was  foorrowed  from 
the  Arabians.  But  although  among  individuals  love  preserved 
this  pure  and  religious  character,  the  license  engendered  by  the 
feudal  system,  and  the  disorders  of  the  time,  produced  a  univer- 
sal corruption  of  manners  which  found  expression  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  age.  Neither  the  sirventes  nor  the  chanzos  of  the 
troubadours,  nor  the  faUiaux  of  the  trouveres,  nor  the 
romances  of  chivalry,  can  be  read  without  a  blush.  On  every 
page  the  grossness  of  the  language  is  only  equalled  by  the 
shameful  depravity  of  the  characters  and  the  immorality  of  the 
iucidents.  In  the  south  of  France,  more  particularly,  an  extreme 
laxity  of  manners  prevailed  among  the  nobihty.  Gallantry  seems 
to  have  been  the  sole  object  of  existence.  Ladies  were  proud 
of  the  celebrity  conferred  upon  their  charms  by  the  songs  of  the 
troubadours,  and  they  themselves  often  professed  the  Gay  Sci' 
ence,  as  poetry  was  called.  They  instituted  the  Courts  of  Love, 
where  questions  of  gallantry  were  gravely  discussed  and  decided 


25-i  FKEXCH    LITEilATUllE. 

by  their  suffrages;  and  they  gave,  in  short,  to  the  whole  south 
of  France  the  character  of  a  carnival.  No  sooner  had  the  Gay 
Science  been  established  in  Provence,  than  it  became  the  rage 
of  the  surrounding  countries.  The  sovereigns  of  Europe  adopted 
the  Provencal  language,  and  enlisted  themselves  among  the 
poets,  and  there  was  soon  neither  baron  nor  knight  Avho  did  not 
feel  himself  bound  to  add  to  his  fame  as  a  warrior  the  reputation 
of  a  gentle  troubadour.  Monarchs  were  now  the  professors  of 
the  art,  and  the  only  patrons  were  the  ladies.  Women,  no 
longer  beautiful  ciphers,  acquired  complete  liberty  of  action, 
and  the  homage  paid  to  them  amounted  almost  to  worship. 

At  the  festivals  of  the  haughty  barons,  the  lady  of  the  castle, 
attended  by  youthful  beauties,  distributed  crowns  to  the  con- 
querors in  the  jousts  and  tournaments.  She  then,  in  turn,  sur- 
rounded by  her  ladies,  opened  her  Court  of  Love,  and  the  candi- 
dates for  poetical  honors  entered  with  their  harps  and  contended 
for  the  prize  in  extempore  verses  called  tensons.  The  Court  of 
Love  then  entered  upon  a  grave  discussion  of  the  merits  of  the 
question,  and  a  judgment  or  arret  iVamour  was  given,  frequently 
in  verse,  by  which  the  dispute  was  supposed  to  be  decided. 
These  Courts  often  formally  justified  the  abandonment  of  moral 
duty,  and  assuming  the  forms  and  exercising  the  power  of  ordi- 
nary tribunals,  they  defined  and  prescribed  the  duties  of  the 
sexes,  and  taught  the  arts  of  love  and  song  according  to  the 
most  depraved  moral  principles,  mingled,  however,  with  an 
affected  display  of  refined  sentimentality.  Whatever  may  have 
been  their  utility  in  the  advancement  of  the  language  and  the 
cultivation  of  literary  taste,  these  institutions  extended  a  legal 
sanction  to  vice,  and  inculcated  maxims  of  shameful  prolligacy. 

The  songs  of  the  Proven9al3  were  divided  into  chanzos  and 
sirvcntcs  ;  the  object  of  the  former  was  love,  and  of  the  latter 
war,  pohtics  or  satire.  The  name  of  tenson  w^as  given  to  those 
poetical  contests  in  verse  which  took  place  in  the  Courts  of  Love, 
or  before  illustrious  princes.  The  songs  wore  sung  from  chateau 
to  chateau,  either  by  the  troubadours  themselves,  or  by  the 
jongleur  or  instrument  player  by  whom  they  were  attended  ; 
they  often  abound  in  extravagant  hyperboles,  trivial  conceits 
and  grossness  of  expression.  Ladies,  whose  attractions  were 
estimated  by  the  number  and  desperation  of  their  lovers, 
and  the  songs  of  their  troubadours,  were  not  offended 
if  licentiousness  mino-led  with  gallantrv  in  the  songs  com- 
posed  in  their  praise.  Authors  addressed  prayers  to  the 
saints  for  aid  in  their  amorous  intrigues,  and  men,  seemingly 
rational,  resigned  themselves  to  the  wildest  transports  of  passion 


FKEXCH   LITERATUKE.  255 

for  iudividuals  whom,  iu  some  cases,  they  had  never  seen.  This 
religious  enthusiasm,  martial  bravery  and  licentious  love,  so 
grotesquely  mingled,  formed  the  very  life  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
impossible  as  it  is  to  transfuse  into  a  translation  the  harmony  of 
Provencal  verse,  or  to  find  in  it,  when  stripped  of  this  harmony, 
any  poetical  idea,  the  value  of  these  remains  consists  chiefly  in 
this,  that  they  present  us  with  a  Uving  picture  of  life  and  man- 
ners as  they  then  prevailed. 

The  intercourse  of  the  Proven9als  with  the  Moors  of  Spain, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  greatly  increased  by  the  union  of 
Catalonia  and  Provence  (1092),  introduced  into  the  North  an 
acquaintance  with  the  arts  and  learning  of  the  Arabians.  It  was 
then  that  rhyme,  the  essential  characteristic  of  Arabian  poetry, 
was  adopted  by  the  troubadours  into  the  Provencal  language, 
and  thence  communicated  to  the  nations  of  modern  Europe. 

The  poetry  of  the  troul^adours  borrowed  nothing  from  history, 
mythology,  or  from  foreign  manners,  and  no  reference  to  the 
sciences  or  the  learning  of  the  schools  mingled  with  their  simple 
effusions  of  sentiment.  This  fact  enables  us  to  comprehend  how 
it  was  possible  for  princes  and  linights,  who  were  often  unable  to 
read,  to  be  yet  ranked  among  the  most  ingenious  troubadours. 
Several  public  events,  however,  materially  contributed  to  enlarge 
the  sphere  of  intellect  of  the  knights  of  the  Langue  d'oc.  The 
first  was  the  conquest  of  Toledo  and  New  Castile  by  Alphonso 
YI.,  in  which  he  was  seconded  by  the  Cid  Rodriguez,  the  hero 
of  Spain,  and  by  a  number  of  French  Provencal  knights  ;  the 
second  was  the  preaching  of  the  crusades.  Of  all  the  events 
recorded  in  the  history  of  the  world,  there  is,  perhaps,  not  one 
of  a  nature  so  highly  poetical  as  these  holy  wars  ;  not  one 
which  presents  a  more  powerful  picture  of  the  grand  effects  of 
enthusiasm,  of  noble  sacrifices  of  self  interest  to  faith,  sentiment 
and  passion,  which  are  essentially  poetical.  Many  of  the  trou- 
badours assumed  the  cross;  others  were  detained  in  Europe  by 
the  bonds  of  love,  and  the  conflict  between  passion  and  religious 
enthusiasm  lent  its  influence  to  the  poems  they  composed.  The 
third  event  was  the  succession  of  the  kind's  of  Eno-land  to  the 
sovereignty  of  a  large  part  of  the  countries  where  the  Langue 
d'oc  prevailed,  which  influenced  the  manners  and  opinions  of  the 
troubadours,  and  introduced  them  to  the  courts  of  the  most 
powerful  monarchs  ;  while  the  encouragement  given  to  them 
by  the  kings  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet,  had  a  great  influence 
on  the  formation  of  the  English  language,  and  furnished  Chaucer, 
the  father  of  English  literature,  with  his  first  models  for  imitation. 

The  troubadours  numbered  among  their  ranks  the  most  illus- 


25 G  FliENCH    L1TER.\.TUKE. 

trious  sovereigns  and  heroes  of  the  age.  Among  others,  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion  who,  as  a  poet  and  knight,  nnited  in  his  own  per- 
son all  the  brilliant  qualities  of  the  time.  A  story  is  told  of  him, 
that  when  he  was  detained  a  prisoner  in  Germany,  the  place  of 
his  imprisonment  was  discovered  by  Blondel,  his  minstrel,  who 
sans:  beneath  the  fortress  a  tenson  which  he  and  Richard  had 
composed  in  common,  and  to  which  Richard  responded.  Ber- 
trand  de  Born,  who  was  intimately  connected  with  Richard,  and 
who  exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  the  destinies  of  the  royal 
family  of  England,  has  left  a  number  of  original  poems  ;  Sor- 
dello,  of  Mantua,  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  ballad  form  of 
writing,  and  many  of  his  love  songs  are  expressed  in  a  pure  and 
delicate  style.  Both  of  these  poets  are  immortalized  in  the 
Divine  Comedy  of  Dante.  The  history  of  Geoffroy  Rudelillus- 
trates  the  wildness  of  the  imagination  and  manners  of  the  trou- 
badours. He  was  a  gentleman  of  Provence,  and  hearing  the 
knights  who  had  returned  from  the  Holy  Land  speak  with 
enthusiasm  of  the  Countess  of  Tripoli,  who  had  extended  to 
them  the  most  generous  hospitality,  and  whose  grace  and  beauty 
equalled  her  virtues,  he  fell  in  love  with  her  without  ever  having 
seen  her,  and,  leaving  the  court  of  England,  he  embarked  for 
the  Holy  Land,  to  offer  to  her  the  homage  of  his  heart.  During 
the  voyage  he  was  attacked  by  a  severe  illness,  and  lost  the 
power  of  speech.  On  his  arrival  in  the  harbor,  the  Countess, 
being  informed  that  a  celebrated  poet  was  dying  of  love  for 
her,  visited  him  on  ship-board,  took  him  kindly  by  the  hand, 
and  attempted  to  cheer  his  spirits.  Rudel  revived  sufficiently 
to  thank  the  lady  for  her  humanity  and  to  declare  his  passion, 
when  his  voice  was  silenced  by  the  convulsions  of  death.  He 
was  buried  at  Tripoli,  and,  by  the  orders  of  tlie  Countess,  a  tomb 
of  porphyry  was  erected  to  his  memory.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
mention  other  names  among  the  multitude  of  these  poets,  who  all 
hold  nearly  the  same  rank.  An  extreme  monotony  reigns  through- 
out their  works,  which  offer  little  individuality  of  character. 

After  the  13th  century,  the  troul)adours  were  heard  no 
more,  and  the  efforts  of  the  counts  of  Provence,  the  magistrates 
of  Toulouse,  and  the  kings  of  Arragon  to  awaken  their  genius 
by  the  Courts  of  Love  and  the  Floral  Games,  were  vain.  They 
themselves  attributed  their  decline  to  the  degradation  into 
which  the  jongleurs,  with  whom  at  last  they  were  confounded, 
had  fallen.  But  their  art  contained  within  itself  a  more  imme- 
diate principle  of  decay  in  the  profound  ignorance  of  its  profes- 
sors. They  had  no  other  models  than  the  songs  of  the  Ara- 
bians, which  perverted  their  taste.     They  made  no  attempt  at 


FKENCII    LITEEATUEE.  257 

epic  or  dramatic  poetry  ;  they  had  no  classical  allusions,  no 
mytliolog-y,  nor  even  a  romantic  imagination,  and  deprived  of 
the  riches  of  antiquity,  they  had  few  resources  within  them- 
selves. The  poetry  of  Provence  was  a  beautiful  flower  spring- 
ing up  on  a  sterile  soil,  and  no  cultivation  could  avail  in  the 
absence  of  its  natural  nourishment.  From  the  close  of  the 
12th  century  the  language  began  to  decline,  and  public  events 
occurred  which  hastened  its  downfall,  and  reduced  it  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  provincial  dialect. 

Among  the  numerous  sects  which  sprung  up  in  Christendom 
during  the  middle  ages,  there  was  one  which,  though  bearing 
different  names  at  different  times,  more  or  less  resembled  what 
is  now  known  as  Protestantism  ;  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries 
it  was  called  the  faith  of  the  Albigenses,  as  it  prevailed  most 
widely  in  the  district  of  Albi.  It  easily  came  to  be  identified 
with  the  Provencal  lana^uasre,  as  this  was  the  chosen  vehicle  of 
its  religious  services.  This  sect  was  tolerated  and  protected  by 
the  Court  of  Toulouse.  It  augmented  its  numbers  ;  it  devoted 
itself  to  commerce  and  the  arts,  and  added  much  to  the  pros- 
perity which  had  long  distinguished  the  south  of  France.  The 
Albigenses  had  lived  long  and  peaceably  side  by  side  with  the 
Catholics  in  the  cities  and  villages;  but  Innocent  III.  sent 
legates  to  Provence  who  preached,  discussed  and  threatened, 
and  met  a  freedom  of  thought  and  resistance  to  authority  which 
Rome  was  not  willing  to  brook.  Bitter  controversy  was  now 
substituted  for  the  amiable  frivolity  of  the  tensons,  and  theological 
disputes  superseded  those  on  points  of  gallantry.  The  long 
struggle  between  the  poetry  of  the  troubadours  and  the  preach- 
ing of  the  monks  came  to  a  crisis  ;  the  severe  satires  which  the 
disorderly  lives  of  the  clergy  called  forth,  became  severer  still, 
and  the  songs  of  the  troubadours  wounded  the  power  and 
pride  of  Rome  more  deeply  than  ever,  while  they  stimulated  the 
Albigenses  to  a  valiant  resistance  or  a  glorious  death.  A  cru- 
sade followed,  and  when  the  dreadful  strife  was  over,  Proven9al 
poetry  had  received  its  death  blow.  The  language  of  Provence 
was  destined  to  share  the  fate  of  its  poetry  ;  it  became  identified 
in  the  minds  of  the  orthodox  with  heresy  and  rebellion.  When 
Charles  of  Anjou  acquired  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  he  drew 
thither  the  Proven9al  nobility,  and  thus  drained  the  kingdom  of 
those  who  had  formerly  maintained  its  chivalrous  manners.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  when  the  court  of  Rome  was 
removed  to  Avignon,  the  retinues  of  the  three  successive  popes 
were  Italians,  and  the  Tuscan  language  entirely  superseded  the 
Provencal  amonG:  the  hio-her  classes. 

4  O  O 


258  niEXCII    LITERATURE. 

2.  The  Trouveres. — While  tlie  Provencal  was  thus  relaps- 
ing into  a  mere  dialect,  the  north  of  France  was  maturing  a 
new  language  and  literature  of  an  entirely  different  character. 
Normandy,  a  province  of  France,  was  invaded  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury by  a  new  northern  tribe,  who,  under  the  command  of  Rollo 
or  Raoul  the  Dane,  incorporated  themselves  with  the  ancient 
inhabitants.      The  victors  adopted  the  language  of  the  van- 
quished, stamped  upon  it  the  impress  of  their  own  genius,  and 
gave  it  a  fixed  form.     It  was  from  Normandy  that  the  first 
writers  and  poets  in  the  French  language  sprung.     While  the 
Romance  Provencal  spoken  in  the  South  was  sweet,  and  expres- 
sive of  effeminate  manners,  the  Romance  Wallon  was  energetic 
and   warlike,    and    represented    the    severer    manners    of   the 
Germans.     Its  poetry,  too,  was  widely  different  from  the  Pro- 
ven9al.   It  was  no  longer  the  idle  baron  sighing  for  his  lady-love, 
but  the  songs  of  a  nation  of  hardy  warriors,  celebrating  the 
prowess  of  their  ancestors  with  all  the  exaggerations  that  fancy 
could  supply.     The  Langue  d'oui  became  the  vehicle  of  literature 
only  in  the  12th  century — a  hundred  years  subsequent  to  the 
Romance  Provengal.     The  poets  and  reciters  of  tales,  giving  the 
name  of  Troubadour  a  French  termination,  called  themselves 
Trouveres.     They  originated  the  brilhant  romances  of  chivalry, 
tlie  fabliaux  or  tales  of  amusement,  and  the  dramatic  invention 
of  the  mysteries.     The  first  literary  work  in  this  tongue  is  the 
versified  romance  of  a  fabulous  history  of  the  early  kings  of 
England,  beginning  with  Brutus,  the  grandson  of  J^]neas,  who, 
after  passing  many  enchanted  isles,  at  length  establishes  himself 
in  England,  where  he  finds  King  Arthur,  the  chivalric  institution 
of  the  Round  Table,  and  the  enchanter  Merlin,  one  of  the  most 
popular  personages  of  the  middle  ages.      Out  of   this  legend 
arose  some  of  the  boldest  creations  of  the  human  fancy.     The 
word  romance,   now   synonymous   with   fictitious   composition, 
originally  meant  only  a  work  in  the  modern  dialect,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  scliolastic  Latin  ;  there  is  little  doubt  that  these 
tales  were  originally  believed  to  be  strictly  true.     One  of  the 
first  romances  of  chivalry  was  *'  Tristam  de  Leonois,"  written  in 
1190.    This  was  soon  followed  by  that  of  the  ''  San  Graal"  and 
"Lancelot;"  and  previously  to  1213,  Ville-Hardouin  had  written 
in  the  French  language  a  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople."     The   poem   of    "  Alexander,"    however,    which 
appeared  about  the  same  time,  has  enjoyed  the  greatest  reputa- 
tion.    It  is  a  series  of  romances  and  marvellous  histories,  said  to 
be  the  result  of  the  labors  of  nine  celebrated  poets  of  the  time. 
Alexander  is  introduced  surrounded  not  by  the  pomp  of  auti- 


FEEXCH    LITERATURE.  259 

qultj,  but  by  the  splendors  of  chivalry.  The  high  renown  of 
this  poem  has  given  the  name  of  Alexandrine  verse  to  .the  mea- 
sure in  which  it  is  written. 

The  spirit  of  chivalry  which  burst  forth  in  the  romances  of 
the  trouveres  ;  the  heroism  of  honor  and  love,  the  devotion  of 
the  powerful  to  the  weak  ;  the  supernatural  fictions,  so  novel 
and  so  dissimilar  to  everything  in  antiquity  or  in  later  times,  the 
force  and  brilliancy  of  hnagination  which  they  display,  have  been 
variously  attributed  to  the  Arabians  and  the  Germans,  but  they 
were  undoubtedly  the  invention  of  the  Normans.  Of  all  the 
people  of  ancient  Europe,  they  were  the  most  adventurous  and 
intrepid.  They  cstaljlished  a  dynasty  in  Kussia ;  they  cut  their 
way  through  a  perfidious  and  sanguinary  nation  to  Constanti- 
nople ;  they  landed  on  the  coasts  of  England  and  France,  and 
surprised  nations  who  were  ignorant  of  then*  existence  ;  they 
conquered  Sicily,  and  established  a  principality  in  the  heart  of 
Syria.  A  people  so  active,  so  enterprising,  and  so  intrepid, 
found  no  other  delight  in  their  leisure  hours  than  in  hstcning  to 
tales  of  adventures,  dangers  and  battles.  The  romances  of 
chivalry  are  di  voided  into  three  distinct  classes.  They  relate  to 
three  different  epochs  in  the  early  part  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
represent  three  bands  of  fabulous  heroes.  In  the  romances  of 
the  first  class,  the  exploits  of  Arthur,  son  of  Pendragon,  the  last 
British  king  who  defended  England  against  the  invasion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  are  celebrated.  In  the  second  we  find  the  Ama- 
dises,  but  whether  they  belong  to  French  literature  has  been 
reasonably  disputed.  The  scene  is  placed  nearly  in  the  same 
countries  as  in  the  romances  of  the  Round  Table,  but  tliere  is  a 
want  of  locality  about  them,  and  the  name  and  the  times  are 
absolutely  fabulous.  "  Amadis  of  Graul,"  the  first  of  these 
romances,  and  the  model  of  all  the  rest,  is  claimed  as  the  work 
of  Vasco  Lobeira,  a  Portuguese  (1290-1325) ;  but  no  doubt 
exists  with  regard  to  the  contkiuations  and  numerous  imitations 
of  this  work,  which  are  incontestably  of  Spanish  origin,  and 
were  in  their  highest  repute  when  Cervantes  produced  his  inimit- 
able "  Don  Quixote."  The  third  class  of  chivalric  romances, 
relating  to  the  court  of  Charlemagne  and  his  Paladins,  is  entirely 
French,  although  their  celebrity  is  chiefly  due  to  the  renowned 
Italian  poet  who  availed  himself  of  their  fictions.  The  most 
ancient  monument  of  the  marvellous  history  of  Charlemagne  is 
the  chronicle  of  Turpin,  of  uncertain  date,  and  which,  though 
fabulous,  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  a  romance.  This  and 
other  similar  narratives  furnished  materials  for  the  romances, 
which  appeared  at  the  conclusion  of  the  crusades,  when  a  know- 


2G0  FREXCn    LITERATURE. 

leclGre  of  the  East  had  enriched  the  French  imac-ination  with  all 
the  treasures  of  the  Arabian.  The  trouveres  were  not  only  the 
inventors  of  the  romances  of  chivalry,  but  they  originated  the 
allegories,  and  the  dramatic  compositions  of  southern  Europe. 
Although  none  of  their  works  have  obtained  a  high  reputation 
or  deserve  to  be  ranked  among  the  masterpieces  of  human  intel- 
lect, they  are  still  worthy  of  attention  as  monuments  of  the 
progress  of  mind. 

The  term  Poetry  is  applied  to  every  composition  in  which  men 
gifted  with  genius  express  their  various  emotions,  and  which 
unites  harmony  with  richness  of  expression.  The  character  of 
a  people  is  always  communicated  to  their  poetry,  which  is 
ever  in  accordance  with  the  qualities  most  powerfully  devel- 
oped among  the  nations  by  whom  it  is  cultivated.  Thus  among 
the  Proven9als  it  is  full  of  love  and  gallantry,  among  the  Italians 
it  abounds  with  playful  imagination.  The  poetry  of  the  Eng- 
lish is  remarkable  for  its  sensibility  ;  that  of  the  Germans  for 
its  enthusiasm.  In  the  poetry  of  Spain  we  remark  a  wildness  of 
passion,  and  in  that  of  Portugal  a  spirit  of  soft  melancholy  and 
pastoral  reflection.  All  these  nations  considered  those  subjects 
alone  adapted  to  poetry  which  were  in  accordance  with  their 
own  dispositions,  and  they  all  agreed  in  considering  the  character 
of  the  French  nation  as  anti-poetical.  The  latter  from  the 
earliest  period  have  shown  an  aversion  to  the  more  contemplative 
qualities  of  the  mind,  and  have  given  the  preference  to  wit 
and  argument  over  imagination.  They  have  therefore  become 
strangers  to  romantic  poetry,  and,  detaching  themselves  from 
other  modern  nations,  have  placed  themselves  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  ancients,  who  developed  all  the  human  faculties  at 
one  and  the  same  time,  because  the  French  discovered  in 
the  classical  writers  the  qualities  upon  whicli  they  themselves  set 
the  hiirhest  value.  Modern  writers  have  thus  been  divided  into 
two  parties  or  schools,  .the  Classic  and  Romantic,  so  diametrically 
opposed  to  each  other  that  they  each  seem  incapable  of  compre- 
hending the  principles  upon  which  the  other  proceeds. 

The  French  possessed,  above  every  other  nation  of  modern 
times,  an  inventive  spu-it,  but  they  were,  at  the  same  time,  the 
originators  of  those  tedious  allegorical  poems  which  have  been 
imitated  by  all  the  romantic  nations.  The  most  ancient  and 
celebrated  of  these  is  the  ''  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  though  not 
a  romance  in  the  present  sense  of  the  word.  At  the  period  of 
its  composition,  the  French  language  was  still  called  the  Romance, 
and  all  its  more  voluminous  productions  Romances.  The 
"Romance  of  the  Rose"  was  the  work  of  two  authors,  Guil- 


FRENCH    LITERATURE.  261 

laume  de  Lorris,  who  commenced  it  in  the  early  part  of  the  13th 
century,  and  Jean  de  Mean  (b.  1280),  by  ^Yhom  it  was  con- 
tinued. Although  it  reached  the  appalling  length  of  20,000 
verses,  no  book  was  ever  more  popular.  It  was  admired  as  a 
masterpiece  of  wit,  invention,  and  philosophy  ;  the  highest  mys- 
teries of  theology  were  beheved  to  be  concealed  in  this .  poetical 
form,  and  learned  commentaries  were  written  upon  its  veiled 
meaning  by  preachers,  who  did  not  scruple  to  cite  passages  from 
it  in  the  pulpit.  But  the  tedious  poem  and  its  numberless  imita- 
tions are  nothing  but  rhymed  prose,  which  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  recognize  as  poetry,  if  the  measure  of  the  verse  were 
taken  away. 

In  considering  the  popularity  of  these  long,  didactic  works, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  people  of  that  day  were  almost 
entirely  without  books.  A  single  volume  was  the  treasure  of  a 
whole  household.  In  unfavorable  weather  it  was  read  to  a  circle 
around  the  fire,  and  when  it  was  finished  the  perusal  was  again 
commenced.  No  comparison  with  other  books  enabled  them  to 
form  a  judgment  upon  its  merits.  It  was  reverenced  like  holy 
writ,  and  they  accounted  themselves  happy  in  being  able  to 
comprehend  it. 

Another  species  of  poetry  peculiar  to  this  period  had  at  least 
the  merit  of  beins:  exceediuGrlv  amusino*.  This  was  the  Fabliaux, 
tales  written  in  verse  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  They  are 
treasures  of  invention,  simplicity  and  gaiety,  of  which  other  nations 
can  furnish  no  instances,  except  by  borrowing  from  the  French. 
A  collection  of  Indian  tales,  translated  into  Latin  in  the  10th 
or  11th  century,  was  the  first  storehouse  of  the  trouveres. 
The  Arabian  tales,  transmitted  by  the  Moors  to  the  Castilians, 
and  by  the  latter  to  the  French,  were  in  turn  versified.  But 
above  all,  the  anecdotes  collected  in  the  towns  and  castles  of 
France,  the  adventures  of  lovers,  the  tricks  of  gallants,  and  the 
numerous  subjects  gathered  from  the  manners  of  the  age, 
afforded  inexhaustible  materials  for  ludicrous  narratives  to  the 
writers  of  these  tales.  They  were  treasures  common  to  all. 
We  seldom  know  the  name  of  the  trouvere  by  whom  these 
anecdotes  were  versified.  As  they  were  related,  each  one  varied 
them  according  to  the  impression  he  wished  to  produce.  At 
this  period  there  were  neither  theatrical  entertainments  nor 
games  at  cards  to  fill  up  the  leisure  hours  of  society,  and  the 
trouveres  or  relators  of  tales  were  welcomed  at  the  courts, 
castles,  and  private  houses  with  an  eagerness  proportioned  to 
the  store  of  anecdotes  which  they  brought  with  them  to  enliven 
conversation.     Whatever  was  the  subject  of  their  verse,  legends, 


262  FRENCH    LITERATURE. 

miracles,  or  licentious  anecdotes,  they  were  equally  acceptable. 
These  tales  were  the  models  of  those  of  Boccaccio,  La  Fontaine, 
and  others.  Some  of  them  have  had  great  fame,  and  have 
passed  from  tongue  to  tongue,  and  from  age  to  age,  down  to  our 
own  times.  Several  of  them  have  been  introduced  upon  the 
theatre,  and  others  formed  the  originals  of  Parn ell's  "  Hermit," 
of  the  "  Zaire"  of  Voltaire,  and  of  the  "Renard,"  which  Goethe 
has  converted  into  a  long  poem.  But  perhaps  the  most  inte- 
resting and  celebrated  of  all  the  FabUaux  is  that  of  "  Aucassin 
and  ^'icolette,"  which  has  furnished  the  subject  for  a  well-known 
opera. 

It  was  at  this  period,  when  the  ancient  drama  was  entirely 
forgotten,  that  a  dramatic  form  was  given  to  the  great  events 
wdiich  accompanied  the  establishment  of  the  Christian  religion. 
The  first  who  gave  an  impulse  to  this  species  of  composition, 
were  the  pilgrims  who  had  returned  from  the  Holy  Land.  In 
the  12th  or  13th  centuries,  their  dramatic  representations  were 
first  exhibited  in  the  open  streets  ;  but  it  was  only  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  14th,  that  a  company  of  pilgrims  undertook  to 
amuse  the  public  by  regular  dramatic  entertainments.  They 
were  called  the  Fraternity  of  the  Passion,  from  the  passion  of 
our  Saviour  being  one  of  their  most  celebrated  representations. 
This  mystery,  the  most  ancient  dramatic  work  of  modern  i]urope, 
comprehends  the  whole  history  of  our  Lord,  from  his  baptism 
to  his  death.  The  piece  was  too  long  for  one  representation,  it 
was  therefore  continued  from  day  to  day.  Eighty-seven  charac- 
ters successively  appear  in  this  mystery,  among  whom  are  the 
three  persons  of  the  Trinity,  angels,  apostles,  devils,  and  a  host 
of  other  personages,  the  invention  of  the  poet's  brain.  To  fill 
the  comic  parts,  the  dialogues  of  the  devils  were  introduced, 
and  their  eagerness  to  maltreat  one  another  always  produced 
much  laughter  in  the  assembly.  Extravagant  machinery  was 
employed  to  give  to  the  representation  the  pomp  which  we  find 
in  the  modern  opera ;  and  this  drama,  placing  before  the  eyes 
of  a  Christian  assembly  all  those  incidents  for  which  they  felt 
the  highest  veneration,  must  have  affected  them  much  more 
powerfully  than  even  the  finest  tragedies  can  do  at  the  present 
day. 

The  mystery  of  the  Passion  was  followed  by  a  crowd  of  imi- 
tations. The  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  lives  of  all 
tlie  saints,  were  brought  upon  the  stage.  The  theatre  on  which 
these  mysteries  were  represented,  was  always  composed  of  an 
elevated  scafibld  divided  into  three  parts — heaven,  hell,  and  the 
earth  between  them.     The  proceedings  of  the  Deity  and  Lucifer 


FRENCH   LITERATURE.  263 

might  be  discerned  in  their  respective  abodes,  and  angels  de- 
scended and  devils  ascended,  as  their  interference  in  mundane 
affairs  was  required.  The  pomp  of  these  representations  went 
on  increasing  for  two  centuries,  and,  as  great  value  was  set  upon 
the  length  of  the  piece,  some  mysteries  could  not  be  represented 
m  less  than  forty  days. 

The  "  Clerks  of  the  Revels,"  an  incorporated  society  at  Paris, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  regulate  the  public  festivities,  resolved  to 
amuse  the  people  with  dramatic  representations  themselves,  but 
as  the  Fraternity  of  the  Passion  had  obtained  a  royal  hcense  to 
represent  the  mysteries,  they  v,^ere  compelled  to  abstain  from 
that  kind  of  exhibition.     They  therefore  invented  a  new  one,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  of  "  Moralities,'*  and  which  differed 
little  from  the  mysteries,  except  in  name.     They  were  borrowed 
from  the  Parables,  or  the  historical  parts  of  the  Bible,  or  they 
were  purely  allegorical.     To  the  Clerks  of  the  Revels  we  also 
owe  the  invention  of  modern  comedy.     They  mingled  thefr  mo- 
ralities with  farces,  the  sole  object  of  which  was  to  excite  laugh- 
ter, and  in  which  all  the  gaiety  and  vivacity  of  the  French 
character  were  displayed.     Some  of  these  plays  still  retain  their 
place  upon  the  French  stage.     At  the  commencement  of  the 
15th  century,  another  comic  company  was  established,  who  intro- 
duced personal  and  even  political  satire  upon  the  stage.     Thus 
every  species  of  dramatic  representation  was  revived  by  the 
French.    This  was  the  result  of  the  talent  for  imitation  so  pecu- 
liar to  the  French  people,  and  to  that  pliancy  of  thought  and 
correctness  of  intellect  which  enables  them  to  conceive  new  cha- 
racters.   All  these  inventions,  which  led  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Romantic  drama  in  other  countries,  were  known  in  France 
more  than  a  century  before  the  rise  of  the  Spanish  or  Italian 
theatre,  and  even  before  the  classical  authors  were  first  studied 
and  imitated.     At  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  these  new  pur- 
suits acquired  a  more  immediate  influence  over  the  literature  of 
France,  and  wrought  a  change  in  its  spirit  and  rules,  without, 
however,  altering  the  national  character  and  taste  which  had 
been  manifested  in  the  earliest  productions  of  the  trouv^res. 

3.  French  Literature  in  the  Fifteenth  Century. — French 
had  as  yet  been  merely  a  popular  language  ;  it  varied  from  pro- 
vince to  province,  and  from  author  to  author,  because  no  master- 
piece had  inaugurated  any  one  of  its  numerous  dialects.  It  was 
disdained  by  the  more  serious  writers,  who  continued  to  employ 
the  Latin.  In  the  15th  century  literature  assumed  a  somewhat 
wider  range,  and  the  language  began  to  take  precision  and  force 


264  FUEXCH   LITERATURE. 

But  with  much  general  improvement  and  literary  industry,  there 
was  still  nothing  great  or  original,  nothing  to  mark  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  letters.  The  only  poets  worthy  of  notice  were 
Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans  (1391-14G5),  and  Villon,  a  low  ruf- 
fian of  Paris  (1431-1500).  Charles  was  taken  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Agincourt,  and  carried  to  England,  where  he  was 
detained  for  twenty-five  years,  and  where  he  wrote  a  volume  of 
poems  in  which  he  imitated  the  allegorical  style  of  the  Romance 
of  the  Rose.  The  verses  of  Villon  were  inspired  by  the  events 
of  his  not  very  creditable  life.  Again  and  again  he  suffered 
imprisonment  for  petty  larcenies,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five 
was  condemned  to  be  hanged.  His  language  is  not  that  of  the 
court,  but  of  the  people  ;  and  his  poetry  marks  the  first  sensible 
progress  after  the  Romance  of  the  Rose, 

It  has  been  well  said,  that  literature  begins  with  poetry  ;  but 
it  is  e^stablished  by  prose,  which  fixes  the  language.  The  earliest 
work 'in  French  prose  is  the  chronicle  of  Ville-Hardouin  (1150- 
1213),  written  in  the  13th  century.  It  is  a  personal  narrative, 
and  relates  with  graphic  particularity  the  conquest  of  Constanti- 
nople by  the  knights  of  Christendom.  This  ancient  chronicle 
traces  out  for  us  some  of  the  realities,  of  which  the  mediaeval 
romances  were  the  ideal,  and  enables  us  to  judge  in  a  measure 
how  far  these  romances  embody  substantial  truth. 

A  great  improvement  in  style  is  apparent  in  Joinville  (1223- 
1317),  the  amiable  and  light-hearted  ecclesiastic  who  wrote  the 
Life  of  St.  Louis,  whom  he  had  accompanied  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  whose  pious  adventures  he  affectionately  records.  jN'otwith- 
standing  the  anarchy  which  prevailed  in  France  during  the  14th 
century,  some  social  progress  was  made  ;  but  while  public  events 
were  hostile  to  poetry,  they  gave  inspiration  to  the  historic 
muse,  and  Froissart  arose  to  impart  vivacity  of  coloring  to 
historic  narrative. 

Froissart  (1337-14 10)  was  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  day,  but 
little  in  his  life  or  writings  bespeaks  the  sacred  calhng.  Having 
little  taste  for  the  duties  of  his  profession,  he  was  employed  by 
the  Lord  of  Montfort  to  compose  a  chronicle  of  the  wars  of 
the  time  ;  but  there  were  no  books  to  tell  him  of  the  past,  no 
reirular  communication  between  nations  to  inform  him  of  the 
present;  so  he  followed  the  fashion  of  knights  errant,  and  set  out 
on  horseback,  not  to  seek  adventures,  but,  as  an  itinerant  histo- 
rian, to  find  materials  for  his  chronicle.  He  wandered  from  town 
to  town,  and  from  castle  to  castle,  to  see  the  places  of  wluch  he 
would  write,  and  to  learn  events  on  the  spot  where  they  trans- 
pired.    His  first  journey  was  to  England  ;  here  he  was  employed 


FKEXCII    LITERATURE.  265 

by  Queen  Philippa  of  Hainault  to  accompany  the  Duke  of 
Clarence  to  Milan,  where  he  met  Boccaccio  and  Chaucer.  He 
afterwards  passed  into  the  service  of  several  of  the  princes  of 
Europe,  to  whom  he  acted  as  secretary  and  poet,  always  glean- 
ing material  for  historic  record.  His  book  is  an  almost  universal 
history  of  the  different  states  of  Europe,  from  1322  to  the  end 
of  the  14th  century.  He  troubles  himself  with  no  explanations 
or  theories  of  cause  and  effect,  nor  with  the  philosophy  of  state 
policy  ;  he  is  simply  a  graphic  story-teller.  Sir  Walter  Scott 
called  Froissart  his  master. 

Philippe  de  Commines  (1445-1509)  was  a  man  of  his  age,  but  in 
advance  of  it,  combining  the  simplicity  of  the  15tli  century  with 
the  sagacity  of  a  later  period.  An  annalist,  like  Froissart,  he 
was  also  a  statesman,  and  a  political  philosopher  ;  embracing, 
like  Machiavelli  and  Montesquieu,  the  remoter  consequences 
which  flowed  from  the  events  he  narrated  and  the  principles  he 
unfolded.  He  was  an  unscrupulous  diplomat  in  the  service  of 
Louis  XL,  and  his  description  of  the  last  years  of  that  monarch 
is  a  striking  piece  of  history,  whence  poets  and  novelists  have 
borrowed  themes  in  later  times.  But  neither  the  romance  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott  nor  the  song  of  Beranger  does  justice  to  the 
reality,  as  presented  by  the  faithful  Commines. 


PERIOD   SECOND. 

The  Rexaissaxce  axd  the  Goldex  Age  of  Frexch  Literature 

(1500-lTOO). 

1.  The  Rexaissaxce  axd  the  Keformatiox. — During  the  pre- 
ceding ages,  erudition  and  civilization  had  not  gone  hand-in-hand. 
On  the  one  side  there  was  the  bold,  chivalric  mind  of  young  Eu- 
rope, speaking  with  the  tongues  of  yesterday,  while  on  the  other 
was  the  ecclesiastical  mind,  expressing  itself  in  degenerate  Latin. 
The  one  was  a  life  of  gaiety  and  rude  disorder — the  life  of  court 
and  castle  as  depicted  in  the  literature  just  scanned  ;  the  other, 
that  of  men  separated  from  the  world,  who  had  been  studying 
the  hterary  remains  of  antiquity,  and  transcribing  and  treasuring 
them  for  future  generations.  Hitherto  these  two  sections  had 
teld  their  courses  apart :  now  they  were  to  meet  and  blend  in 
harmony.  The  vernacular  poets,  on  the  one  hand,  borrowing 
thought  and  expression  from  the  classics,  and  the  clergy,  on  the 
other,  becoming  purveyors  of  light  hterature  to  the  court 
circles. 

12 


206  FREXCH    LITERATURE. 

The  15th  century,  though  somewhat  barren,  had  prepared  for 
the  fecundity  of  succeeding  ages.  The  revival  of  the  study  of 
ancient  literature,  which  was  promoted  by  the  downfall  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  invention  of  printing,  the  discovery  of  the  new 
world,  the  decline  of  feudalism,  and  the  consequent  elevation  of 
the  middle  classes — all  concurred  to  promote  a  rapid  improve- 
ment of  the  human  intellect. 

During  the  early  part  of  tlie  16th  century,  all  the  ardor  of  the 
French  mind  was  tm'ned  to  the  study  of  the  dead  languages  ; 
men  of  genius  had  no  higher  ambition  than  to  excel  in  them, 
and  many  in  their  declining  years  went  in  their  grey  hairs  to 
the  schools  where  the  languages  of  Homer  and  Cicero  were 
taught.  In  civil  and  political  society,  the  same  enthusiasm 
manifested  itself  in  the  imitation  of  antique  manners ;  people 
dressed  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  fashions,  borrowed  from  them  the 
usages  of  life,  and  made  a  point  of  dying  like  the  heroes  of 
Plutarch. 

The  religious  reformation  came  soon  after  to  restore  the 
Christian,  as  the  revival  of  letters  had  brought  back  the  pagan 
antiquity.  Ignorance  was  dissipated,  and  religion  was  disen- 
gaged from  philosophy.  The  Renaissance,  as  the  revival  of 
antique  learning  was  called,  and  the  Reformation  at  first  made 
common  cause.  One  of  those  who  most  eagerly  imbibed  the 
spirit  of  both,  was  the  Princess  Marguerite  de  Yalois 
(1492-1549),  elder  sister  of  Francis  I.,  who  obtained  the 
credit  of  many  generous  actions  which  were  truly  hers.  The 
principal  work  of  this  lady  was  "  L'Heptameron,"  or  the  His- 
tory of  the  Fortunate  Lovers,  written  on  the  plan  and  in  the 
spirit  of  the  Decameron  of  Boccaccio,  a  work  which  a  lady  of 
our  times  would  be  unwilling  to  own  acquaintance  with,  much 
more  to  adopt  as  a  model ;  but  the  apology  for  Marguerite 
must  be  found  in  the  manners  of  the  times.  L'Heptameron 
is  the  earUest  French  prose  that  can  be  read  without  a 
glossary. 

In  1518,  when  Margaret  was  twenty-six  years  of  age,  she 
received  from  her  brother,  a  gifted  poet  as  valet-de-chambre  ; 
this  was  Marot  (1495-1544),  between  whom  and  the  learned 
princess  a  poetical  intercourse  was  maintained.  Marot  had 
imbibed  the  principles  of  Calvin,  and  had  also  drank  deeply  of 
the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  ;  but  he  displayed  the  poet  more 
truly  before  he  was  cither  a  theologian  or  a  classical  scholar. 
He  may  be  considered  the  last  type  of  the  old  French  school, 
of  that  combination  of  grace  and  archness,  of  elegance  and 
simphcity,  of  familiarity  and  propriety,  which  is  a  national  chu- 


FRENCH   LITERATURE.  2G7 

racteristic  of  French  poetic  literature,  and  in  wliicli  they  have 
never  been  imitated. 

Francis  Rabelais  (1483-1553)  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able persons  that  figured  in  the  Renaissance,  a  learned  scholar, 
physician  and  philosopher,  though  known  to  posterity  chiefly  as 
a  profane  humorist.  He  is  called  by  Lord  Bacon  "  the  great 
jester  of  France."  He  was  at  first  a  monk  of  the  Franciscan 
order,  but  he  afterwards  threw  off  the  sacerdotal  character,  and 
studied  medicine.  From  about  the  year  1534,  Rabelais  was  in 
the  service  of  the  Cardinal  Dubellay,  and  a  favorite  in  the 
court  circles  of  Paris  and  Rome.  It  was  probably  during  this 
period  that  he  published,  in  successive  parts,  the  work  on  Avhich 
his  popular  fame  has  rested,  the  "  Lives  of  Garagantua  and 
Pantagruel."  It  consists  of  the  fives  and  adventures  of  these 
two  gigantic  heroes,  father  and  son,  with  the  waggeries  and 
practical  jokes  of  Panurge,  their  jongleur,  and  the  blasphemies 
and  obscenities  of  Friar  John,  a  fighting,  swaggering,  drinking 
monk.  With  these  are  mingled  dissertations,  sophistries,  and 
allegorical  satires  in  abundance.  The  publication  of  the  work 
created  a  perfect  uproar  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  among  the  monks 
who  were  its  principal  victims  ;  but  the  cardinals  enjoyed  its 
humor,  and  protected  its  author,  while  the  king,  Francis  I.,  pro- 
nounced it  innocent  and  delectable.  It  became  the  book  of  the 
day,  and  passed  through  countless  editions  and  endless  com- 
mentaries ;  and  yet  it  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  there  exists 
not  another  work,  admitted  as  literature,  that  would  bear  a 
moment's  comparison  with  it,  for  indecency,  profanity,  and  repul- 
sive and  disgusting  coarseness.  His  work  is  now  a  mere  curiosity 
for  the  student  of  antique  literature. 

As  Rabelais  was  the  leading  type  of  the  Renaissance,  so  was 
Calvin  (1509-1564)  of  the  Reformation.  Having  embraced 
the  principles  of  Luther,  he  went  considerably  further  in  his 
views.  In  1532,  he  established  himself  at  Geneva,  where  he 
organized  a  church  according  to  his  own  ideas.  In  1535,  he 
published  his  "  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  distinguished 
for  great  severity  of  doctrine.  His  next  most  celebrated  work 
is  a  commentary  on  the  Scriptures. 

Intellect  continued  to  struggle  with  its  fetters.  Many,  like 
Rabelais,  mistrusted  the  whole  system  of  ecclesiastical  polity 
estabUshed  by  law,  and  yet  did  not  pin  their  faith  on  the  dictates 
of  the  austere  Calvin.  The  almost  inevitalile  consequence  was  a 
wide  and  universal  skepticism,  replacing  the  former  implicit  sub- 
jection to  Romanism. 

The  most  eminent  type  of  this  school  was  Montaigne  (1533- 


268  FKEN^CH   LITERATURE. 

1592),  who,  in  his  Essays,  shook  the  foundations  of  all  the 
creeds  of  his  day,  without  offering  anything  to  replace  them. 
He  is  considered  the  earliest  philosophical  writer  in  French 
prose,  the  first  of  those  who  contributed  to  direct  the  minds  of 
theii'  countrymen  to  the  study  of  human  nature.  In  doing  so, 
he  takes  himself  as  his  subject ;  he  dissects  his  feehngs,  emotions 
and  tendencies  with  the  coolness  of  an  operating  surgeon.  To  a 
singular  power  of  self  investigation  and  an  acute  observation  of 
the  actions  of  men,  he  added  great  affluence  of  thought  and 
cxcursiveness  of  fancy,  which  render  him,  in  spite  of  his  egotism, 
a  most  attractive  writer.  As  he  would  have  considered  it  dis- 
honest to  conceal  anything  about  himself,  he  has  told  much  tliat 
our  modern  ideas  of  decorum  would  deem  better  untold. 

Charron  (1541-1G03),  the  friend  and  disciple  of  Montaigne, 
was  as  bold  a  thinker,  though  inferior  as  a  writer.  In  his  book, 
'*  De  la  Sagesse,"  he  treats  religion  as  a  mere  matter  of  specu- 
lation, a  system  of  dogmas  without  practical  influence.  Otlier 
writers  followed  in  the  same  steps,  and  affected,  like  him,  to 
place  skepticism  at  the  service  of  good  morals.  "  License,"  says 
a  French  writer,  "  had  to  come  before  liberty,  skepticism  before 
philosophical  inquiry,  the  school  of  Montaigne  before  tliat  of 
Descartes."  On  the  other  hand,  St.  Francis  de  Sales  (1567- 
1622),  in  his  *'  Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life,"  and  other  works, 
taught  that  the  only  cure  for  the  evils  of  human  nature  was  to 
be  found  in  the  grace  which  was  revealed  by  Christianity, 

In  these  struggles  of  thought,  in  this  conflict  of  creeds,  the 
language  acquired  vigor  and  precision.  In  the  works  of  Calvin, 
it  manifested  a  seriousness  of  tone,  and  a  severe  purity  of  style 
which  commanded  general  respect.  An  easy,  natural  tone  was 
imparted  to  it  by  Amyot  (1513-1593),  professor  of  Greek  and 
Latin  at  the  University  of  Paris,  who  enriched  the  literature 
with  elegant  translations,  in  which  lie  blended  Hellenic  graces 
with  those  strictly  French. 

2.  Light  Literature. — Ronsard  (1524-1585),  the  favorite 
poet  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  flourished  at  the  time  that  the 
rage  for  ancient  literature  was  at  its  height.  He  traced  the 
first  outlines  of  modern  French  poetry,  and  introduced  a  higher 
style  of  poetic  thought  and  feeling  than  had  hitherto  been 
known.  To  him  France  owes  the  first  attempt  at  the  ode  and 
the  heroic  epic  ;  in  the  former,  he  is  regarded  as  the  precursor 
of  Malherbe,  who  is  still  looked  on  as  a  model  in  this  style. 
But  Ronsard,  and  the  numerous  school  which  he  formed,  not 
only  imitated  the  spirit  and  form  of  the  ancients,  but  aimed  to 


FRENCH    LITER ATUKE.  269 

subject  his  own  language  to  combinations  and  inversions  like 
those  of  the  Greek  and  Latin,  and  foreign  roots  and  phrases 
began  to  overpower  the  reviving  flexibility  of  the  French 
idiom. 

Under  this  influence,  the  drama  was  restored  by  Jodelle 
(1532-1573)  and  others,  iu  the  shape  of  imitations  and  transla- 
tions. Towards  the  end  of  the  century,  however,  there  ap- 
peared a  reaction  against  this  learned  tragedy,  led  by  Alexander 
Hardy  (1560-1631),  who,  with  little  or  no  original  genius,  pro- 
duced about  1,200  plays.  He  borrovred  in  every  direction,  and 
imitated  the  stvles  of  all  nations.  But  the  <2:eneral  taste,  how- 
ever,  soon  returned  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  school. 

The  glorious  reign  of  Henry  lY.  had  been  succeeded  by  the 
stormy  minority  of  Louis  XIII.,  when  Malherbe  (1556-1*628), 
the  tyrant  of  words  and  syllables,  appeared  as  the  reformer  of 
.poetry.  He  attracted  attention  by  ridicuhng  the  style  of  Ron- 
sard.  He  became  the  laureate  of  the  court,  and  furnished  for  it 
that  literature  in  which  it  was  bejiinninsr  to  take  deho-ht.  In 
the  place  of  Latin  and  Greek  French,  he  inaugurated  the  ex- 
treme of  formality  ;  the  matter  of  his  verse  was  made  subordi- 
nate to  the  manner  ;  he  substituted  pohsh  for  native  beauty, 
and  effect  for  genuine  feeling. 

I.  de  Balzac  (^1591-1624:),  in  his  frivolous  epistles,  used 
prose  as  Malherbe  did  verse,  and  a  numerous  school  of  the  same 
character  was  soon  formed.  The  works  of  Yoiture  (1598-1648) 
abound  in  the  pleasantries  and  affected  simplicity  which  best 
befit  such  compositions.  The  most  trifling  adventure — the 
death  of  a  cat  or  a  dog — was  transformed  into  a  poem,  in  which 
there  was  no  poetry,  but  only  a  graceful  facility,  which  was  con- 
sidered perfectly  charming.  Then,  as  though  native  affectation 
were  not  enough,  the  borrowed  wit  of  Italian  Marinism,  which 
had  been  eagerly  adopted  in  Spain,  made  its  way  thence  into 
France,  with  Spanish  exaggeration  superadded.  A  disciple  of 
this  school  declares  that  the  eyes  of  his  mistress  are  as  "  large 
as  his  grief,  and  as  black  as  his  fate."  Malherbe  and  his  school 
fell  afterwards  into  neglect,  for  fashionable  caprice  had  turned 
its  attention  to  burlesque,  and  every  one  believed  himself  capa- 
ble of  writing  in  this  style,  from  the  lords  and  ladies  of  the 
court  down  to  the  valets  and  maid-servants.  It  was  men  like 
Scarron  (1610-1660),  familiar  with  literary  study,  and,  from 
choice,  with  tlie  lowest  society,  who  introduced  this  form,  the 
pleasantry  of  which  was  increased  by  contrast  with  the  finical 
taste  that  had  been  in  vogue.  Fashion  ruled  the  light  litera- 
ture of  France  during  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century,  and 


270  FRENCH    LITERATURE, 

tliroiigli  all  its  diversities,  its  great  cliaracteristic  is  the  absence 
of  all  true  and  serious  feeling,  and  of  that  inspiration  which  is 
drawn  from  realities.  In  the  productions  of  half  a  century,  we 
find  not  one  truly  elevated,  energetic,  or  pathetic  work. 

It  is  during  this  time,  that  is,  between  the  death  of  Henry 
lY.  (1610),  and  that  of  Richelieu  (1642),  that  we  mark 
the  be2:innino:  of  literarv  societies  in  France.  The  earliest 
in  point  of  date  was  headed  by  Madame  de  Rambouillet 
(1610-1642),  whose  hotel  became  a  seminary  of  female 
authors  and  factious  politicians.  This  lady  was  of  Itahan 
origin,  of  tine  taste  and  education.  She  had  turned  away  in 
disgust  from  the  rude  manners  of  the  court  of  Henry  lY.,  and 
devoted  herself  to  the  study  of  the  classics.  After  the  death  of 
the  King,  she  gathered  a  distinguished  circle  round  herself,  com- 
bining the  elegances  of  high  life  with  the  cultivation  of  literary 
taste.  While  yet  young,  Madame  de  Rambouillet  was  attacked 
with  a  malady  which  obliged  her  to  keep  her  bed  the  greater 
part  of  every  year.  An  elegant  alcove  was  formed  in  the  great 
salon  of  the  house,  where  her  bed  was  phiced,  and  here  she 
received  her  friends.  The  choicest  wits  of  Paris  flocked  to  her 
levees  ;  tiie  Hotel  de  Rambouillet  became  the  fashionable  ren- 
dezvous of  literature  and  taste,  and  bas-bleit-'ism  was  the  rage. 
Even  the  infirmities  of  this  accomplished  lady  were  imitated. 
An  alcove  was  essential  to  every  fashionable  belle,  who,  attired 
in  a  coquettish  dishabille,  and  reclining  on  satin  pillows,  fringed 
with  lace,  gave  audience  to  whispered  gossip  in  the  ruelle,  as 
the  space  around  the  bed  was  called. 

Among  the  personages  renowned  in  their  day,  who  frequented 
the  Hotel  Rambouillet,  were  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery  (160T— 
1701),  then  in  the  zenith  of  her  fame,  Madame  de  Sevigne  (1627- 
1696),  Mademoiselle  de  la  Yergne,.  afterwards  Madame  de  Lafay- 
ette (1655-1693),  eminent  as  literary  characters;  the  Duchess  de 
Longueville,  the  Duchess  de  Chevreuse,  and  Madame  Deshou- 
lieres,  afterwards  distinguished  for  their  political  ability.  At  the 
feet  of  these  noble  ladies  reclined  a  number  of  Y0un2:  seiirneurs, 
dangling  their  little  hats  surcharged  with  plumes,  while  their 
mantles  of  silk  and  gold  were  spread  loosely  on  the  floor.  And 
there,  in  more  grave  attire,  were  the  professional  litterateurs, 
such  as  Balzac,  Yoiture,  Menage,  Scudery,  Chaplain,  Costart, 
Conrad,  and  the  Abbe  Bossuet.  The  Cupid  of  the  hotel  was 
strictly  Platonic.  The  romances  of  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery  were 
long-spun  disquisitions  on  love  ;  her  characters  were  drawn  from 
the  individuals  around  her,  who  in  turn  attempted  to  sustain  the 
characters  and  adopt  the  language  suggested  in  her  books.    One 


FRENCH   LITEEATUKE.  27l   . 

foil  J  led  on  another,  till  at  last  the  vocabulary  of  the  salon  be- 
came so  artificial,  that  none  but  the  hiitiated  could  understand 
it.  As  for  Mademoiselle  de  Scuderj  herself,  applying,  it  would 
seem,  the  impracticable  tests  she  had  invented  for  sounding  the 
depths  of  the  tender  passion,  though  not  Avithout  suitors,  she 
died  an  old  maid,  at  the  advanced  age  of  94. 

The  civil  wars  of  the  Fronde  (1649-1654  )  were  unfavorable 
to  literary  meetings.  The  women  who  took  the  most  distin- 
guished part  in  these  troubles  had  graduated,  so  to  say,  from  the 
Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  which,  perhaps  for  this  reason,  declined 
with  the  ascendency  of  Louis  XIY.  The  agitations  of  the 
Fronde  taught  him  to  distrust  clever  women,  and  he  always 
showed  a  marked  dislike  for  female  authorship. 

3.  The  French  Acadejiy. — The  taste  for  literature,  which 
had  become  so  generally  diffused,  rendered  the  men  whose  pro- 
vince it  was  to  define  its  laws  the  chiefs  of  a  brilliant  empire. 
Scholars,  therefore,  frequently  met  together  for  critical  dis- 
cussion. About  the  year  1629  a  certain  number  of  men  of  let- 
ters agreed  to  assemble  one  day  in  each  week.  It  was  a  union 
of  friendship,  a  companionship  of  men  of  kindred  tastes  and 
occupations  ;  and  to  prevent  intrusion,  the  meetings  were  for 
some  time  kept  secret.  When  Richelieu  came  to  hear  of  the 
existence  of  the  society,  desirous  to  make  literature  subservient 
to  his  political  glory,  he  proposed  to  these  gentlemen  to  form 
themselves  into  a  corporation,  established  by  letters  patent,  at 
the  same  time  hinting  that  he  had  the  power  to  put  a  stop  to 
their  secret  meetings.  The  argument  was  irresistible,  and  the 
little  society  consented  to  receive  from  his  highness  the  title  of 
the  French  Academy,  in  1635.  The  members  of  the  Academy 
were  to  occupy  themselves  in  establishing  rules  for  the  French 
language,  and  to  take  cognizance  of  whatever  books  were  written 
by  its  members,  and  by  others  who  desired  its  opinions. 

4.  The  Drama. — The  endeavor  to  imitate  the  ancients  in  the 
tragic  art  displayed  itself  at  a  very  early  period  among  the 
French,  and  they  considered  that  the  surest  method  of  succeed- 
ing in  this  endeavor  was  to  observe  the  strictest  outward  regu- 
larity of  form,  of  which  they  derived  their  ideas  more  from  Aris- 
totle, and  especially  from  Seneca,  than  from  any  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  models  themselves.  Three  of  the 
most  celebrnted  of  the  French  tragic  poets,  Corneille,  Racine  and 
Voltaire,  have  given,  it  would  seem,  an  immutable  shape  to  the 
tragic  stage  of  France  by  adopting  this  system,  which  has  been 


272  FKEXCn    LITEKATUKE. 

considered  by  the  French  critics  universally  as  alono  entitled  to 
any  anthority,  and  who  have  viewed  every  deviation  from  it  as 
a  sin  against  good  taste.  The  treatise  of  Aristotle,  from  which 
they  have  derived  the  idea  of  the  far-famed  three  unities,  of 
action,  time  and  place,  which  have  given  rise  to  so  many  critical 
wars,  is  a  mere  fragment,  and  some  scholars  have  been  of  the 
opinion  that  it  is  not  even  a  fragment  of  the  true  original,  but 
of  an  extract  which  some  person  made  for  his  own  improvement. 
From  this  anxious  observance  of  the  Greek  rules,  under  totallv 
different  circumstances,  it  is  obvious  that  great  inconveniences 
and  incongruities  must  arise  ;  and  the  criticism  of  the  Academy 
on  a  tragedy  of  Corneille,  '*  that  the  poet,  from  the  fear  of 
sinning  against  the  rules  of  art,  had  chosen  rather  to  sin  against 
the  rules  of  nature/'  is  often  applicable  to  the  dramatic  writers 
of  France. 

Corneille  (160G-1684  )  ushered  in  a  new  era  in  the  French 
drama.  It  has  been  said  of  him  that  he  was  a  man  greater  in 
himself  than  in  his  works,  his  genius  being  fettered  by  the  rules 
of  the  French  drama  and  the  conventional  state  of  French  verse. 
The  days  of  mysteries  and  moralities  was  past,  and  the  comedies 
of  Hardy,  the  court  poet  of  Henry  W.,  had,  in  their  turn,  been 
consigned  to  oblivion,  yet  there  was  an  increasing  taste  for  the 
drama.  The  first  comedy  of  Corneille,  ''  Melite,"  was  followed 
by  many  others,  which,  though  now  considered  unreadable,  were 
better  than  anything  then  known.  The  appearance  of  the 
"  Cid,"  in  1635,  a  drama  constructed  on  the  foundation  of  the  old 
Spanish  romances,  constituted  an  era  in  the  dramatic  history  of 
France.  Although  not  without  great  faults,  resulting  from 
strict  adherence  to  the  rules,  it  was  the  lirst  time  that  the 
depths  of  passion  had  been  stirred  on  the  stage,  and  the  success 
was  unprecedented.  For  years  after,  his  pieces  followed  each 
other  in  rapid  succession,  and  the  history  of  the  stage  was  that 
of  Corneille's  works.  In  the  "  Cid,"  the  triumph  of  love  was 
exhibited  ;  in  "  Les  Horaces,"  love  was  represented  as  punished 
for  its  rebellion  against  the  laws  of  honor  ;  in  "  Cinna,"  all  more 
tender  considerations  ai'c  sacriliced  to  the  implacable  duty  of 
avenging  a  father  ;  while  in  "  rolyeucte,"  duty  triumphs  alone, 
Corneille  did  not  boldly  abandon  himself  to  the  guidance  of  his 
genius  ;  he  feared  criticism,  although  he  defied  it.  His  success 
proved  the  signal  for  envy  and  detraction  ;  he  became  angry  at 
beinG:  obliged  to  fic-ht  his  wav,  and  therefore  withdrew  from  the 
path  in  which  he  was  likely  to  meet  enemies.  His  decline  was  as 
rapid  as  his  success  had  been  brilliant.  '*  The  fall  of  the  great 
Corneille,"  says  Foutenelle,  ''may  be  reckoned  as  among  the 


FKEXCII    LITEKATUEE.  273 

most  remarkable  examples  of  the  vicissitudes  of  human  affairs. 
Even  that  of  Belisarius  asking  alms  is  not  more  striking."  As 
his  years  increased,  he  became  more  anxious  for  popularity ;  hav- 
ing been  so  long  in  possession  of  undisputed  superiority,  he  could 
not  behold  without  dissatisfaction  the  rising  glory  of  his  suc- 
cessors ;  and,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  this  weakness  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  decay  of  his  bodily  organs. 

5.  Philosophy. — Daring  this  period,  in  a  region  far  above 
court  favor,  Descartes  (1596-1650)  elaborated  his  system  of 
philosophy,  in  creating  a  new  method  of  philosophizing.  The 
leading  peculiarity  of  his  system  was  the  attempt  to  deduce  all 
moral  and  religious  truth  from  self-consciousness.  /  think,  there- 
fore I  am,  was  the  famous  axiom  on  which  the  whole  was  built. 
From  this  he  inferred  the  existence  of  two  distinct  natures  in 
man,  the  mental  and  the  physical,  and  the  existence  of  certain 
ideas  which  he  called  innate  in  the  mind,  and  serving  to  connect 
it  with  the  spiritual  and  invisible.  Besides  these  new  views  in 
metaphysics,  Descartes  made  valuable  contributions  to  mathe- 
matical and  physical  science  ;  and  though  his  philosophy  is  now 
generally  discarded,  it  is  not  forgotten  that  he  opened  the  way 
for  Locke,  Newton  and  Leibnitz,  and  that  his  system  was  in 
reality  the  base  of  all  those  that  superseded  it.  There  is  scarcely 
a  name  on  record,  the  bearer  of  which  has  given  a  greater 
impulse  to  mathematical  and  philosophical  inquiry  than  Des- 
cartes, and  he  embodied  his  thoughts  in  such  masterly  language, 
that  it  has  been  justly  said  of  him,  that  his  fame  as  a  writer 
would  have  been  greater,  if  his  celebrity  as  a  thinker  had  been 
less. 

The  age  of  Descartes  was  an  interesting  era  in  the  annals  of 
the  human  mind.  The  darkness  of  scholastic  philosophy  was 
gradually  clearing  away  before  the  light  which  an  improved 
method  of  study  was  shedding  over  the  natural  sciences.  A 
system  of  philosophy,  founded  on  observation,  was  preparing  the 
downfall  of  those  traditional  errors  which  had  long  held  the 
mastery  in  the  schools.  Geometricians,  physicians  and  astrono- 
mers taught,  by  their  example,  the  severe  process  of  reasoning 
which  was  to  reu'enerate  all  the  sciences  ;  and  minds  of  the  first 
order,  scattered  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  communicated  to 
each  other  the  results  of  their  labors,  and  stimulated  each  other 
to  new  exertions. 

One  of  the  most  eminent  contemporaries  of  Descartes  was 
Pascal  (1628-1662).  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  wrote  a  treatise 
on  conic  sections,  which  was  followed  by  several  important  dis- 

12* 


274  FUEXCU    LITER ATUKE. 

coveries  in  arithmetic  and  geometry.  His  experiments  in  natural 
science  added  to  his  fame,  and  he  was  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  eminent  geometricians  of  modern  times.  But  he  soon 
formed  the  design  of  abandoning  science  for  pursuits  exclusively 
religious,  and  circumstances  arose  which  became  the  occasion  of 
those  "Provincial  Letters,"  which,  with  the  "  Pensees  de  la  Re- 
ligion," are  considered  among  the  finest  specimens  of  French 
literature. 

The  abbey  of  Port  Royal  occupied  a  lonely  Bituation  about 
six  leagues  from  Paris.  Its  internal  discipline  had  recently 
undergone  a  thorough  reformation,  and  the  abbey  rose  to  such 
a  high  reputation,  that  men  of  piety  and  learning  took  up  their 
abode  in  its  vicinity,  to  enjoy  literary  leisure.  The  establishment 
received  pupils,  and  its  system  of  education  became  celebrated  in 
a  religious  and  intellectual  point  of  view.  The  great  rivals  of 
the  Port  Royalists  were  the  Jesuits.  Pascal,  though  not  a 
member  of  the  establishment,  wiis  a  frequent  visitor,  and  one  of 
his  friends  there,  having  been  drawn  into  a  controversy  with  the 
Sorbonne  on  the  doctrines  of  the  Jansenists,  had  recourse  to  his 
aid  in  replying.  Pascal  published  a  series  of  letters  in  a  drama- 
tic form,  in  which  he  brought  his  adversaries  on  the  stage  with 
hhnself,  and  fairly  cut  them  up  for  the  public  amusement.  These 
letters,  combining  the  comic  pleasantry  of  Moliere  with  the 
eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  so  elegant  and  attractive  in  style,  and 
so  clear  and  popular  that  a  child  might  understand  them,  gained 
immediate  attention  ;  but  the  Jesuits,  whose  policy  and  doc- 
trines they  attacked,  finally  induced  the  parliament  of  Provence 
to  condemn  them  to  be  burnt  by  the  common  hangman;  and  the 
Port  Royalists,  refusing  to  renounce  their  opinions,  were  driven 
from  their  retreat,  and  the  establishment  broken  up.  Pascal's 
master-piece  is  the  ''  Pensces  dc  la  Religion  ;"  it  consists  of 
fragments  of  thought,  without  apparent  connection  or  unity  of 
design.  These  thoughts  are  in  some  places  obscure  ;  they  con- 
tain repetitions,  and  even  contradictions,  and  require  that  arrange- 
ment that  could  only  have  been  supplied  by  the  hand  of  the 
writer.  It  has  often  been  lamented  that  the  author  never  con- 
structed the  edifice  which  it  is  believed  he  had  designed,  and  of 
which  these  thoughts  were  the  splendid  materials. 

G.  The  Rise  of  the  Golden  Age  of  French  Literature. — 
When  Louis  XIV.  came  to  the  throne  (1638-1715),  France 
had  received  various  elements  calculated  to  prepare  her  for  a 
brilliant  period  in  literature.  She  had  been  brought  into  close 
relations  with  Spain  and  Italy,  tlio  roiintries  tlien  the  most  ad- 


FRENCH    LITER ATUKE.  275 

vanced  in  intellectual  culture  ;  and  she  had  received  from  the 
study  of  the  ancient  masters,  the  best  correctives  of  whatever 
might  have  been  extravagant  in  the  national  genius.  She  had 
learned  some  useful  lessons  from  the  polemical  distractions  of  the 
16th  century.  The  religious  earnestness  excited  by  controversy 
was  gratified  by  preachers  of  high  endowments,  and  the  political 
ascendency  of  France,  among  the  kingdoms  of  Europe,  imparted 
a  general  freedom  and  buoyancy.  But  of  all  the  influences 
which  contributed  to  perfect  the  literature  of  France  in  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  ITth  century,  none  was  so  powerful  as  that  of  the 
monarch  himself,  who,  by  his  personal  power,  rendered  his  court 
a  centre  of  knowledge,  and,  by  his  government,  imparted  a  feeling 
of  security  to  those  who  lived  under  it.  The  predominance  of 
the  sovereign  became  the  most  prominent  feature  in  the  social 
character  of  the  age,  and  the  whole  circle  of  the  literature  bears 
its  impress.  Louis  raised  and  improved,  in  no  small  degree,  the 
position  of  literary  men,  by  granting  pensions  to  some,  while  he 
raised  others  to  high  offices  of  state  ;  or  they  were  recompensed 
by  the  public,  through  the  general  taste,  which  the  monarch  so 
largely  contributed  to  diffuse. 

The  age,  unlike  that  which  followed  it,  was  one  of  order,  and 
specialty  in  literature  ;  and  in  classifying  its  literary  riches,  we 
shall  find  the  principal  authors  presenting  themselves  under  the 
different  subjects  :  Racine  with  tragedy,  Moliere  with  comedy, 
Boileau  with  satirical  and  mock-heroic,  La  Fontaine  with  narra- 
tive poetry,  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue  and  Massillon  with  pulpit 
eloquence  ;  Patru,  Pellisson,  and  some  others  with  that  of  the 
bar;  Bossuet,  de  Retz  and  St.  Simon  with  history  and  memoirs; 
Rochefoucauld  and  La  Bruyere  with  moral  philosophy;  Fenelon 
and  Madame  de  Lafavette  with  romance  :  and  Madame  de 
Sevigne  with  letter-writing. 

The  personal  influence  of  the  king  was  most  marked  on  pulpit 
eloquence  and  'dramatic  poetry.  Other  branches  found  less 
favor,  from  his  dishke  to  those  who  chiefly  treated  them.  The 
recollections  of  the  Fronde  had  left  in  his  mind  a  distrust  of 
Rochefoucauld.  A  similar  feeling  of  political  jealousy,  with  a 
thorough  hatred  of  hd  esprit,  especially  in  a  woman,  prevented 
him  from  appreciating  INIadame  de  Sevigne  ;  and  he  seems  not 
even  to  have  observed  La  Bruyere,  in  liis  modest  functions  as 
teacher  of  history  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  He  had  no  taste 
for  the  pure  mental  speculations  of  Malebranche  or  Fenelon  ; 
and  in  metaphysics,  as  in  religion,  had  little  patience  for  what 
was  beyond  the  good  sense  of  ordinary  individuals.  The  same 
hatred  of  excess  rendered  him  equally  the  enemy  of  refiners  and 


276  FREXCU    LITERATURE. 

free-thinkers,  so  that  the  like  exile  fell  to  the  lot  of  Arnauld  and 
Bayle,  the  one  carrying  to  the  extreme  the  doctrines  of  grace, 
and  the  other  those  of  skeptical  inquiry.  Kor  did  he  relish  the 
excessive  simplicity  of  La  Fontaine,  or  deem  that  his  talent  was  a 
sufficient  compensation  for  his  slovenly  manners  and  inaptitude 
for  court  life.  Of  all  these  writers  it  may  be  said,  that  they 
flourished  rather  in  spite  of  the  personal  influence  of  the  monarch, 
than  under  his  favor. 

t.  Tragedy.— The  first  dramas  of  Racine  (1639-1G99) 
were  but  feeble  imitations  of  Cornoille,  who  advised  the 
young  author  to  attempt  no  more  tragedy.  He  replied  by  pro- 
ducing ''  Andromaque,"  which  had  a  most  powerful  effect  upon 
the  stage.  The  poet  had  discovered  that  sympathy  was  a  more 
powerful  source  of  tragic  effect  than  admiration,  and  he  accord- 
ingly employed  the  powers  of  his  genius  in  a  truthful  expression 
of  feeling  and  character,  and  a  thrilling  alternation  of  hope  and 
fear,  anger  and  pity.  Andromaque  was  followed  almost  every 
year  by  a  work  of  similar  character.  Henrietta  of  England  in- 
duced Corneille  and  Racine,  unknown  to  each  other,  to  produce 
a  tragedy  on  Berenice,  in  order  to  contrast  the  powers  of  these 
illustrious  rivals.  They  were  represented  in  the  year  1670  ;  that 
of  Corneille  proved  a  failure,  but  Racine's  was  honored  by  the 
tears  of  the  court  and  the  city.  Soon  after,  partly  disgusted  at 
the  intrigues  against  him,  and  partly  from  religious  principle, 
Racine  abandoned  his  career  while  yet  in  the  full  vigor  of  his 
life  and  genius.  He  was  appointed  historiograplier  to  the  king, 
conjointly  with  Boileau,  and  after  twelve  years  of  silence  he  was 
induced  by  Madame  de  Maintenon  to  compose  the  drama  of 
"  Esther,"  for  the  pupils  in  the  Maison  de  St.  C}t,  which  met 
with  prodigious  success.  "  Athahe,"  considered  the  most  per- 
fect of  his  works,  was  composed  with  similar  views  ;  theatricals 
having  been  abandoned  at  the  school,  however,-  the  play  was 
pubhshed,  but  found  no  readers.  Discouraged  by  this  second 
injustice,  Racine  finally  abandoned  the  drama.  Atlialie  was  but 
little  known  till  the  year  1716,  since  when  its  reputation  has 
consideraljly  augmented.  Yoltaire  pronounced  it  the  most  perfect 
work  of  human  genius.  The  subject  of  this  drama  is  taken  from 
the  twenty-second  and  twenty-third  chapters  of  II.  Chronicles, 
where  it  is  written  that  Athaliah,  to  revenge  the  death  of  her 
son,  destroyed  all  the  seed  royal  of  the  house  of  Judah,  but  that 
the  young  Joash  was  stolen  from  among  the  rest  by  his  aunt 
Jehoshabeath,  the  wife  of  the  high  priest,  and  hidden  with  his  nurse 
for  six  years  in  the  temple.     Besides  numerous  tragedies,  Racine 


FKENCU    LITERATURE.  277 

composed  odes,  epigrams,  and  spiritual  songs.  By  a  rare  com- 
bination of  talents  he  wrote  as  well  iii  prose  as  in  verse.  His 
History  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIY.  was  destroyed  by  a  con- 
flagration, but  there  remain  the  History  of  Port  Royal,  some 
pleasing  letters  and  some  academic  discourses.  The  tragedies 
of  Racine  are  more  elegant  than  those  of  Corneille,  though  less 
bold  and  striking.  Corneille's  principal  characters  are  heroes 
and  heroines  thrown  mto  situations  of  extremity,  and  displaying 
strength  of  mind  superior  to  their  position.  Racine's  characters 
are  men,  not  heroes,  men  such  as  they  are,  not  such  as  they 
might  possibly  be. 

France  produced  no  other  tragic  dramatists  of  the  first  class 
in  this  age.  Somewhat  later,  Crebillon  (lGt4-lt62),  in  such 
wild  tragedies  as  "  Atrea,"  "  Electra,"  and  "  Rhadamiste,"  in- 
troduced a  new  element,  that  of  terror,  as  a  source  of  tragic 
effect. 

Cardinal  Mazarin  had  brought  from  Italy  the  Opera  or  lyric 
tragedy,  which  was  cultivated  with  success  by  Quinault  (163T- 
1688).  He  is  said  to  have  taken  the  bones  out  of  the  French 
language  by  cultivating  an  art  in  which  thought,  incident  and 
dialogue  are  made  secondary  to  the  development  of  tender  and 
voluptuous  feeUng. 

8.  Comedy. — The  comic  drama,  which  occupied  the  French 
stage  till  the  middle  of  the  11th  century,  was  the  comedy  of 
intrigue,  borrowed  from  Spain,  and  turning  on  disguises,  dark 
lanterns  and  trap-doors  to  help  or  hinder  the  design  of  person- 
ages who  were  types,  not  of  individual  character,  but  of  classes, 
as  doctors,  lawyers,  lovers,  and  confidants.  It  was  reserved  for 
Moliere  (1622-1673)  to  demolish  all  this  childishness,  and  en- 
throne the  true  Thalia  on  the  French  stage.  Like  Shakspeare, 
he  was  both  an  author  and  an  actor.  The  appearance  of  the 
"  Precieuses  Ridicules"  was  the  first  of  the  comedies  in  which 
the  gifted  poet  assailed  the  follies  of  his  age.  The  object  of  this 
satire  was  the  system  of  solemn  sentimentality  which  at  this 
time  was  considered  the  perfection  of  elegance.  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  there  existed  at  Paris  a  coterie  of  fashionable 
women  who  pretended  to  the  most  exalted  refinement  both  of 
feeling  and  expression,  and  that  these  were  waited  upon  and 
worshipped  by  a  set  of  nobles  and  litterateurs,  who  used  towards 
tLsm  a  peculiar  strain  of  high-flown  pedantic  gallantry.  These 
ladies  adopted  fictitious  names  for  themselves  and  gave 
enigmatical  ones  to  the  commonest  things.  They  lavished 
upon  each  other  the  most  tender  appellations,  as  though  in 


278  FRENCH    LITERATURE. 

contrast  to  the  frigid  tone  in  wliich  the  Platonism  of  the  Hotel 
required  them  to  address  the  g-eutlemen  of  their  circle.  Ma 
chert,  ma  p-ccieuse,  were  the  terms  most  frequently  used  by  the 
leaders  of  this  world  of  folly,  and  a  precieuse  came  to  be  synony- 
mous with  a  lady  of  the  clique;  hence  the  title  of  the  comedy. 
The  piece  was  received  with  unanimous  applause;  a  more  signal 
victory  could  not  have  been  gained  by  a  comic  poet,  and  from 
the  time  of  its  first  representation  this  bombastic  nonsense  was 
given  up.  Moliere,  perceiving  that  he  had  struck  the  true  vein, 
resolved  to  study  human  nature  more  and  Plautus  and  Terence 
less.  Comedy  after  comedy  followed,  which  were  true  pictures 
of  the  follies  of  society;  but  whatever  was  the  theme  of  his  satire, 
all  proved  that  he  had  a  falcon's  eye  for  detecting  vice  and  folly 
in  every  shape,  and  talons  for  pouncing  upon  all  as  the  natural 
prey  of  the  satirist.  On  the  boards  he  always  took  the  principal 
character  himself,  and  he  was  a  comedian  in  every  look  and  ges- 
ture. The  "Malade  Imaginaire"  was  the  last  of  his  works. 
When  it  was  produced  upon  the  stage,  the  poet  himself  was 
really  ill,  but  repressing  the  voice  of  natural  suffering,  to  affect 
that  of  the  hypochondriac  for  public  amusement,  he  was  seized 
with  a  convulsive  cough,  and  carried  home  dying.  Though  he 
was  denied  the  last  offices  of  the  church,  and  his  remains  were 
with  difficulty  allowed  Christian  burial,  in  the  following  century 
his  bust  was  placed  in  the  Academy,  and  a  monument  erected 
to  his  memory  in  the  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise.  The  best  of 
Moliere's  works  are,  "  Le  Misanthrope,"  "  Les  Femmes  Savantes," 
and  "Tartufe  ;"  these  are  considered  models  of  high  comedy. 
Other  comedians  followed,  but  at  a  great  distance  from  him  in 
point  of  merit. 

9.  Fable,  Satire,  Mock-Heroic,  and  other  Poetry-. — 
La  Fontaine  (1621-1695)  was  the  prince  of  fabulists  ;  his  fables 
appeared  successively  in  thi;ee  collections,  and  although  the  sub- 
jects of  some  of  these  are  borrowed,  the  dress  is  entirely  new. 
His  versification  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  charms  of  his 
poetry,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  result  of  an  instinctive  sense 
of  harmony,  a  delicate  taste  and  rapidity  of  invention.  There 
are  few  authors  in  France  more  popular,  none  ,so  much  the 
familiar  genius  of  every  fireside.  La  Fontaine  himself  was  a  mere 
child  of  nature,  indolent,  and  led  by  the  whim  of  the  moment, 
rather  than  by  any  fixed  principle.  He  was  desired  by  his 
father  to  take  charge  of  the  domain  of  which  he  was  the  keeper, 
and  to  unite  himself  in  marriage  with  a  family  relative.  With 
unthinking  docihty  he  consented  to  both,  but  neglected  alike 


FKEXCH   LITERATUKE.  2/9 

his  official  duties  and  domestic  obligations  with  an  innocent  un- 
consciousness of  wrong.  He  was  taken  to  Paris  by  the  Duchess 
of  Bouillon  and  passed  his  days  in  her  coteries,  and  those  of 
Racine  and  Boileau,  utterly  forgetful  of  his  home  and  family, 
except  when  his  pecuniary  necessities  obliged  him  to  return  to 
sell  portions  of  his  property  to  supply  his  wants.  When  this 
was  exhausted,  he  became  dependent  on  the  kindness  of  female 
discerners  of  merit.  Henrietta  of  England  attached  him  to  her 
suite  ;  and  after  her  death,  Madame  de  la  Sabliere  gave  him 
apartments  at  her  house,  supplied  his  wants,  and  indulged  his 
humors  for  twenty  years.  When  she  retired  to  a  convent, 
^Madame  d'Hervart,  the  wife  of  a  rich  financier,  offered  him  a 
similar  retreat.  While  on  her  way  to  make  the  proposal,  she 
met  him  in  the  street,  and  said,  "  La  Fontaine,  will  you  come  and 
live  in  my  house  ?"  "I  was  just  going,  madame,"  he  replied,  as 
if  his  doing  so  had  been  the  simplest  and  most  natural  thing  in 
the  world.  And  here  he  remained  the  rest  of  his  days.  France 
has  produced  numerous  writers  of  fables  since  the  time  of  La  Fon- 
taine, but  none  worthy  of  comparison  with  him. 

The  writings  of  Descartes  and  Pascal,  with  the  precepts  of 
the  Academy  and  Port  Royal,  had  established  the  art  of  prose 
composition,  but  the  destiny  of  poetry  continued  doubtful. 
Corneille's  masterpieces  afforded  models  only  in  one  department; 
there  was  no  specific  doctrine  on  the  idea  of  what  poetry  ought 
to  be.  To  supply  this  was  the  mission  of  Boileau  (1636-1711) ; 
and  he  fulfilled  it,  first  by  satirizing  the  existing  style,  and  then 
by  composing  an  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  after  the  manner  of  Horace. 
In  tiie  midst  of  men  who  made  verses  for  the  sake  of  making 
them,  and  composed  languishing  love-songs  upon  the  perfections 
of  mistresses  who  never  existed  except  in  their  own  imaginations, 
Boileau  determined  to  write  nothing  but  what  interested  bis 
feelings,  to  break  with  this  aftected  gallantry,  and  draw  poetry 
only  from  the  depths  of  his  own  heart.  His  debut  was  made  in 
unmerciful  satires  on  the  works  of  the  poetasters,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  plead  the  cause  of  reason  against  rhyme,  of  true  poetry 
against  false ;  despite  the  anger  of  the  poets  and  their  friends,  his 
satires  enjoyed  immense  favor,  and  he  consolidated  his  victory 
by  writing  the  Art  of  Poetry,  in  which  he  attempted  to  restore 
it  to  its  true  dignity.  This  work  obtained  for  him  the  title  of 
Legislator  of  Parnassus.  The  mock-heroic  poem  of  the  "  Lutrin" 
is  considered  as  the  happiest  effort  of  his  muse,  though  inferior 
to  the  "  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  a  composition  of  a  similar  kind. 
The  occasion  of  this  poem  was  a  frivolous  dispute  between  the 
treasurer  and  the  chapter  of  a  cathedral  concerning  the  placing 


280  FKEXCII    LITERATUEE. 

of  a  readiug-desk  {lutrin).  A  friend  playfully  challenged  Boileau 
to  write  a  heroic  poem  on  the  subject,  to  verify  his  own  theory, 
that  the  excellence  of  a  heroic  poem  depended  upon  the  power 
of  the  inventor  to  sustain  and.  enlarge  upon  a  slender  ground- 
work. Boileau  was  the  last  of  the  great  poets  of  the  golden 
age. 

The  horizon  of  the  poets  was  at  this  time  somewhat  circum- 
scribed. Confined  to  tiie  conventional  life  of  the  court  and  the 
city,  they  enjoyed  little  opportunity  for  the  contemplation  of 
nature.  The  policy  of  Louis  XIV.  proscribed  national  recollec- 
tions, so  that  the  social  life  of  the  day  was  alone  open  to  them. 
Poetry  thus  became  abstract  and  ideal,  or  limited  to  the  deline- 
ation of  those  passions  which  belong  to  a  highly  artificial  state* 
of  society.  Madame  Deshouheres  (1634-1694:)  indeed  wrote 
some  graceful  idyls,  but  she  by  no  means  entered  into  the  spirit 
of  rural  life  and  manners,  like  La  Fontaine. 

10.  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit  axd  of  the  Bar. — Louis  XIY. 
afforded  to  religious  eloquence  the  most  efficacious  kind  of  encou- 
ragement, that  of  personal  attendance.  The  court  preachers 
had  no  more  attentive  auditor  than  their  royal  master,  who  was 
singularly  gifted  with  that  tenderness  of  conscience  which  leads 
a  man  to  condemn  himself  for  his  sins,  yet  indulge  in  their  com- 
mission ;  to  feel  a  certain  pleasure  in  self-accusation,  and  to  enjoy 
that  reaction  of  mind  which  consists  in  occasionally  holding  his 
passions  in  abeyance.  This  attention  on  the  part  of  a  great 
monarch,  the  liberty  of  saying  everything,  the  refined  taste  of  the 
audience,  who  could  on  the  same  day  attend  a  sermon  of  B.our- 
daloue  and  a  tragedy  of  Racine,  all  tended  to  lead  pulpit  elo- 
quence to  a  high  degree  of  perfection;  and,  accordingly,  we  find 
the  function  of  court  preacher  exercised  successively  by  Bossuet 
(1627-1704),  Bourdaloue  (1032-1704),  and  Massillon  (1663-- 
1742),  the  gTeatest  names  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
boasted  in  any  age  or  country.  Bossuet  addressed  the  conscience 
through  the  imagination,  Bourdaloue  through  the  judgment,  and 
Massillon  through  the  feelings.  Flechier  (1632-1710),  another 
court  preacher,  renowned  chiefly  as  a  rhetorician,  was  not  free 
from  the  affectation  of  i&s  Prcdemes ;  but  Bossuet  was  perhaps 
the  most  distinguished  type  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIY.,  in  all  save 
its  vices.  For  the  instruction  of  the  Dauphin,  to  whom  he  had 
been  appointed  preceptor,  he  wrote  his  "  Discourse  upon  Univer- 
sal History,"  by  which  he  is  chiefly  known  to  us.  The  Protestant 
controversy  elicited  his  famous  "  Exposition  of  the  Catholic  Doc- 
trine."    A   still  more  celebrated  work  is  the  "  History  of  the 


FRENCH   LITEEATURE.  281 

Variations,"  the  leading  principle  of  Avhich  is,  that  to  forsake 
the  authority  of  the  church  leads  one  knows  not  whither,  that 
there  can  be  no  new  religious  views  except  false  ones,  and  that 
there  can  be  no  escape  from  the  faith  transmitted  from  age  to 
age,  save  in  the  wastes  of  skepticism.  In  his  controversy  with 
Fenelon,  in  relation  to  the  mystical  doctrines  of  Madame  Guyon, 
Bossuet  showed  himself  irritated,  and  at  last  furious,  at  the  mode- 
rate and  submissive  tone  of  his  opponent.  He  procured  the 
banishment  of  Fenelon  from  court,  and  the  disgrace  of  his  friends; 
and  through  his  iutluence  the  pope  condemned  the  ''  Maxims  of 
the  Saints,"  in  which  Fenelon  endeavored  to  show  that  the 
views  of  Madame  Guyon  were  those  of  others  whom  the  church 
had  canonized.  The  sermons  of  Bossuet  w^ere  paternal  and  fa- 
miliar exhortations  ;  he  seldom  prepared  them,  but,  abandoning 
himself  to  the  inspiration  of  the  moment,  w^as  now  simple  and 
touching,  now  energetic  and  sublime.  His  familiarity  with  the 
language  of  inspiration  imparted  to  his  discourses  a  tone  of 
almost  prophetic  authority  ;  his  eloquence  appeared  as  a  native 
instinct,  a  gift  direct  from  heaven,  neither  marred  nor  improved 
by  the  study  of  human  rules.  France  does  not  acknowledge  the 
Protestant  Saurin  (16^-1730),  as  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  expatriated  him  in  childhood ;  but  his  sermons  occupy 
a  distinguished  place  in  the  theological  literature  of  the  French 
language. 

Political  or  parliamentary  oratory  was  as  yet  unknown,  for 
the  parliament  no  sooner  touched  on  matters  of  state  and  govern- 
ment, than  Louis  XIY.  entered,  booted  and  spurred,  with  whip 
in  hand,  and  not  figuratively,  but  literally,  lashed  the  refractory 
assembly  into  silence  and  obedience.  But  the  eloquence  of  the 
bar  enjoyed  a  considerable  degree  of  freedom  in  this  age.  Law 
and  reason,  however,  were  too  often  overlaid  by  worthless  con- 
ceits, and  a  fantastic  abuse  of  classic  and  scriptural  citations.  Le 
Maitre  (1608-1658),  Patru  (1604-1681),  Pellisson  (1624- 
1693),  Cochin  (1687-1749),  and  D'Aguesseau  (1668-1751), 
successively  purified  and  elevated  the  language  of  the  tribu- 
nals. 

11.  Moral  Philosophy. — The  most  celebrated  moralist  of 
the  age  was  the  Duke  de  Bochefoucauld  (1613-1680).  He 
was  early  drawn  into  those  conflicts  known  as  the  wars  of  the 
Fronde,  thouo^h  he  seems  to  have  had  little  motive  for  fiahtino: 
or  intriguing,  except  his  restlessness  of  spirit  and  his  attachment 
to  the  Duchess  de  Longucville.  He  soon  quarrelled  with  the 
duchess,  dissolved  his  alliance  with  Conde,  and  being  afterwards 


282  FRENCH    LITERATURE. 

included  in  tlie  amnesty,  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Paris,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV, 
His  chosen  friends,  in  his  decUning  years,  were  Madame  de  Sovigne, 
one  of  the  most  accomphshed  women  of  the  age,  and  Madame  de 
Lafayette,  who  said  of  him,  ''He  gave  me  intellect,  and  I 
reformed  his  heart."  But  if  the  taint  was  removed  from  his 
heart,  it  continued  in  the  understanding.  His  famous  ''  Maxims," 
published  in  1665,  gained  for  the  author  a  lasting  reputation,  not 
less  for  the  perfection  of  his  style,  than  for  the  boldness  of  his 
paradoxes.  The  leading  peculiarity  of  this  work  is  the  principle 
that  self-interest  is  the  ruling  motive  in  human  nature,  placing 
every  virtue,  as  well  as  every  vice,  under  contribution  to  itself. 
It  is  generally  agreed  that  Rochefoucauld's  views  of  human 
nature  were  perverted  by  the  specimens  of  it  which  he  had 
known  in  the  wars  of  the  Fronde,  which  were  stimulated  by 
vice,  folly,  and  a  restless  desire  of  power.  His  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Reign  of  Anne  of  Austria "  embody  the  story  of  the  Fronde, 
and  his  Maxhns  the  moral  philosophy  he  deduced  from  it. 

AVhile  Pascal,  by  proving  all  human  remedies  unworthy  of 
confidence,  had  sought  to  drive  men  upon  faith  by  pursuing  them 
with  despair,  and  Rochefoucauld,  by  his  pitiless  analysis  of  the 
disguises  of  the  human  heart,  led  his  readers  to  suspect  their  most 
natural  emotions,  and  well-nigh  took  away  tlie  desire  of  virtue 
by  proving  its  impossibility.  La  Bruyere"  (1639-1696  )  endea- 
vored to  make  the  most  of  our  nature,  such  as  it  is,  to  render 
men  better,  even  with  their  imperfections,  to  assist  them  by  a  mo- 
ral code  suited  to  their  strength,  or  rather  to  their  weakness.  His 
"  Characters  of  our  Age  "  is  distinguished  for  the  exactness  and 
variety  of  the  portraits,  as  well  as  for  the  excellence  of  its  style. 
The  philosophy  of  La  Bruyere  is  unquestionably  based  on  reason, 
and  not  on  revelation. 

In  the  moral  works  of  Nicole,  the  Port  Royalist  (1611- 
1645),  we  find  a  system  of  truly  Ciu'istian  ethics,  derived  from 
the  precepts  of  revelation  ;  they  are  elegant  in  style,  though 
they  display  little  originality. 

The  only  speculative  philosopher  of  this  age,  worthy  of  men- 
tion, is  Malebranche  (1631-1715),  a  disciple  of  Descartes;  but, 
unlike  his  master,  instead  of  admitting  innate  ideas,  he  held  that 
we  see  all  in  Deity,  and  that  it  is  only  by  our  spiritual  union 
with  the  Being  who  knows  all  things  that  we  know  anything. 
He  professed  optimism,  and  explained  the  existence  of  evil  by 
saying  that  the  Deity  acts  only  as  a  universal  cause.  His  object 
was  to  reconcile  philosophy  with  revelation  ;  his  works,  though 
models  of  style,  are  now  httle  read. 


FRENCH   LITERATURE.  283 

12.  History  and  Memoirs. — History  attained  no  degree  of 
excellence  during  this  period.  Bossuet's  "  Discourse  on  Univer- 
sal History"  was  a  sermon,  with  general  history  as  the  text. 
At  a  somewhat  earlier  date,  Mezeray  (1610-1683)  compiled 
a  history  of  France.  The  style  is  clear  and  nervous,  and  the 
spirit  which  pervades  it  is  bold  and  independent,  but  the  facts 
are  not  always  to  be  relied  on.  The  "  History  of  Christianity," 
by  the  Abbe  Fleury  (1640-1723),  was  pronounced  by  Voltaire 
to  be  the  best  work  of  the  kind  that  had  ever  appeared.  Holliu 
(1661-1741  )  devoted  his  declining  years  to  the  composition  of 
historical  works  for  the  instruction  of  young  people.  His 
"  Ancient  History"  is  more  remarkable  for  the  excellence  of  his 
intentions  than  for  the  display  of  historical  talent.  Indeed,  the 
historical  writers  of  this  period  may  be  said  to  have  marked, 
rather  than  filled  a  void. 

The  writers  of  memoirs  were  more  happy.  At  an  earlier 
period,  Brantume  (152T-1614),  a  gentleman  attached  to  the 
suite  of  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.,  employed  his  declining 
years  in  describing  men  and  manners  as  he  had  observed  them  ; 
and  his  memoirs  are  admitted  to  embody  but  too  faithfully  a 
representation  of  that  singular  mixture  of  elegance  and  gross- 
ness,  of  superstition  and  impiety,  of  chivalrous  feelings  and 
licentious  morals,  which  characterized  the  16th  century.  The 
Duke  of  Sully  (1559-1641),  the  skillful  financier  of  Henry  IV., 
left  raluable  memoirs  of  the  stirring  events  of  his  day.  The 
"  Memoirs"  of  the  Cardinal  de  Retz "(1614-1679),  who  took  so 
active  a  part  in  the  agitations  of  the  Fronde,  embody  the 
enlarged  views  of  the  true  historian,  and  breathe  the  impetuous 
spirit  of  a  man  whose  native  element  is  civil  commotion,  and  who 
looks  on  the  chieftainship  of  a  party  as  worthy  to  engage  the 
best  powers  of  his  head  and  heart ;  but  his  style  abounds  with 
neo-fiii-ences  and  irreQ:ularities,  which  would  have  shocked  the 
litterateurs  of  the  day. 

The  Duke  de  St.  Simon  (1675-1755  )  is  another  of  those  who 
made  no  pretensions  to  classical  writing.  All  the  styles  of  the 
17th  century  are  found  in  him.  His  language  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  torrent,  v/hich  appears  somewhat  encumbered  by 
the  debris  which  it  carries,  yet  makes  its  way  with  no  less 
rapidity. 

Count  Hamilton  (1646-1720)  narrates  the  adventures  of  his 
brother-in-law,  count  de  Grammont,  of  which  La  Harpe  says, 
"  Of  all  frivolous  books,  it  is  the  most  diverting  and  ingenious." 
Much  lively  narration  is  here  expended  on  incidents  better  for- 
gotten. 


284  FREXCH    LITEKATURE. 

13.  RoiiAXCE  AXD  Letter-writing. — ^The  growth  of  kingly 
power,  the  order  which  it  estabhshecl,  and  the  civilization  which 
followed  in  its  train,  restrained  the  development  of  pnbhc  Mfe 
and  increased  the  interests  of  the  social  relations.  From  this 
new  state  of  things  arose  a  modified  kind  of  romance,  in  which 
elevated  sentiments  replaced  the  achievements  of  mediieval 
fiction  and  the  military  exploits  of  Mademoisehe  de  Scudery's 
tales.  Madame  de  La  Fayette  introduced  that  kind  of 
romance  in  which  the  absorbing  interest  is  that  of  conflicting 
passion,  and  external  events  were  the  occasion  of  developing  the 
inward  life  of  thought  and  feehng.  She  first  depicted  manners 
as  they  really  were,  relating  natural  events  with  gracefulness, 
instead  of  narrating  those  that  never  could  have  had  existence. 

The  iUustrious  Eenelon  (1651-1715)  was  one  of  the  few 
authors  of  this  period  who  belonged  exclusively  to  no  one  class. 
He  appears  as  a  divine  in  his  "  Sermons"  and  "  Maxims  ;"  as  a 
rhetorician  in  his  "  Dialogues  on  Eloquence  :"  as  a  moralist  in 
his  "  Education  of  Girls  ;"  as  a  politician  in  his  "  Examination 
of  the  Conscience  of  a  King  ;"  and  it  may  ])e  said  that  ail  these 
characters  are  combined  in  "  Telemachus,"  which  has  procured 
for  him  a  wide-spread  fame,  and  which  classes  him  among  the 
romancers.  Telemachus  was  composed  with  the  intention  of 
its  becoming  a  manual  for  his  pupil,  the  young  Duke  of  Burgun- 
dy, on  his  entrance  into  manhood.  Though  its  publication 
caused  him  the  loss  of  the  king's  favor,  it  went  through  nume- 
rous editions,  and  was  translated  into  every  language  of  Europe. 
It  was  considered,  in  its  day,  a  manual  for  kings,  and  it  became 
a  standard  book,  on  account  of  the  elegance  of  its  style,  the 
purity  of  its  morals,  and  the  classic  taste  it  was  likely  to  foster 
in  the  youthful  mind. 

Madame  de  Sevigne  made  no  pretensions  to  authorship. 
Her  letters  were  written  to  her  daugliter,  without  the  slightest 
idea  that  they  would  be  read,  except  by  those  to  whom 
they  were  addressed;  but  they  have  inunortalized  their  gifted 
author,  and  have  been  pronounced  worthy  to  occupy  an  eminent 
phice  among  the  classics  of  French  literature.  The  matter  which 
these  celebrated  letters  contain  is  multifarious  ;  they  are  sketches 
of  Madame  de  Sevigne's  friends,  Madame  de  La  Fayette,  Madame 
Scarron,  and  all  the  principal  personages  of  that  brilliant  court, 
from  which,  however,  she  was  excluded,  in  consequence  of  her  early 
alliance  with  the  Fronde,  her  friendship  for  Fouquet,  and  her 
Jansenist  opinions.  All  the  occurrences,  as  well  as  the  charac* 
ters  of  the  day,  are  touched  in  these  letters  ;  and  so  gi'aphic  is 
the  pen,  so  clear  and  easy  the  style,  that  we  seem  to  live  in  tliose 


FREXCH   LITERATURE.  285 

brilliant  days,  and  to  see  all  that  was  going  on.  Great  events 
are  detailed  in  the  same  tone  as  court  gossip  ;  Louis  XIV., 
Turenne,  Conde,  the  wars  of  France  and  of  the  empire,  are  freely 
mingled  with  details  of  housewifery,  projects  of  marriage — in  short, 
the  17th  century  is  depicted  in  the  correspondence  of  two  women, 
who  knew  nothing  so  important  as  their  own  affairs. 

Considerable  interest  attaches  also  to  the  letters  of  Madame  de 
Maintenon  (1635-1719),  a  lady  whose  life  presents  singular 
contrasts,  worthy  of  the  time.  To  her  influence  on  the  king, 
after  her  private  marriage  to  him,  is  attributed  much  that  is  in- 
auspicious in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  the  combination  of 
ascetic  devotion  and  religious  bigotry  with  the  most  flagrant  im- 
morality, the  appointment  of  unskillful  generals  and  weak-minded 
ministers,  the  persecution  of  the  Jansenists,  and  above  all,  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  which  had  secured  religious 
freedom  to  the  Protestants. 


PERIOD   THIRD. 

The  Literature  of  the  Age  of  the  Revolution  and  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century.     (1700-1859.) 

1.  The  Dawn  of  Skepticism. — In  the  age  just  past  we  have 
sSen  religion,  antiquity,  and  the  monarchy  of  Louis  XIY.,  each 
exercising  a  distinct  and  powerful  influence  over  the  buoyancy  of 
French  genius,  which  cheerfully  submitted  to  their  restraining 
power.  A  school  of  taste  and  elegance  had  been  formed,  under 
these  circumstances,  which  gave  law  to  the  rest  of  Europe  and 
constituted  France  the  leading  spirit  of  the  age.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  dominant  influences  of  the  18th  century  were  a  skep- 
tical philosophy,  a  preference  for  modern  literature,  and  a  rage 
for  political  reform.  The  transition,  however,  was  not  sudden 
nor  immediate,  and  we  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  those 
works  which  occupy  the  midway  position  between  the  submissive 
age  of  Louis  XIY.,  and  the  daring  infidelity  and  republicanism 
of  the  18th  century. 

The  18th  century  began  with  the  first  timid  protestation 
against  the  splendid  monarchy  of  Louis  XIY.,  the  domination 
of  the  Catholic  church,  and  the  classical  authority  of  antiquity, 
and  it  ended  when  words  came  to  deeds,  in  the  sanguinary  revo- 
lution of  1789.  When  the  first  generation  of  great  men  who 
Buuned  themselves  in  the  glance  of  Louis  XIY.  had  passed 
u^ay,  there  were  none  to  succeed  them;  the  glory  of  the  mon- 


286  FREXCH   LITERATURE. 

arch  began  to  fade  as  the  Doble  cortege  disappeared,  and  admira- 
tion and  enthusiasm  were  no  more.  The  new  generation,  which 
had  not  shared  the  glory  and  prosperity  of  the  old  monarch,  was 
not  subjugated  by  the  recollections  of  his  early  splendor,  and 
was  not,  like  the  preceding,  proud  to  wear  his  yoke.  A  certahi 
indifference  to  principle  began  to  prevail;  men  ventured  to  doubt 
opinions  once  unquestioned;  the  habit  of  jesting  with  everythnig, 
and  unblushing  cynicism  appeared  almost  under  the  eyes  of  aged 
Louis;  even  Massillon,  who  exhorted  the  people  to  obedience,  at 
the  same  time  reminded  the  king  that  it  was  necessary  to  merit 
it  by  respecting  their  rights.  The  Protestants,  exiled  by  the 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  avenged  themselves  by  in- 
veighing against  the  monarch  and  the  church,  and  these  works 
found  their  way  into  France,  and  fostered  there  the  rising  dis- 
content and  contempt  for  the  authority  of  the  government. 

Among  these  refugees  was  Bayle  (1647-1706),  the  coolest 
and  boldest  of  doubters.  He  wrote  boldly  against  the  intoler- 
ance of  Louis  XIV.,  and  he  affords  the  first  announcement  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  century.  His  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary,"  a  vast  magazine  of  knowledge  and  incredulity,  was 
calculated  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  study  to  a  lively  and 
thoughtless  age.  His  skepticism  is  learned  and  philosophical, 
and  he  ridicules  those  who  reject  without  examination  still  more 
than  those  who  beheve  with  docile  credulity.  Jean  Baptiste 
Rousseau  (1670-1741),  the  lyric  poet  of  this  age,  displayed  in 
his  odes  considerable  energy,  and  a  kind  of  pompous  harmony, 
which  no  other  had  imparted  to  the  language,  yet  he  fails  to  ex- 
cite the  sympathy.  In  his  writings  we  find  that  free  comming- 
ling of  licentious  morals  with  a  taste  for  religious  sublimities, 
which  characterized  the  last  years  of  Louis  XIV.  '  The  Abbd 
Chaulieu  (1639-1720)  earned  the  appellation  of  the  Anacreon 
of  the  Temple,  but  he  did  not,  like  Rousseau,  prostitute  poetry 
in  strains  of  low  debauchery. 

The  tragedians  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Racine  with  more 
or  less  success,  and  comedy  continued,  with  some  vigor,  to  repre- 
sent the  corrupt  manners  of  the  age.  Le  Sage  (1668-1747) 
applied  his  talent  to  romance  ;  and,  like  Moliere,  appreciated 
human  folly  without  analyzing  it.  "Gil  Bias"  is  a  picture  of 
the  human  heart  under  the  aspect  at  once  of  the  vicious  and  the 
ridiculous. 

Fontenelle  (1657-1757),  a  nephew  of  the  great  Corneille,  is 
regarded  as  the  link  between  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  he 
having  witnessed  the  splendor  of  the  best  days  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  hved  long  enough  to  see  the  greatest  men  of  the  18th  cen- 


FRENCH   LITERATURE.  287 

turj.  He  made  his  debut  in  tragedy,  in  which,  however,  he 
found  httle  encouragement.  In  his  "  Pkirality  of  Worlds,"  and 
"  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,"  there  is  much  that  hidicates  the  man 
of  science.  His  other  works  are  valued  rather  for  their  dehcacj 
and  impartiality  than  for  striking  originality. 

Lamotte  (1672-1731)  was  more  distinguished  in  criticism 
than  in  any  other  sphere  of  authorship.  He  raised  the  standard 
of  revolt  against  the  worship  of  antiquity,  and  would  have  de- 
throned poetry  itself  on  the  ground  of  its  inutility.  Thus  skep- 
ticism commenced  by  established  literary  doctrines  becoming 
matters  of  doubt  and  controversy.  Before  attacking  more 
serious  creeds  it  fastened  on  literary  ones. 

Such  is  the  picture  presented  by  the  earlier  part  of  the  18th 
century.  Part  of  the  generation  had  remained  attached  to  the 
traditions  of  the  great  age.  Others  opened  the  path  into  which 
the  wiiole  country  was  about  to  throw  itself.  The  faith  of  the 
nation  in  its  political  institutions,  its  religious  and  literary 
creed,  was  shaken  to  its  foundation  ;  the  positive  and  pal- 
pable began  to  engross  every  interest  hitherto  occupied  by 
the  ideal  ;  and  this  disposition,  so  favorable  to  the  cultivation 
of  science,  brought  with  it  a  universal  spirit  of  criticism. 
The  habit  of  reflecting  was  generally  diffused,  people  were 
not  afraid  to  exercise  their  own  judgment,  every  man  had 
begun  to  have  a  higher  estimate  of  his  own  opinions,  and  to 
care  less  for  those  hitherto  received  as  of  undoubted  authority. 
Still  literature  had  not  taken  any  positive  direction,  nor  had 
there  yet  appeared  men  of  sufficiently  powerful  genius  to  give  it 
a  decisive  impulse. 

2.  Progress  of  Skepticisii. — The  first  powerful  attack  on 
the  manners,  institutions  and  establishments  of  France,  and  in- 
deed of  Europe  in  general,  is  that  contained  in  the  "  Persian 
Letters"  of  the  Baron  de  Montesquieu  (1689-1755);  in  which, 
under  the  transparent  veil  of  pleasantries  aimed  at  the  Moslem 
religion,  he  sought  to  consign  to  ridicule  the  belief  in  every 
species  of  dogma.  But  the  celebrity  of  Montesquieu  is  founded 
on  his  "  Spirit  of  Laws,"  the  greatest  monument  of  human 
genius  in  the  18th  century.  It  is  a  profound  analysis  of  law  in 
its  relation  with  government,  customs,  climate,  religion  and 
commerce.  The  book  is  inspired  with  a  spirit  of  justice  and 
humanity  ;  but  it  places  the  mind  too  much  under  the  dominion 
of  matter,  and  argues  for  necessity  rather  than  liberty,  thus  de- 
priving moral  obligation  of  much  of  its  absolute  character.  It  is 
an  extraordinary  specimen  of  argument,  terseness,  and  erudition. 


288  FRENCH   LITERATURE. 

The  maturity  of  the  18th  century  is  found  in  Voltaire  (1694- 
1778);  he  was  the  personification  of  its  rashness,  its  zeal,  its 
derision,  its  ardor,  and  its  universaUty.  In  him  nature  had,  so 
to  speak,  identified  the  individual  with  the  nation,  bestowing  on 
him  a  character  in  the  highest  degree  elastic,  having  lively  sen- 
sibility but  no  depth  of  passion,  little  system  of  principle  or 
conduct,  but  that  promptitude  of  self-direction  which  supplies  its 
place,  a  quickness  of  perception  amounting  almost  to  intuition, 
and  an  unexampled  degree  of  activity,  by  which  he  was  in  some 
sort  many  men  at  once.  No  writer,  even  in  the  18th  century, 
knew  so  many  things  or  treated  so  many  subjects.  That  which 
was  the  ruin  of  some  minds  was  the  strength  of  his.  Kich  in 
diversified  talent  and  in  the  gifts  of  fortune,  he  proceeded  to  the 
conquest  of  his  age  with  the  combined  power  of  the  highest  en- 
dowments under  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  Driven 
again  and  again,  as  a  moral  pest,  from  the  capital  of  France  by 
the  powers  that  fain  would  have  preserved  the  people  from  his 
opinions,  yet  ever  gaining  ground,  his  wit  always  welcome,  and 
his  opinions  gradually  prevailing,  one  audacious  sentiment  after 
another  broached,  and  branded  with  infamy,  yet  secretly  enter- 
tained, till  the  struggle  was  at  length  given  up,  and  the  nation, 
as  with  one  voice,  avowed  itself  his  disciple. 

It  has  been  said  that  Voltaire  showed  symptoms  of  infidelity 
from  infancy.  When  at  college  he  gave  way  to  sallies  of  wit, 
mirth  and  profanity,  which  astonished  his  companions  and  terri- 
fied his  preceptors.  He  was  twice  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile, 
and  many  times  obliged  to  fly  from  the  country.  In  England 
he  became  acquainted  with  BoUngbroke  and  all  the  most  distin- 
guished men  of  the  time,  and  in  the  school  of  English  philosophy 
he  learned  to  use  argument,  as  well  as  ridicule,  in  his  war  with 
refio-ion.  In  1740  we  find  him  assisting  Frederick  the  Great  to 
get  up  a  refutation  of  Machiavelli;  again,  he  is  appointed  histo- 
riographer of  France,  Gentleman  of  the  Bed-chamber,  and 
Member  of  the  Academy;  then  he  accepts  an  invitation  to  reside 
at  the  court  of  Prussia,  where  he  soon  quarrels  with  the  king. 
After  many  vicissitudes  he  finally  purchased  the  estate  of 
Ferney,  near  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where  he  resided  during  the 
rest  of  his  days.  From  this  retreat  he  poured  out  an  exhaust- 
less  variety  of  books,  which  were  extensively  circulated  and 
eagerly  perused.  He  was  the  admiration  of  all  the  wits  and 
philosophers  of  Europe,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils  and 
correspondents  some  of  the  greatest  sovereigns  of  the  age.  At 
the  age  of  eighty-four  he  again  visited  Paris.  Here  his  levees 
v;ere  more  crowded  than  those  of  any  emperor;  jirinces  and 


FREXCH    LITER ATUEE.  289 

peers  thronged  his  ante-chamber,  and  when  he  rode  through  the 
streets  a  tram  attended  hmi  which  stretched  far  over  the  city. 
He  was  made  president  of  the  Academy,  and  crowned  with 
laurel  at  the  theatre,  where  his  bust  was  placed  on  the  stage 
and  adorned  with  palms  and  garlands.  He  died  soon  after, 
without  the  rites  of  the  chm'ch,  and  was  interred  secretly  at  a 
Benedictine    abbey. 

The  national  enthusiasm  which  decreed  Yoltaire,  as  he  de- 
scended to  the  tomb,  such  a  triumph  as  might  have  honored  a 
benefactor  of  the  race,  gave  place  to  doubt  and  disputation  as 
to  his  merits.  In  tragedy  he  is  admitted  to  rank  after  Corneille 
and  Racuie ;  in  "  Zaire,"  which  is  his  master-piece,  there  is 
neither  the  lofty  conception  of  the  one,  nor  the  perfect  versifica- 
tion of  the  other,  but  there  is  a  warmth  of  passion,  an  enthusi- 
asm of  feehng  and  a  gracefulness  of  expression  which  fascinate 
and  subdue.  As  an  epic  poet  he  has  least  sustained  his  renown; 
though  the  "  Henriade  "  has  unquestionably  some  great  beauties, 
its  machinery  is  tame,  and  the  want  of  poetic  illusion  is  severely 
felt.  His  poetry,  especially  that  of  his  later  years,  is  by  no 
means  so  disgraceful  to  the  author  as  the  witticisms  in  prose, 
the  tales,  dialogues,  romances,  and  pasquinades  which  were 
eagerly  sought  for  and  readily  furnished,  and  which  are,  with 
little  exception,  totally  unworthy  of  an  honorable  man.  As  a 
historian,  Yoltaire  lacked  reflection  and  patience  for  investiga- 
tion. His  "  History  of  Charles  XII.,"  however,  was  deservedly 
successful.  The  reason  being  that  he  chose  for  his  hero  the 
most  romantic  and  adventurous  of  sovereigns,  to  describe  whom 
there  was  more  need  of  rapid  narrative  and  brilliant  coloring 
than  of  profound  knowledge  and  a  just  appreciation  of  human 
nature.  In  his  history  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIY.,  Yoltaire 
sought  not  only  to  present  a  picture,  but  a  series  of  researches 
destined  to  instruct  the  memory  and  exercise  the  judgment. 
The  English  historians,  imitating  his  mode,  have  surpassed  him 
in  erudition  and  philosophic  impartiality.  Still  later,  his  own 
countrymen  have  carried  this  species  of  writing  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  Throughout  the  "  Essay  on  the  Manners  of 
Nations  "  we  find  traces  of  that  hatred  of  religion  which  he  un- 
blushingly  adopted  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  The  style, 
however,  is  pleasing,  the  facts  well  aiTanged,  and  the  portraits 
traced  with  originality  and  vivacity. 

Some  have  attributed  to  Yoltaire  the  serious  design  of  over- 
turning the  three  great  bases  of  society,  religion,  morality,  and 
civil  government  ;  but  he  had  not  the  genius  of  a  philosopher, 
and  there  is  no  system  of  philosophy  in  his  works.     That  he  had 

13 


290  FKENCn    LITEKATURE. 

a  design  to  amuse  and  influence  his  age,  and  to  avenge  himself 
on  his  enemies,  is  obvious  enough.  Envy  and  hatred  employed 
against  him  the  weapons  of  rehgion,  hence  he  viewed  it  only  as 
an  instrument  of  persecution.  His  great  powers  of  mind  were 
continually  directed  by  the  opinions  of  the  times,  and  the  desire 
of  popularity  was  his  ruling  motive.  The  character  of  his  earlier 
writings  shows  that  he  did  not  bring  into  the  world  a  very  in- 
dependent spirit ;  they  display  the  lightness  and  frivohty  of  the 
time  with  the  submission  of  a  courtier  for  every  kind  of  authority, 
but  as  his  success  increased  everything  encouraged  him  to  imbue 
his  works  with  that  spirit  which  found  so  general  a  welcome. 
In  vain  the  authority  of  the  civil  government  endeavored  to  ar- 
rest the  impulse  which  was  gaining  strength  from  day  to  day; 
in  vain  this  director  of  the  public  mind  was  imprisoned  and  ex- 
iled ;  the  further  he  advanced  in  his  career  and  the  more  auda- 
ciously he  proj;)agated  his  views  on  religion  and  government,  the 
more  he  was  rewarded  with  the  renown  which  he  sought. 
Monarchs  became  his  friends  and  his  flatterers;  opposition  only 
increased  his  energy,  and  made  him  often  forget  moderation  and 
good  taste. 

3.  French  Literature  during  the  Revolution. — The  names 
of  Voltaire  and  Montesquieu  eclipse  all  others  in  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  the  influence  of  Voltaire  was  by 
far  the  most  immediate  and  extensive.  After  he  had  reached 
the  zenith  of  his  glory,  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  there 
appeared  in  France  a  display  of  various  talent,  evoked  by  his 
example  and  trained  by  his  instructions,  yet  boasting  an  inde- 
pendent existence.  In  the  works  of  these  men  was  consum- 
mated the  literary  revolution  of  which  we  have  marked  the 
beginnings,  a  revolution  more  striking  than  any  other  ever  wit- 
nessed in  the  same  space  of  time.  It  was  no  longer  a  few 
eminent  men  that  surrendered  themselves  boldly  to  the  skeptical 
philosophy  which  is  the  grand  characteristic  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  writers  of  inferior  note  followed  in  the  same  path;  the 
new  opinions  took  entire  possession  of  all  literature  and  coope- 
rated with  the  state  of  the  morals  and  the  government  to  bring 
about  a  fearful  revolution.  The  whole  strength  of  the  literature 
of  this  age  being  directed  towards  the  subversion  of  the  natior.al 
institutions  and  religion,  formed  a  homogeneous  body  of  science, 
literature,  and  the  arts,  and  a  compact  phalanx  of  all  writers  under 
the  common  name  of  philosophers.  Women  had  their  share  in  the 
maintenance  of  this  league  ;  the  salons  of  Mesdames  du  Deffant 
(169G-1T80),  Geofifrm  (b.  1777)  andde  I'Espinasse  (1732-1776), 


FIlE>fCH    LITEKATUEE.  291 

were  its  favorite  resorts  ;  but  the  great  rendezvous  was  that  of 
the  Baron  d'Holbach,  whence  its  doctrines  spread  far  and  wide, 
bhistiug,  hke  a  malaria,  whatever  it  met  with  on  its  way  that 
had  any  connection  with  religion,  morals,  or  venerable  social 
customs.  Besides  Toltau*e,  who  presided  over  this  coterie,  at 
least  in  spirit,  the  daily  company  included  Diderot,  an  enthusiast 
by  nature  and  a  cynic  and  sophist  by  profession  ;  D'Alembcrt, 
a  genius  of  the  first  order  in  mathematics,  though  less  distin- 
guished in  literature  ;  the  malicious  Marmontel,  the  philosopher 
Helvetius,  the  Abbe  Raynal,  the  furious  enemy  of  all  modern 
institutions;  the  would-be  sentimentalist  Grimm,  and  D'Holbach 
himself.  Hume,  Gibbon,  Boliugbroke  and  others  were  affiliated 
members.  Their  plan  was  to  write  a  book  which  would  in  some 
sense  supersede  all  others,  itself  forming  a  library  containing  the 
most  recent  discoveries  in  philosophy,  and  the  best  explanations 
and  details  on  every  topic,  literary  and  scientific. 

The  project  of  this  great  enterprise  of  an  Encyclopajdia  as  an 
immense  vehicle  for  the  development  of  the  opinions  of  the  philoso- 
phers, alarmed  the  government,  and  the  parliament  and  the 
clergy  pronounced  its  condemnation.  The  philosophy  of  Des- 
cartes and  the  eminent  thinkers  of  the  seventeenth  century 
assumed  the  soul  of  man  as  the  starting-point  in  the  investiga- 
tion of  physical  science.  The  men  of  the  eighteenth  century 
had  become  tired  of  following  out  the  sublimities  and  abstrac- 
tions of  the  Cartesians,  and  they  took  the  opposite  course; 
beginning  from  sensation,  they  did  not  stop  short  of  the  grossest 
materialism  and  positive  atheism. 

Such  were  the  principles  of  the  Encyclopaedia,  more  fully  de- 
veloped and  explained  in  the  writings  of  Condillac  (1115-1780), 
the  head  of  this  school  of  philosophy.  His  first  work,  "  On  the 
Origin  of  Human  Knowledge,"  contains  the  germ  of  all  that  he 
afterwards  published.  In  his  "Treatise  on  Sensation,"  he  endea- 
vored, but  in  vain,  to  derive  the  notion  of  duty  from  sensation, 
and  expert  as  he  was  in  logic,  he  could  not  conceal  the  great 
gulf  which  his  theory  left  between  these  two  terms.  Eew 
writers  have  enjoyed  more  success;  he  brought  the  science  of 
thought  within  the  reach  of  the  vulgar  by  stripping  it  of  every- 
thing elevated,  and  every  one  was  surprised  and  delighted  to 
find  that  philosophy  was  so  easy  a  thing.  Having  determined 
not  to  establish  morahty  on  any  innate  principles  of  the  soul, 
these  philosophers  founded  it  on  the  fact  common  to  all  animated 
nature,  the  feeling  of  self-interest.  Already  deism  had  rejected 
the  evidence  of  a  divine  revelation,  now  atheism  raised  a  more 
audacious  front,  and  proclaimed  that  all  religious  sentunent  was 


292  FRENCH   LITEEATUEE. 

but  the  reverie  of  a  disordered  mind.  The  works  in  which  this 
opinion  is  most  expressly  announced,  date  from  the  period  of  the 
Encyclopaedia. 

D'Alembert  (171T-17Y3)  is  now  chiefly  known  as  the  author 
of  the  preliminary  discourse  of  the  Encyclopaedia,  which  is 
ranked  among  the  principal  works  of  the  age. 

Diderot  (1714-1784),  had  he  devoted  himself  to  any  one 
sphere,  instead  of  wandering  about  in  the  chaos  of  opinions 
which  rose  and  perished  around  him,  might  have  left  a  lasting 
reputation,  and  posterity,  instead  of  merely  repeating  his  name, 
would  have  spoken  of  his  works.  He  may  be  regarded  as  a 
wi'iter  injurious  at  once  to  literature  and  to  morals. 

The  most  faithful  disciple  of  the  philosophy  of  this  period  was 
Helvetius  (1715-1771),  known  chiefly  by  his  work  *' On  the 
Mind,"  the  object  of  which  is  to  prove  that  physical  sensi- 
bility is  the  origin  of  all  our  thoughts.  Of  all  the  writers  who 
maintained  this  opinion,  none  have  represented  it  in  so  gross  a 
manner.  His  work  was  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne,  the  Pope, 
and  the  parliament;  it  was  burned  by  the  hand  of  the  hang- 
man, and  the  author  was  compelled  to  retract  it. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-1778)  was  a  writer  who 
marched  under  none  of  the  recognized  banners  of  the  day. 
The  Encyclopasdists  had  flattered  themselves  that  they  had 
tuned  the  opinion  of  all  Europe  to  their  philosophical  strain, 
when  suddenly  they  heard  his  discordant  note.  Without  family, 
without  friends,  without  home,  wandering  from  place  to  place, 
from  one  condition  in  life  to  another,  he  conceived  a  species  of 
revolt  against  society,  and  a  feeling  of  bitterness  against  those 
civil  organizations  in  which  he  could  never  find  a  suitable  place. 
He  combated  the  atheism  of  the  Encyclopa3dists,  their  material- 
ism and  contempt  for  moral  virtue,  for  pure  deism  was  his  creed. 
He  believed  In  a  Supreme  Being,  a  future  state,  and  the  excel- 
lence of  virtue,  but  denying  all  revealed  religion,  he  would  have 
men  advance  in  the  paths  of  virtue,  freely  and  proudly,  from 
love  of  virtue  itself,  and  not  from  any  sense  of  duty  or 
obligation.  In  the  "  Social  Contract "  he  traced  the  princi- 
ples of  government  and  laws  in  the  nature  of  man,  and  en- 
deavored to  show  the  end  which  they  proposed  to  themselves 
by  living  in  communities,  and  the  best  means  of  attaining  this 
end. 

But  the  two  most  notable  works  of  Rousseau,  are  "  Julie," 
or  the  "  Nouvelle  Heloise,"  and  "  EmIIe."  The  former  is  a  kind  of 
romance,  owing  its  interest  mainly  to  development  of  character, 
and  not  to  incident  or  plot.     Emilc  embodies  a  system  of  edu- 


FEEXCH   LITERATURE.  293 

cation  in  which  the  author's  thoughts  are  digested  and  arranged. 
He  gives  himself  an  imaginary  pupil,  the  representatiTe  of  that 
life  of  spontaneous  development  which  was  the  writer's  ideal. 
In  this  work  there  is  an  episode,  the  "  Savoyard  Yicar's  Confes- 
sion of  Faith,"  which  is  a  declaration  of  pure  deism,  levelled 
especially  against  the  errors  of  Cathohcisni.  It  raised  a  perfect 
tempest  against  the  author  from  every  quarter.  The  council  of 
Geneva  caused  his  book  to  be  burned  by  the  executioner,  and 
the  parliament  of  Paris  threatened  him  with  imprisonment. 
Under  these  circumstances  he  wrote  his  "  Confessions,"  which 
he  believed  would  prove  his  vindication  before  the  world.  The 
reader,  who  may  expect  to  find  this  book  abounding  with  at 
least  as  much  virtue  as  a  man  may  possess  without  Christian 
principle,  will  find  in  it  not  a  single  feature  of  greatness;  it  is  a 
proclamation  of  disagreeable  faults;  and  yet  he  would  persuade 
us  that  he  was  virtuous,  by  giving  the  clearest  proofs  that  he 
was  not. 

To  the  names  of  Montesquieu,  Yoltaire,  and  Kousseau,  must 
be  added  that  of  Buflbn  (1707-1188),  and  we  have  the  four 
writers  of  this  age  who  left  all  their  contemporaries  far  behind. 
Buffon  having  been  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Jardin  des 
Flantes,  and  having  enriched  this  fine  establishment,  and 
gathered  into  it,  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  various  productions 
of  nature,  conceived  the  project  of  composing  a  natural  history, 
which  should  embrace  the  whole  immensity  of  being,  animate 
and  inanimate.  He  first  laid  down  the  theory  of  the  earth, 
then  treated  the  natural  history  of  man,  afterwards  that  of 
viviparous  quadrupeds  and  birds.  The  first  volumes  of  his  work 
appeared  in  1749;  the  most  important  of  the  supplementary 
matter  which  followed  was  the  "  Epochs  of  Nature."  He  gave 
incredible  attention  to  his  style,  and  is  one  of  the  most  brilhant 
writers  of  the  eighteenth  century.  No  naturalist  has  ever 
equalled  him  in  the  magnificence  of  his  theories,  or  the  anima- 
tion of  his  descriptions  of  the  manners  and  habits  of  animals. 
It  is  said  that  he  wrote  the  Epochs  of  Nature  eleven  times 
over.  He  not  only  recited  his  compositions  aloud,  in  order  to 
judge  of  the  rhythm  and  cadence,  but  he  made  a  point  of  being 
in  full  dress  before  he  sat  down  to  write,  believing  that  the 
splendor  of  his  habiliments  impressed  his  language  with  that 
pomp  and  elegance  which  he  so  much  admired,  and  which  is  his 
distinguishing  characteristic.  Bufibn,  while  maintaining  friendship 
with  the  celebrated  men  of  his  age,  did  not  identify  himself  with 
the  party  of  the  encyclopaedists ,  or  the  sects  into  which  they 
were  divided.     But  he  lived  among  men  who  deemed  physical 


294  FRENCH    LITER ATUEE. 

nature  alone  worthy  of  study,  and  the  wits  of  the  age  had  suc- 
ceeded in  discovering  how  a  Supreme  Being  might  be  dispensed 
with  ;  Butfon  evaded  the  subject  entirely,  and  amid  all  his  lofty 
soarings  showed  no  disposition  to  rise  to  the  Great  First  Cause. 
After  his  time,  science  lost  its  contemplative  and  poetical  cha- 
racter, and  acquired  that  of  intelUgent  observation.  It  became 
a  practical  thing,  and  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the  arts. 
The  arts  and  sciences,  thus  combined,  became  the  glory  of 
France,  as  literature  had  been  in  the  preceding  age. 

The  declining  years  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  witnessed  no 
rising  genius  of  similar  power,  but  some  authors  of  a  secondary 
rank  deserve  notice.  Marmontel  (1728-1799)  is  distinguished 
as  the  writer  of  "  Belisarius,"  a  philosophical  romance,  *'  Moral 
Tales,"  and  "  Elements  of  Literature."  He  endeavors  to  lead 
his  readers  to  the  enjoyments  of  literature,  instead  of  detaining 
them  with  frigid  criticisms. 

La  Harpe  (1739-1803)  displayed  great  eloquence  in  literary 
criticism,  and  some  of  his  works  maintain  their  place,  though 
they  have  little  claim  to  originality. 

Many  writers  devoted  themselves  to  history,  but  the  spirit 
of  French  philosophy  was  uncongenial  to  this  species  of  com- 
position, and  the  age  does  not  afford  one  remarkable  historian. 
The  fame  of  the  Abbe  Ilaynal  (1718-179G)  rests  chiefly  on  his 
"  History  of  the  Two  Indies."  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  a 
sober  man  could  have  arrived  at  such  delirium  of  oplniou,  and 
how  he  could  so  complacently  exhibit  principles  which  tended 
to  overthrow  the  whole  system  of  society.  Scarcely  a  crime 
was  committed  during  the  revolution,  witii  which  this  century 
closes,  but  could  find  its  advocate  in  this  declaimer.  When, 
liowever,  Ilaynal  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  the  turmoils  he  had 
suggested,  he  behaved  with  justice,  moderation  and  courage  ; 
thus  proving  that  his  opinions  were  not  the  result  of  experience. 
When  he  lays  down  his  pen,  he  again  becomes  what  he  really  is, 
a  lover  of  peace,  justice,  and  humanity. 

The  days  of  true  religious  eloquence  were  past ;  faith  was 
cxtiuct  amoug  the  greater  part  of  the  commuuity,  and  cold  and 
timid  among  the  rest.  Preachers,  in  deference  to  their  audience, 
kept  out  of  view  whatever  was  purely  religious,  and  enlarged  on 
those  topics  which  coincided  with  mere  human  morality.  Reli- 
gion was  introduced  only  as  an  accessory  which  it  was  necessary 
to  disguise  skillfully,  in  order  to  escape  derision.  Genuine 
pulpit  eloquence  was  out  of  the  question  under  these  circum- 
stances. 

Forensic   eloquence  had  been  improving  in    simplicity  and 


FREXCH    LITERATURE.  295 

seriousness  since  the  commencenient  of  tlie  eighteentli  century, 
and  men  of  the  law  were  now  led  by  the  circumstances  of  the 
times  to  trace  out  universal  principles,  rather  than  to  discuss 
isolated  facts.  The  eloquence  of  the  bar  thus  acquired  more 
extensive  influence  ;  the  measures  of  the  government  converted 
it  into  a  hostile  power,  and  it  furnished  itself  with  weapons  of 
reason  and  erudition  which  had  not  been  thought  of  before. 

We  come  now  close  upon  the  epoch  when  the  national  sph'it 
was  no  longer  to  be  traced  in  books,  but  in  actions.  The  reign  of 
Louis  XV  had  been  marked  with  general  disorder,  and  while  he 
was  sinking  into  the  grave,  amid  the  scorn  of  the  people,  the 
magistrates  were  punished  for  opposing  the  royal  authority,  and 
the  public  were  indignant  at  the  arbitrary  proceeding.  Beau- 
marchais  (1732-1799)  became  the  organ  of  tliis  feeling,  and  his 
memou's,  like  his  comedies,  are  replete  with  enthusiasm,  cyn- 
icism, and  buffoonery.  Literature  was  never  so  popular;  it  was 
regarded  as  the  universal  and  powerful  instrument  which  it 
behooved  every  man  to  possess.  All  grades  of  society  were 
filled  with  authors  and  philosophers  ;  the  public  mind  was  tend- 
ing towards  some  change,  without  knowing  what  it  would  have; 
from  the  monarch  on  the  throne  to  the  lowest  of  the  people, 
all  perceived  the  utter  discordance  that  prevailed  between 
existing  opinions  and  existing  institutions. 

In  the  midst  of  the  dull  murmur  which  announced  the 
approaching  storm,  literature,  as  though  its  work  of  agitation 
had  been  completed,  took  up  the  shepherd's  reed  for  pubhc 
amusement.  "  Posterity  would  scarcely  beUeve,"  says  an  emi- 
nent historian,  "  that  '  Paul  and  Virginia,'  and  the  *  Indian 
Cottage,'  were  composed  at  this  juncture  by  Bernardin  de  St. 
Pierre  (1737-1814),  as  also  the  'Fables  of  Plorian,'  which  are 
the  only  ones  that  have  been  considered  readable  since  those  of 
La  Fontaine."  About  the  same  time  appeared  the  "  Voyage  of 
Anacharsis,"  in  which  the  Abbe  Barthelemy  (1716-1795)  em- 
bodied his  erudition  in  an  attractive  form,  presenting  a  lively 
picture  of  Greece  in  the  time  of  Pericles. 

Among  the  more  moral  writers  of  this  age,  was  ISTecker 
(1732-1804),  the  financial  minister  of  Louis  XVI.,  vr'ho  main- 
tained the  cause  of  religion  against  the  torrent  of  public  opinion 
in  works  distinguished  for  deUcacy  and  elevation,  seriousness  and 
elegance. 

When  the  storm  at  length  burst,  the  country  was  exposed  to 
every  kind  of  revolutionary  tyranny.  The  first  actors  in  the 
work  of  destruction  were,  for  the  most  part,  actuated  by  good 
intentions  :  but  these  were  soon  superseded  by  men  of  a  lower 


296  FRENCH    LITERATURE. 

class,  envious  of  all  distinctions  of  rank  and  deeply  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  the  philosophers.  Some  derived,' from  the  writings 
of  Rousseau,  a  hatred  of  everything  above  them  ;  others  had 
taken  from  Mably  his  admiration  of  the  ancient  republics  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  and  would  reproduce  them  in  France;  others 
had  borrowed  from  Raynal  the  revolutionary  torch  which  he 
had  lighted  for  the  destruction  of  all  institutions ;  others,  edu- 
cated in  the  atlieistic  fanaticism  of  Diderot,  trembled  with  rage 
at  the  very  name  of  priest  or  religion;  and  thus  the  Revolution 
was  gradually  handed  over  to  the  guidance  of  passion  and  per- 
sonal interest. 

In  hurrying  past  these  years  of  anarchy  and  bloodshed,  we 
cast  a  glance  upon  the  poet,  Andre  Chenier  (1762-1794:),  who 
dared  to  write  against  the  excesses  of  his  countrymen,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  was  cited  before  the  revolutionary  tribunal, 
condemned,  and  executed. 

4.  French  Literature  under  the  Empire. — Napoleon,  on 
the  establishment  of  the  empire,  gave  great  encouragement  to 
the  arts,  but  none  to  literature.  Books  were  in  little  request  ; 
old  editions  were  sold  for  a  fraction  of  their  original  price  ;  but 
new  works  were  dear,  because  the  demand  for  them  was  so 
limited.  When  literature  again  hfted  its  head,  it  appeared  that 
in  the  chaos  of  events  a  new  order  of  thought  had  been  generated. 
The  feeUngs  of  the  people  were  for  the  freer  forms  of  modern 
literature,  introduced  by  Madame  de  Stael  and  Chateaubriand, 
rather  than  the  ancient  classics  and  the  French  models  of  the 
17th  century. 

Madame  de  Stael  (1766-1817)  has  been  pronounced  by  tlic 
general  voice  the  greatest  of  all  female  authors.  Though  pos- 
sessing an  exuberance  of  childish  buoyancy,  she  seems  never  to 
have  been  a  child  in  intellect.  She  was  early  introduced  to  the 
society  of  the  cleverest  men  in  Paris,  with  whom  her  .-father's 
house  was  a  favorite  resort;  and  before  she  was  twelve  years  of 
age,  such  men  as  Raynal,  Marmontel,  and  Grimm  used  to 
converse  with  her  as  though  she  were  twenty,  calling  out  her 
ready  eloquence,  inquu'ing  into  her  studies,  and  recommending 
new  books.  She  thus  early  imbibed  a  taste  for  society  and  dis- 
tinction, and  for  bearing  her  part  in  the  brilliant  conversation 
of  the  salon.  At  the  age  of  twenty  she  became  the  wife  of  the 
Baron  de  Stael,  the  Swedish  minister  at  Paris,  and  her  portrait, 
at  that  time,  is  thus  drawn  by  a  contemporary  :  "  Her  large, 
dark  eyes  sparkle  with  genius  ;  her  hair,  black  as  ebony,  fails 
on  her  shoulders  in  waving  ringlets,  and  her  features  express 


•  FRENCH    LITERATURE.  297 

something  superior  to  the  destiny  of  her  sex.  Wlienever  she 
appeared,  there  was  a  breathless  silence.  When  she  sang,  she 
extemporized  the  words  of  her  song  ;  when  she  spoke,  her  coun- 
tenance continually  varied,  and  her  voice  exhibited  a  thousand 
modulations  in  harmony  with  her  thoughts  ;  even  if  her  words 
were  not  heard,  their  meanmg  might  have  been  gathered  from 
her  look,  her  gestures  and  the  inflections  of  her  voice." 
Madame  de  Stael,  on  her  return  to  Paris  after  the  Keign  of 
Terror,  became  the  centre  of  a  political  society,  and  her  draw- 
ing-rooms were  the  resort  of  distinguished  foreigners,  ambassa- 
dors, and  authors.  On  the  accession  of  Napoleon,  a  mutual 
hostility  arose  between  him  and  this  celebrated  woman,  which 
ended  in  her  banishment  and  the  suppression  of  her  works. 

"  The  Six  Years  of  Exile  "  is  the  most  simple  and  interesting 
of  her  productions.  Her  "  Considerations  on  the  French  Revo- 
tion  "  is  the  most  valuable  of  her  political  articles.  Among  her 
works  of  fiction,  "  Corinne"  and  "  Delphine  ''  have  had  the  high- 
est popularity.  But  of  all  her  writings,  that  on  "  Germany  "  is 
considered  worthy  of  the  highest  rank,  and  it  was  calculated  to 
influence  most  beneficially  the  literature  of  her  country.  In  it 
she  taught  her  countrymen  to  blush  for  the  pedantic  exclusive- 
ness  with  which  they  had  circumscribed  themselves,  and  her 
writings  have,  beyond  all  others,  vanquished  and  subdued  that 
spirit  of  illiberality  that  tended  to  cripple  genius,  more  than  to 
repel  the  encroachments  of  bad  taste,  She  promoted  enthusiasm 
to  the  place  hitherto  occupied  by  fastidiousness,  and  aided  the 
man  of  genius  in  daring  to  be  himself.  Writers  like  Delavigne, 
Lamartine,  Beranger,  De  Vigny,  and  Victor  Hugo,  though  in 
no  respect  imitators  of  Madame  de  Stael,  are  probably  much 
indebted  to  her  for  the  stimulus  to  originality  which  her  writings 
afforded.  But  while  she  was  liberal  and  enlightened,  she  was 
not  wholly  dispassionate,  and  in  her  abhorrence  of  trivial  criti- 
cism, she  sometimes  indulged  in  sweeping  assertions  and  broad 
classifications  in  defiance  of  facts.  Madame  de  Stael  was  one 
of  those  great  poets  who  are  poetical  only  in  prose ;  the  mechanical 
difficulties  of  versification  fettered  her  imagination,  but  her  prose 
writing?  abound  with  poetic  ornaments  of  the  most  brilliant 
kind.  Corinne  presents,  perhaps,  a  greater  number  of  ex- 
amples of  poetry  in  prose  than  any  other  single  work  in  the 
ianguas'c. 

Another  female  author,  who  lived,  like  Madame  de  Stael, 
through  the  Revolution,  and  exercised  an  influence  on  public 
events,  was  Madame  de  Genlis  (1746-1830).  Her  works, 
which  extend  to  at  least  eightv  volumes,  are  chiefly  educational 

13* 


298  FRENCH    LITERATURE. 

treatises,  moral  tales,  and  historical  romances.  Her  political 
power  depended  rather  on  her  private  influence  in  the  Orleans 
family  than  upon  her  pen. 

Chi.teaubriand  (17G9-1848)  must  be  placed  side  by  side  with 
Madame  de  Stael,  as  another  of  those  brilliant  and  versatile 
geniuses  who  have  dazzled  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen,  and 
exerted  a  permanent  influence  on  French  literature.  In  each 
of  his  capacities,  as  orator,  minister,  diplomatist,  traveller,  poet, 
theologian,  journalist,  and  pamphleteer,  he  engaged  attention, 
and  frequently  commanded  admiration.  The  appearance  of 
"Atala"  elicited  a  burst  of  astonishment  and  admiration. 
Innumerable  editions  and  translations  into  different  languages 
spread  the  fame  of  the  author  in  a  few  months  from  Lisbon  to 
St.  Petersburg.  The  **  Martyrs,"  a  prose  epic  on  the  theme 
of  the  sufi'erings  of  the  Christians  under  Diocletian  and  Galerius, 
is  considered  the  best  of  Chateaubriand's  Actions.  "The  Genius 
of  Christianity  "  was  the  crowning  Avork  of  a  series,  in  which 
the  religious  views  of  the  author  are  prominent  and  pervading. 
It  is  full  of  brilliant  beauties  and  glaring  defects,  passages  that 
all  must  admire,  and  errors  that  might  be  detected  by  a  child. 
Many  episodes  in  the  "History  of  English  Literature "  are 
admirable  ;  its  faults  are  those  of  the  whole,  its  beauties  those 
of  detail. 

Some  of  the  characteristics  of  Chateaubriand  have,  without 
doubt,  produced  a  seriously  injurious  effect  on  French  literature, 
and  of  these  one  of  the  most  contagious  and  corrupting  is  his  pas- 
sion for  the  glitter  of  words,  and  the  pageantry  of  high-sounding- 
phrases.  His  vivid  fancy  and  glowing  declamation,  however, 
were  never  prostituted  in  the  cause  of  vice  ;  though  often  in 
the  clouds,  he  is  never  in  the  mire;  yet  he  seems  to  be  answer- 
able for  having  set  the  example  of  stringing  together  declama- 
tions upon  feeling  and  sentiment  instead  of  exhibiting  the  play  of 
great  passions,  rendering  subjects,  which  ought  to  be  gravely 
examined  and  deeply  felt,  the  lay-figures  for  tawdry  and  ill- 
placed  rhetoric.  The  false  system  which  he  commenced  for 
virtuous  objects,  h'as  been  pressed  into  the  service  of  .vice  by 
writers  who  have  neither  his  heart  nor  his  intellect. 

Tiie  salutary  reaction  against  skepticism,  produced  in  literature 
by  Madame  de  Staol  and  Chateaubriand,  was  carried  into  philoso- 
phy by  Maine  de  Biran  (1766-1824),  and  more  particularly  by 
Kuyer-Cullard  (1763-1846),  who  took  a  decided  stand  against 
the  school  of  Condillac  and  the  materialists  of  the  18th  century. 
Royer-Collard  restored  its  spiritual  character  to  the  science  of 
the  human  mind,  by  introducing  into  it  the  psychological  disco- 


FRENCH   LITERATURE.  299 

veries  of  the  Scotch  school.  Benjamm  Constant  (ll6t-1880) 
infused  into  political  science  a  spirit  of  freedom  before  quite 
unkno^Yn.  In  his  works  he  attempted  to  limit  the  authority  of 
the  government,  to  build  up  society  on  personal  freedom,  and  on 
the  guaranties  of  individual  right.  His  writings  combine 
extraordinary  power  of  logic  with  great  variety  and  beauty  of 
style. 

Proceeding  in  another  direction,  Bonald  (1*153-1846)  op- 
posed the  spirit  of  the  French  Revolution,  by  establishing  the 
authority  of  the  church  as  the  only  criterion  of  truth  and 
morality.  As  Rousseau  had  placed  sovereign  power  in  the  will 
of  the  people,  Bonald  placed  it  in  that  of  God,  as  it  is  manifested 
to  man  through  language  and  revelation,  and  of  this  revelation 
he  regarded  the  Catholic  church  as  the  interpreter.  He  deve- 
lops his  doctrines  in  numerous  works,  especially  in  his  "  Primitive 
Legislation,"  which  is  characterized  by  boldness,  dogmatism, 
sophistry  in  argument,  and  by  severity  and  purity  of  style. 

The  peculiarities  of  Bonald  were  carried  still  farther  by 
De  Maistre  (1755-1852),  whose  hatred  of  the  Revolution  led 
him  into  the  system  of  an  absolute  theocracy,  such  as  was 
dreamed  of  by  Gregory  VII.  and  Innocent  III.  His  "  Soirees 
de  St.  Fetersbourg,"  '' le  Fape,"  and  "VEglise  Gallicane,"  are 
the  brilliant  exponents  of  an  absurd  and  revolting  system  of 
despotism,  of  which  the  Pope  is  the  ruling  power  and  his  minis- 
ters the  executioners. 

5.  French  Literature  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Pre- 
sent Time. — ^The  influences  already  spoken  of,  in  connection  with 
the  literary  progress  which  began  in  Germany  and  England  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  18th  century,  produced  in  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  a  revival  in  French  literature;  but  the  conflict 
of  opinions,  the  immense  number  of  authors,  and  their  extra- 
ordinary fecundity,  render  it  difficult  to  examine  or  classify  them. 
We  first  notice  the  great  advances  in  history  and  biography. 
Among  the  earlier  specimens  may  be  mentioned  the  voluminous 
works  of  Sismondi  and  the  Biograpkie  Universdle,  in  fifty-two 
closely  printed  volumes,  the  most  valuable  body  of  biography, 
that  any  modern  literature  can  boast.  Since  1830,  historians 
and  literary  critics  have  occupied  the  foreground  in  French 
literature.  The  historians  have  divided  themselves  into  two 
schools,  the  descriptive  and  the  philosophical.  With  the  one 
class  history  consists  of  a  narration  of  facts  in  connection  with  a 
picture  of  manners,  bringing  scenes  of  the  past  vividly  l^efore  the 
mind  of  the  reader  leaving  him  to  deduce  general  truths  from 


300  FRENCH    LITERATURE. 

the  particular  ones  brought  before  bim.  The  style  of  these 
writers  is  simple  and  manly,  and  no  opinions  of  their  own  shine 
through  their  statements.  The  chief  representatives  of  this  class, 
who  regard  Sir  Walter  Scott  as  their  master,  are  Thierry, 
Yillemain,  Baraute,  and  in  historical  sketches  and  novels,  Dumas 
and  De  Vigny. 

The  philosophical  school,  on  the  other  hand,  consider  this 
scenic  narrative  more  suitable  to  romance  than  to  history;  they 
seek  in  the  events  of  the  past  the  chain  of  causes  and  eliects  in 
order  to  arrive  at  general  conclusions  which  may  direct  the  con- 
duct of  men  in  the  future.  At  the  head  of  this  school  is  Guizot, 
who  has  developed  his  historical  views  in  his  essays  on  the 
"  History  of  France,"  and  more  particularly  in  his  "  History  of 
European  Civilization,"  in  which  he  points  out  the  origin  of 
modern  civilization,  and  follows  the  progress  of  the  human  mind 
from  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  philosophical  historians 
have  been  again  divided  according  to  their  different  theories, 
but  the  most  eminent  of  them  are  those  whom  Chateaubriand 
calls  fatalists  ;  men  who,  having  surveyed  the  course  of  public 
events,  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  individual  character 
has  had  little  influence  on  the  political  destinies  of  mankind, 
that  there  is  a  general  and  inevitable  series  of  events  which 
regularly  succeed  each  other  with  the  certainty  of  cause  and 
effect,  and  that  it  is  as  easy  to  trace  it  as  it  is  impossible  to 
resist  or  divert  it  from  its  course.  A  tendency  to  these  views  is 
visible  in  almost  every  French  historian  and  philosopher  of  the 
present  time.  The  philosophy  of  history  thus  grounded  has,  in 
their  hands,  assumed  the  aspect  of  a  science. 

Among  the  celebrated  writers  who  have  combined  the  philo- 
sophical and  the  narrative  styles  are  Thierry,  whose  "History  of 
France,"  and  "  Conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans,"  are  ex- 
amples of  each  ;  Sismondi  (1713-1842),  whose  histories  of  the 
"  Italian  Republics  "  and  of  the  "  French  People  "  are  character- 
ized  by  immense  erudition;  Michelet,  who  seeks  in  his  works  the 
general  principles  which  preside  over  the  historical  developments 
of  tlie  world,  and,  at  the  same  time,  enlivens  his  narrative  with  the 
bright  hues  of  the  imagination  ;  Thiers,  distinguished  by  the 
clearness  of  his  style,  combined  with  eloquence  and  comprehen- 
siveness; Mignet,  celebrated  for  his  history  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution; Louis  Blanc,  whose  work  on  the  same  subject  is  marked 
by  a  democratic  tendency,  as  well  as  by  philosophical  criticism; 
and  Lamartine,  whose  historical  works  are  characterized  more 
by  a  magnificence  of  style  than  by  critical  judgment. 

Literary  criticism  in  connection  with  history  has  recently  oo- 


FRENCH    LITERATURE.  .  301 

cupied  a  large  space  in  French  literature.  Not  to  dwell  on 
Sismondi's  ''  Literature  of  Southern  Europe,"  which  appeared 
soon  after  the  peace  of  1815,  with  the  almost  contemporary 
work  of  Gingueue  (1*147-1815)  on  "Italian  Literature,"  and 
Renouard  on  "  Proven9al  Poetry,"  there  have  been,  and  still 
are,  in  the  field  a  host  of  authors  whose  chief  study  has  been  the 
nterature  of  their  own  country,  such  as  Guizot,  Ste.  Beuve,  Yille- 
main,  Isisard,  Vinet,  Barante,  St.  Marc  Girardin,  and  many 
others.  In  intellectual  philosophy,  Jouffroy  (1795-1842)  and 
Damiron  continued  the  work  commenced  by  Royer-Collard,  that 
of  destroying  the  influence  of  sensualism  and  materialism.  But 
the  glory  of  introducing  eclecticism  was  reserved  for  Cousin  ; 
bv  its  elevated  tendencies,  the  soundness  of  its  doctrines  and 
method,  this  school  has  greatly  promoted  the  intellectual  de- 
velopment of  France.  The  philosophical  writings  of  Cousin  are 
models  of  didactic  prose,  distinguished  by  depth  of  thought  and 
eloquence  of  style.  In  his  work  on  "The  Beautiful,  True  and 
Good,"  he  has  raised  the  science  of  aesthetics  to  its  highest 
dignity. 

Lamennais  (1782-1854),  in  the  beginning  of  his  career,  fol- 
lowed the  principles  of  the  theological  school.  In  his  "  Essay 
on  Indifference  in  Matters  of  Religion,"  published  soon  after  the 
Restoration,  he  combines  the  warmth  of  Rousseau  with  the 
vigor  of  Bossuet.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  laid  aside 
the  doctrine  of  absolute  theocracy,  and  became  the  defender 
of  religious  and  civil  liberty.  His  famous  "Words  of  a  Believer," 
though  written  in  prose,  was  called  the  revolutionary  poem.  In 
his  "  Sketch  of  Philosophy,"  Lamennais  follows  a  system  of  pure 
rationalism,  and  denies  all  the  principal  truths  of  Christianity. 
Comte  (1798-1857)  is  among  the  most  recent  philosophers  of 
France  ;  his  "  Positive  Philosophy  "  is  characterized  by  novelty 
of  speculation,  force  of  logic,  and  power  of  generahzation  ;  but 
his  works  bear  the  stamp  of  his  atheistic  and  socialistic  tenden- 
cies. 

If  to  the  philosophers  we  add  the  investigators  of  science — 
Cuvier,  preeminent  in  natural  history,  Beaumont  in  mineralogy, 
Thenard  in  chemistry,  Biot  in  physical  sciences,  Arago  in 
astronomy,  De  Tocqueville  and  Chevalier  in  poUtical  science, 
Dupin  in  jurisprudence,  Raoul  Rochette  in  archeology,  besides 
many  others — we  have  before  us  the  men  who  form  the  intel- 
lectual glory  of  their  age  and  nation. 

After  the  restoration  of  1814,  a  literary  society  arose  in  the 
aristocratic  salons  of  Paris,  composed  of  celebrated  men  and 
women,  whose  aim  was  the  revival  of  letters,  and  of  monarchical 


302  FRENCH    LITERATUKE. 

and  religious  institutions.  Victor  Hugo  and  Lamartine  were 
prominent  members  of  this  society,  and  they  pubHshed  their  con- 
tributions in  a  periodical  paper  called  *'  The  French  Muse." 
Another  party,  more  or  less  connected  with  the  school  of  Vol- 
taire, attempted  to  counteract  tlie  influence  of  this  aristocratic 
circle,  and  opposed  it  chiefly  through  the  works  of  Beranger, 
Delavigne,  and  Paul  Louis  Courier.  Since  1824,  the  school  of 
the  French  Muse  has  gradually  emancipated  itself  from  its  ultra- 
monarchical  tendencies,  and  become  imbued  with  a  more  liberal 
spirit.  It  has  received  the  name  of  the  Romantic  School,  from  its 
opposition  in  style  to  classical  prose  and  poetry.  This  school  has 
introduced  into  literature  the  grotesque  as  a  correlative  element 
of  the  beautiful,  and  for  the  simplicity  and  loftiness  of  the  classic 
character,  has  substituted  a  fantastic  and  exaggerated  style. 
Under  the  influence  of  these  new  tendencies,  the  present  era 
has  exhibited  some  marked  features  in  poetry. 

The  position  of  France,  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  awoke  the 
patriotism  of  Beranger  (1780-1851),  and  inspired  his  heart- 
stirring  songs.  Hitherto  France  had  had  no  popular  ballad-litera- 
ture; all  that  was  previously  written  was  intended  to  be  sung  in 
courtly  halls,  and  partook  more  or  less  of  courtly  aftectatien.  But 
Beranger  was  the  poet  of  the  people;  most  of  his  earlier  compo- 
sitions were  political,  either  extolling  the  greatness  of  the  fallen 
empire,  or  bewailing  the  low  state  of  France  under  the  restored 
dynasty.  They  were  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  sung  from  one 
end  of  the  country  to  the  other.  The  later  songs  of  Beranger 
exhibit  a  not  unpleasing  change  from  the  audacious  and  too 
often  licentious  tone  of  his  earlier  days.  His  gaiety  is  tempered 
with  seriousness  ;  the  tumult  of  political  strife  at  an  end,  and 
the  fervor  of  youth  subdued  by  the  experience  of  age,  his  mind 
turns  with  a  closer  sympathy  to  the  contemplation  of  those  suf- 
ferings which  he  daily  witnessed  in  the  annals  of  the  ]>oor. 
These  he  depicts  with  a  truth  and  vigor  which  have  seldom  been 
equalled.  The  striking  characteristic  of  Berauger's  poems  is, 
that  they  have  a  carefully  arranged  plan,  each  one  forming  a 
complete  whole,  from  which  no  verse  can  be  taken  without  in- 
juring the  general  efl'ect. 

The  patriotism  of  Delavigne  (1*193-1843)  took  a  more  seri- 
ous tone  than  that  of  Beranger.  While  the  allied  armies  were  yet 
in  France,  and  her  pride  was  feeling  the  sting  of  this  humilia- 
tion, Delavigne  sang  her  misfortunes  with  power  and  pathos, 
giving  his  poems  an  elegiac  form.  Their  exaggerations  were 
very  suitable  to  the  feeling  that  pervaded  the  country  just  at 
that  time;  but  as  these  emotions  subsided,  and  the  people  be- 


FRENCH    LITERATURE.  303 

came  more  reconciled  to  tlie  new  regime,  the  celebrity  of  Dela- 
vigne  diminished  in  proportion. 

Lamartine  and  Victor  Hugo  are  confessedly  the  best  lyric 
poets  of  this  age.  In  the  hands  of  the  former,  the  language, 
softened  and  harmonized,  loses  that  clear,  glancing,  epigrammatic 
expression,  which  before  him  had  appeared  inseparable  from 
French  poetry.  His  works  are  pervaded  by  an  earnest  reli- 
gious feeling,  and  a  chasteness  and  delicacy  which  render  them 
favorites  at  the  domestic  hearth.  The  best  collection  of  Lamar- 
tine's  lyrics  are  his  "  Meditations,"  which  appeared  just  at  the 
time  that  a  pensive  religious  feeling,  fostered  by  the  works  of 
Chateaubriand,  had  settled  over  France  after  the  Restoration, 
and  nothing  could  have  given  it  a  more  perfect  expression.  The 
"  Harmonies  "  likewise  chimed  in  with  the  passion  for  mysticism 
which  prevailed  a  short  time  previous  to  the  political  and  lite- 
rarv  revolution  of  1830.  They  are  of  unequal  merit,  some  rising 
to  loftier  notes  than  those  of  the  Meditations,  while  few,  if 
any,  are  so  perfect  throughout.  The  fame  of  Lamartme,  as  a 
poet,  rests  chiefly  on  the  Meditations,  Harmonies,  and  on 
"  Jocelyn,"  a  kind  of  religious  romance  in  verse,  turning  on  the 
sorrows  of  an  attached  pair,  who  were  separated  by  the  hero 
being  induced  to  take  holy  orders. 

Victor  Hugo,  as  a  lyric  poet,  is  distinguished  by  the  rich 
imagery  with  which  his  verse  is  adorned.  His  "  Orientales " 
are  brilliant  specimens  of  word  painting,  while  his  "  Autumn 
Leaves "  contain  tender  strains,  charged  with  the  sweet  recol- 
lections of  youthful  hopes,  sorrows,  friendships,  and  loves.  To 
the  school  of  Victor  Hugo  belong  De  Vigny,  whose  poems  are 
specimens  of  a  sweet,  chaste  and  elegant  style,  though  lacking 
tlie  enthusiasm  and  the  energy  which  become  lyric  compositions  ; 
A.  de  Musset,  whose  charmmg  inspirations  are  too  often  mingled 
with  the  grotesque  and  extravagant  ;  and  Ste.  Beuve,  a  model 
of  familiar  and  delicate  simphcity,  not  unlike  Wordsworth. 

The  latter  part  of  this  period  is  prolific  in  light  litera- 
ture, chiefly  romances  and  dramas,  which  bear,  more  or  less,  the 
romantic  character.  In  these  two  kinds  of  composition,  this 
school  in  general  bears  marks  of  chaos  of  opinion,  as  well  as  of 
political  uncertainty.  Its  literature  is  not  professedly  infidel, 
like  that  of  the  18th  century,  any  more  than  one  of  positive 
faith  and  general  conviction,  like  that  of  the  lYth.  It  seems  to 
have  no  general  aim,  the  efforts,  like  the  opinions  of  the  authors, 
contradicting  one  another,  and  seldom  being  consistent  with 
themselves  for  any  length  of  time.  The  extravagant  fictions  of 
this  school  have  created  an  unreal  world,  emancipated  from  all 


304  FRENCH    LITER ATUKE. 

the  laws  and  accidents  of  the  actual,  and  even  from  the  conven- 
tional rules  that  preside  over  ordinary  fiction.  They  often 
abound  in  details  of  the  most  frightful  atrocities,  and  the  most 
singular  alliances  between  the  ludicrous  and  the  terrible,  the 
voluptuous  and  the  terrific  ;  in  the  prevalence  of  a  fatalism,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  a  desperation  on  the  other,  which  vents  itself  in 
impiety,  or  evaporates  in  sarcasm.  The  style  of  these  works 
partakes  of  the  wild,  incongruous  character  of  the  incidents.  No 
one  denies  to  tliis  literature  the  credit  of  engaging  the  reader's 
most  intense  interest  by  the  seductive  sagacity  of  the  move- 
ment, the  variety  of  incident,  and  the  perfect  command  which 
the  authors  seem  to  have  of  all  those  appliances  which,  coarse 
as  they  are,  are  the  most  calculated  to  affect  minds  which  have 
been  rendered  callous  to  gentler  emotions.  Among  these  writers 
Victor  Hugo  is  one  of  the  most  prominent.  His  "  Last  day  of 
a  Condemned  Man,"  and  especially  "  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,"  are 
masterpieces  of  this  kind  of  composition.  The  historical  romance 
of  "  Cinq  Mars,"  by  De  Yigny,  has  also  obtained  a  lasting  repu- 
tation. The  novels  of  this  writer  are  composed  with  great  care, 
highly  polished,  and  distinguished  for  their  elegance,  good  taste, 
and  propriety. 

Balzac  is  one  of  the  most  popular  and  copious  of  modern 
writers,  but  while  his  style  is  in  some  instances  pure  and  beauti- 
ful, in  others  it  is  extravagant  and  overwrought,  and  many  of 
his  works  are  of  a  decidedly  immoral  tendency. 

The  novels  of  the  celebrated  George  Sand,  Madame  Dudevant, 
afford  a  lamentable  proof  of  the  aberrations  into  which  a  highly 
gifted  mind  may  be  led,  under  the  influence  of  unsanctified  sor- 
row. Her  earlier  novels  are  highly  wrought  pictures  of  the 
wretchedness  of  married  life,  the  heroines  being  women  of  warm 
affections  and  fine  sensibilities,  chained  by  manages  de  convenance 
to  men  of  gross  and  uncongenial  habits,  and  escaping  a  prema- 
ture grave  only  by  repudiating  the  duty  of  conjugal  fidelity, 
which  is  made  to  appear  as  a  venial  error.  It  is  right  to  add 
that  this  lady's  mind  has  undergone  a  signal  change  since  the 
pubUcation  of  those  works,  and  some  of  her  more  recent  produc- 
tions are  what  may  be  termed  religious  novels. 

Eugene  Sue  (1804-1857)  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  mari- 
time novel  into  France.  Most  of  his  scenes  and  characters  are 
overwrought  and  exaggerated,  but  his  chief  fault  appears  to  be 
that  he  undertakes  to  uphold  the  fatal  paradox  that  virtue  is 
always  unfortunate  in  this  world,  and  crime  always  triumphant. 
His  "  Mysteries  of  Paris"  commands  absorbing  interest,  though 
crowded,  like  most  of  his  works,  with  atrocities  and  extra^r.. 


FRENCH    LITERATUPwE.  •  305 

gances.  His  "  Martin,"  and  also  his  "  Mysteries  of  the  People," 
often  deficient  in  purity  of  style,  express  with  boldness  the  con- 
trast between  wealth  and  poverty,  and  embody  in  attractive 
stories  the  principal  features  of  socialism. 

Paul  de  Koek,  abjuring  the  ordinary  materials  of  fashionable 
fiction,  has  turned,  like  Dickens,  to  the  common  walks  of  life, 
and  rendered  his  novels  especially  attractive  to  certain  classes 
of  society  ;  it  may  be  added,  however,  that  though  free  from  the 
extravagances  of  the  school  already  described,  this  author  is 
not  over-scrupulous  in  relation  to  delicacy  of  expression,  and 
greatly  deficient  in  purity  of  sentiment. 

Dumas  is  the  most  popular  among  the  modern  writers  of 
romance.  While  the  works  of  Balzac  are  specimens  of  fine 
observations,  and  those  of  Sue  and  Sand  profess  a  tendency  to 
social  reform,  the  romances  of  Dumas  aim  only  to  amuse — an 
object  which  they  do  not  fail  to  attain.  They  are  always  inte- 
resting for  their  dramatic  character,  and  charming  for  their 
brilhancy  and  wit.  His  "  Trois  Mousquet aires,"  and  the  "  Count 
of  Monte  Christo,"  are  considered  the  best  of  his  novels. 

The  remarks  made  on  the  unnatural  and  depraved  state  of 
fictitious  narrative,  introduced  by  the  romantic  school,  apply 
still  more  forcibly  to  the  theatre.  The  dramatists  seem  to 
si3urn  all  the  established  rules,  to  indulge  in  the  strangest  conceits 
and  the  wildest  innovations,  vying  with  each  other  in  the 
delineation  of  vice  and  wretchedness  in  their  most  degraded 
forms.  Tragedy  has  been  supplanted  by  the  romantic  drama,  of 
which  Yictor  Hugo  and  Dumas  are  the  best  representatives, 
while  Scribe  is  the  exponent  of  the  new  style  of  comedy,  which 
is  called  Yaudeville.  The  comedies  of  Scribe  represent  the 
manners  of  the  salons  of  the  middle  classes.  They  are  animated, 
witty  and  well  arranged,  and  rich  in  thek'  resources.  The 
dramas  of  Yictor  Hugo,  and  yet  more  those  of  his  school,  lack 
dramatic  effect,  and,  while  they  abound  in  lyric  flights,  are 
entirely  deficient  in  the  structure  of  their  plots,  in  tlie  pro- 
portion of  their  scenes,  and  in  the  reality  of  their  characters. 
Dramatic  effect  is  the  principal  feature  of  the  theatrical  works 
of  Dumas,  which  are  characterized  by  great  power  of  invention, 
by  passionate  rapture,  and  by  an  almost  brutal  force  of  instinct 
and  sensation.  In  his  scenes  he  does  not  address  himself  to  the 
heart,  or  to  the  mind  of  his  audiences,  but  rather  to  their 
passions. 


SPANISH  LITEEATUPvE. 

lj(TROD0CTiON.— 1.  Spanish  Literature  and  its  divisions.— 2.  Tlie  Language. 

Pkriod  First,— 1.  Early  National  Literature;  the  Poem  of  the  Cid  ;  Berceo,  Alfonso 
the  Wise,  Segura ;  Don  Juan  Manuel,  the  Archpriest  of  Hita,  Santob,  Ayala.— 2.  Old 
Ballads.— 3.  The  Chronicles.— 4.  Romances  of  Chivalry.— 5.  The  Drama.— 6.  Provencal 
Literature  in  Spain.— 7.  The  influence  of  Italian  Literature  in  Spain.— S.  The  Canci- 
oneros  and  Prose  writing. — 9.  The  Inquisition. 

Period  Second. — The  effect  of  Intolerance  on  Letters. — 2.  Influence  of  Italy  on 
Spanish  Literature;  Boscan,  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  Diego  de  Mendoza. — 3.  History; 
Cortez,  Gomara,  Oviedo,  Las  Casas. — 4.  The  Drama,  Rueda,  Lope  de  Vega,  Cal- 
deron  de  la  Barca.— 5.  Romances  and  Tales ;  Cervantes,  and  other  writers  of 
fiction.— 6.  Historical  Narrative  Poems ;  Ercilla.^7.  Lyric  Poetry ;  the  Argenso- 
las ;  Luis  de  Leon,  Quevedo,  Herrera,  Gongora,  and  others. — S.  Satirical  and  other 
Poetry. — 9.  History  and  other  prose  writing;  Zurita,  Mariana,  Sandoval,  and 
others. 

Period  Third. — 1.  French  influence  on  the  Literature  of  Spain. — 2.  The  dawn  of 
Spanish  Literature  in  the  IStb  century ;  Feyjoo,  Isla,  Moratin  the  elder,  Yriarte,  Me- 
lendez,  Gonzalez,  Quintana,  Moratin  the  younger. — 3.  Spanish  Literature  in  the  19th 
century. 

INTRODUCTION^. 

1.  Spanish  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — At  the  period  of 
the  subversion  of  the  Empire  of  the  West,  in  the  5th  century, 
Spain  was  invaded  by  the  Suevi,  the  Alans,  the  Vandals  and  the 
Visigoths.     The  country  which  had  for  six  centuries  been  sub- 
jected to  the  dominion  of  the  llomans,  and  had  adopted  the  lan- 
guage and  arts  of  its  masters,  now  experienced  those  changes  in 
manners,  opinions,  military  spirit  and  language,  which  took  place 
in  the  other  provinces  of  the  empire,  and  which  were,  in  fact,  the 
origin  of  the  nations  which  arose  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman 
power.     Among  the  conquerors  of  Spain,  the  Visigoths  were  the 
most  numerous;  the  ancient  Roman  subjects  were  speedily  con- 
founded with  them,  and  their  dominion  soon  extended  over  nearly 
the  whole  country.     In  the  year  YIO,  the  peninsula  was  invaded 
by  the  Arabs  or  Moors,  and  from  that  time  the  active  and  in- 
cessant struggles  of  the  Spanish  Christians  against  the  invaders, 
and  their  necessary  contact  with  Arabian  civilization,  began  to 
elicit  sparks  of  intellectual  energy.     Indeed,  the  first  utterance 
of  that  popular  feeling  which  became  the  foundation  of  the 

80G 


SPANISH    LITERATURE.  307 

national  literature,  was  heard  in  tlie  midst  of  that  extraordinary- 
contest,  which  lasted  for  more  than  seven  centuries,  so  that  the 
earliest  Spanish  poetry  seems  but  a  breathing  of  the  energy  and 
heroism,  which,  at  the  time  it  appeared,  animated  the  Spanish 
Christians  throughout  the  peninsula.  Overwhelmed  by  the  Moors, 
they  did  not  entirely  yield  ;  a  small  but  valiant  band,  re- 
treating before  the  fiery  pursuit  of  their  enemies,  established 
themselves  in  the  extreme  northwestern  portion  of  their  native 
land,  amidst  the  .mountains  and  the  fastnesses  of  Biscay  and  As- 
turias,  while  the  others  remained  under  the  yoke  of  the  conquerors, 
adopting,  in  some  degree,  the  manners  and  habits  of  the  Arabians. 
On  the  destruction  of  the  caliphat  of  Cordova,  in  the  year  1031, 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Moslem  territories  into  petty  independ- 
ent kingdoms,  often  at  variance  with  each  other,  afforded  the 
Christians  a  favorable  opportunity  of  reconquermg  their  country. 
One  after  another  the  Moorish  states  fell  before  them.  The 
Moors  were  driven  further  and  further  to  the  south,  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century  they  had  no  dominion  in  Spain  except 
the  kingdom  of  Granada,  which  for  two  centuries  longer  con- 
tinued the  splendid  abode  of  luxury  and  magnificence. 

As  victory  incUned  more  and  more  to  the  Spanish  arms,  tlie 
Castilian  dialect  rapidly  grew  into  a  vehicle  adequate  to  express 
the  pride  and  dignity  of  the  prevaiUng  people,  and  that  enthu- 
siasm for  libertv  which  was  lono;  their  finest  characteristic.  The 
poem  of  the  Cid  early  appeared,  and  in  the  13th  century  a  nu- 
merous family  of  romantic  ballads  followed,  all  glowing  with 
heroic  ardor.  As  another  epoch  drew  near,  the  lyric  form 
began  to  predominate,  in  which,  however,  the  warm  expressions  of 
the  Spanish  heart  were  restricted,  by  a  fondness  for  conceit  and 
allegory.  The  rudiments  of  the  drama,  rehgious,  pastoral,  and 
satiric,  soon  followed,  marked  by  many  traits  of  original  thought 
and  talent.  Thus  the  course  of  Spanish  literature  proceeded, 
animated  and  controlled  by  the  national  character,  to  the  end  of 
the  15th  century. 

In  the  16th,  the  original  genius  of  the  Spaniards,  and  their 
proud  consciousness  of  national  greatness,  contributed  to  the 
maintenance  and  improvement  of  their  literature  in  the  face  of 
the  Inquisition  itself.  Released  by  the  conquest  of  Granada 
(1492)  from  the  presence  of  internal  foes,  prosperous  at  home 
and  powerful  abroad,  Spain  naturally  rose  to  high  mental  dig- 
nity; and  with  all  that  she  gathered  from  foreign  contributions, 
her  writers  kept  much  of  their  native  vein,  more  free  than  at  first 
from  Orientalism,  but  still  breathing  of  their  own  romantic  land. 
A  close  connection,  however,  for  more  than  one  hundred  years 


308  SPAXISH   LITER ATUKE. 

witli  Italy,  familiarized  the  Spanish  mind  with  eminent  ItaHan 
authors  and  with  the  ancient  classics. 

During  the  17th  century,  especially  from  the  middle  to  the 
close,  the  decay  of  letters  kept  pace  with  the  decline  of  Spanish 
power,  until  the  humiliation  of  both  seemed  completed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  About  that  time,  however,  the  Spanish 
drama  received  a  full  development  and  attained  its  perfection. 
In  the  18th  century,  under  the  government  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  partly  through  the  patronage  of  Philip  Y.,  there  was  a  cer- 
tain revival  of  literature ;  but  unfortunately,  parties  divided,  and 
many  of  the  educated  Spaniards  were  so  much  attracted  by 
French  glitter,  as  to  turn  with  disgust  from  their  own  writers. 
The  political  convulsions,  of  which  Spain  has  been  the  victim 
since  the  time  of  Ferdinand  YIL,  have  greatly  retarded  the  pro- 
gress of  national  literature,  and  the  19th  century  has  thus  far 
produced  Kttle  which  is  worthy  of  mention. 

The  literary  history  of  Spain  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods : 

T\\Q  first ^  extending  from  the  close  of  the  12th  century  to  the 
beginning  of  the  IGth,  will  contain  the  hterature  of  the  couutry 
ft'om  the  first  appearance  of  the  present  written  language 
to  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  and  will  include  the 
genuinely  national  literature,  and  that  portion  which,  by  imitat- 
ing the  refinement  of  Provence  or  of  Italy,  was,  during  the  same 
interval,  more  or  less  separated  from  the  popular  spirit  and  genius. 

The  second,  the  period  of  literary  success  and  national  glory, 
extending  from  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  to  the  close  of 
the  ITth,  will  embrace  the  literature  from  the  accession  of 
the  Austrian  family  to  its  extinction. 

The  third,  the  period  of  decline,  extends  from  the  beginning  of 
tlie  18th  to  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  or  from  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Bourbon  family  to  the  present  time, 

2.  The  Laxguage. — The  Spanish  Christians  who,  after  the 
Moorish  conquest,  had  retreated  to  the  mountains  of  Asturias, 
carried  with  them  the  Latin  language  as  they  had  received  it 
corrupted  from  the  Romans,  and  still  more  by  the  elements  in- 
troduced into  it  by  the  invasion  of  the  northern  tribes.  In  their 
retreat  they  found  themselves  amidst  the  descendants  of  the  Ibe- 
rians, the  earliest  race  which  had  inhabited  Spain,  who  appeared 
to  have  shaken  off  little  of  the  barbarism  that  had  resisted  alike 
the  invasion  of  the  Ilomans  and  of  the  Goths,  and  who  retained 
the  original  Iberian  or  Basque  tongue.  Coming  in  contact  with 
this,  the  language  of  those  Christians  underwent  ncAV  modifica- 


SPANISH   LITEEATUEE.  309 

tions;  later,  wlieu  they  advanced  in  tlieir  conquest  toward  the 
south  and  the  east,  and  found  themselves  surrounded  by  those 
portions  of  their  race  that  had  remained  among  the  Arabs, 
known  as  MuQarabes,  they  felt  that  they  were  in  the  presence 
of  a  civilization  and  refinement  altogether  superior  to  their  own. 
As  the  Goths,  between  the  5th  and  8th  centuries,  had  received 
a  vast  number  of  words  from  the  Latin,  because  it  was  the  lan- 
guage of  a  people  with  whom  they  were  intimately  mingled,  and 
who  were  much  more  intellectual  and  advanced  than  themselves, 
so,  for  the  same  reason,  the  whole  nation,  between  the  8th  and 
13th  centuries,  received  another  increase  of  their  vocabulary  from 
the  Arabic,  and  accommodated  themselves  in  a  remarkable  de- 
gree to  the  advanced  culture  of  their  southern  countrymen,  and 
of  their  new  Moorish  subjects. 

It  appears  that  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century  this  new 
language  had  risen  to  the  dignity  of  being  a  written  language ; 
and  it  spread  gradually  through  the  country.  It  differed  from 
the  pure  or  the  corrupted  Latin,  and  still  more  from  the  Arabic; 
yet  it  was  obviously  formed  by  a  union  of  both,  modified  by  the 
analogies  and  spirit  of  the  Gothic  constructions  and  dialects,  and 
containing  some  remains  of  the  vocabularies  of  the  Iberians, 
the  Celts,  the  Phceuicians,  and  of  the  German  tribes,  who  at 
different  periods  had  occupied  the  peninsula.  This,  like  the  other 
languages  of  Southern  Europe,  was  called  originally  the  Romance 
from  the  prevalence  of  the  Roman  and  Latin  elements. 

The  territories  of  the  Christian  Spaniards  were  divided  into 
three  longitudinal  sections,  having  each  a  separate  dialect,  aris- 
ing from  the  mixture  of  different  primitive  elements.  The 
Catalan  was  spoken  in  the  east,  the  Castilian  in  the  centre,  while 
the  Galician,  which  originated  the  Portuguese,  prevailed  in  the 
west. 

The  Catalan  or  Limousin,  the  earliest  dialect  cultivated  in  the 
peninsula,  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Proven9al,  and 
when  the  bards  were  driven  from  Provence  they  found  a  home 
in  the  east  of  Spain,  and  numerous  celebrated  troubadours  arose  in 
Aragon  and  Catalonia.  But  many  elements  concurred  to  produce 
a  decay  of  the  Catalan,  and  from  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury it  rapidly  declined.  It  is  still  spoken  in  the  Balearic  Islands 
and  among  the  lower  classes  of  some  of  the  eastern  parts  of  Spain, 
but  since  the  16th  century  the  Castihan  alone  has  been  the 
vehicle  of  literature. 

The  Castihan  dialect  followed  the  fortune  of  the  Castilian 
arms,  until  it  finally  became  the  established  language,  even  of 
the  most  southern  provinces,  where  it  had  been  longest  withstood 


310  SPANISH    LITERATURE. 

by  the  Arabic.  Its  clear,  sonorous  vowels  and  the  beautiful  ar- 
ticulation of  its  syllables,  give  it  a  greater  resemblance  to  the 
Italian  than  any  other  idiom  of  the  peninsula.  But  amidst  this 
euphony  the  ear  is  struck  with  the  sound  of  the  German  and 
Arabic  guttural,  which  is  unknown  in  the  other  languages  in 
which  Latin  roots  predominate. 


PERIOD    FIRST. 

From   the    First  Appearance  of  the  Written  Language  to 

THE  early  part  OF  THE  ReIGN  OF  ClIARLES    Y.   (1200-1500.) 

1.  Early  National  Literature. — There  are  two  traits  of  the 
earliest  Spanish  literature  which  so  peculiarly  distinguish  it,  that 
they  deserve  to  be  noticed  from  the  outset — religious  faith  and 
knightly  loyalty.  Tlie  Spanish  national  character,  as  it  has  ex- 
isted from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day,  was  formed  in 
that  solemn  contest  which  began  when  the  Moors  landed  be- 
neath the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  which  did  not  end  until  eight 
centuries  after,  when  the  last  remnants  of  the  race  were  driven 
from  the  shores  of  Spain.  During  this  contest,  especially  that 
part  of  it  when  the  earliest  Spanish  poetry  appeared,  nothing 
but  an  invincible  faith  and  a  not  less  invincible  loyalty  to  their 
own  princes  could  have  sustained  the  Christian  Spaniards  in 
their  struggles  against  their  infidel  oppressors.  It  was,  therefore, 
a  stern  necessity  which  made  these  two  high  qualities  elements 
of  the  Spanish  national  character,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that 
we  find  submission  to  the  church  and  loyalty  to  the  king  con- 
stantly breathing  througli  every  portion  of  Spanish  literature. 

The  first  monument  of  the  S})anish,  or,  as  it  was  oftener  called, 
the  Castilian  tongue,  the  most  ancient  epic  in  any  of  the  Romance 
languages,  is  "  The  Poem  of  the  Cid."  It  consists  of  more  than 
3,000  lines,  and  was  probably  not  composed  later  than  the  year 
1200.  This  poem  celebrates  the  achievements  of  the  great  hero 
of  the  chivalrous  age  of  Spain,  Rodrigo  Diaz  (1020-1099),  who 
obtained  from  five  Moorish  kings  whom  he  had  vanquished  in 
battle,  the  title  of  El  Scid,  or  my  lord.  He  was  also  called  by 
the  Spaniards  El  Canipeador  or  El  Cid  Campeador,  the  Champion 
or  the  Lord  Champion,  and  he  well  deserved  the  honorable  title, 
for  he  passed  almost  the  whole  of  his  life  in  the  field  against  the 
oppressors  of  his  country,  and  led  the  conquering  arms  of  the 
Christians  over  nearly  a  quarter  of  Spain.     No  hero  has  been 


SPAXISH   LITER ATUEE.  311 

60  uuivcrsally  celebrated  by  his  countrymen,  and  poetry  and  tra- 
dition have  dehghtcd  to  attach  to  his  name  a  long  series  of  fabu- 
lous achievements,  which  remind  us  as  often  of  Amadis  and 
Arthur,  as  they  do  of  the  sober  heroes  of  history.  His  memory 
is  so  sacredly  dear  to  the  Spanish  nation,  that  to  say  *'  by  the 
faith  of  Rodrigo,"  is  still  considered  the  strongest  vow  of  loy- 
alty. 

The  poem  of  the  Cid  is  valuable  mainly  for  the  living  picture 
it  presents  of  manners  and  character  in  the  11th  century.  It  is 
a  contemporary  and  spirited  exhibition  of  the  chivalrous  times 
of  Spain,  ^iven  occasionally  with  an  admirable  and  Homeric 
simplicity.  It  is  the  history  of  the  most  romantic  hero  of  Span- 
ish tradition,  continually  mingled  with  domestic  and  personal 
details,  that  bring  the  character  of  the  Cid  and  his  age  very 
near  to  our  own  sympathies  and  interests.  The  language  is  the 
same  which  he  himself  spoke — still  only  imperfectly  developed — 
it  expresses  the  bold  and  original  spirit  of  the  time,  and  the 
metre  and  rhyme  are  rude  and  unsettled  ;  but  the  poem  through- 
out is  striking  and  original,  and  breathes  everywhere  the  true 
Castilian  spirit.  During  the  thousand  years  which  elapsed  from 
the  time  of  the  decay  of  Greek  and  Koman  culture  down  to  the 
appearance  of  the  Divine  Comedy,  no  poetry  was  produced  so 
original  in  its  tone,  or  so  full  of  natural  feeling,  picturesqueness 
and  energy. 

There  are  a  few  other  poems,  anonymous,  like  that  of 
fhe  Cid,  whose  language  and  style  carry  them  back  to  the 
13th  century.  The  next  poetry  we  meet  is  by  a  known 
author,  Gonzalo  (1220-1260),  a  priest  commonly  called  Ber- 
ceo,  from  the  place  of  his  birth.  His  works,  all  on  religious 
subjects,  amount  to  more  than  13,000  lines.  His  language 
shows  some  advance  from  that  in  which  the  Cid  was  written, 
but  the  power  and  movement  of  that  remarkable  legend  are 
entirely  wanting  in  these  poems.  There  is  a  simple-hearted  piety 
in  them,  however,  that  is  very  attractive,  and  in  some  of  them 
a  story-telling  spirit  that  is  occasionally  vivid  and  graphic. 

Alfonso,  surnamed  the  Wise  (1221-1284),  united  the  crowns 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  and  attracted  to  his  court  many  of  the 
philosophers  and  learned  men  of  the  East.  He  was  a  poet 
closely  connected  with  the  Proven9al  troubadours  of  his  time, 
and  so  skilled  in  astronomy  and  the  occult  sciences,  that  his 
fame  spread  throughout  Europe.  He  had  more  political,  philo- 
sophical and  elegant  learning  than  any  man  of  his  age,  au'I 
made  further  advances  in  some  of  the  exact  sciences.  At  one 
period  his  consideration  was  so  great,  that  he  was  elected  Em 


312  SPANISH    LITERATIJKE.  * 

peror  of  Germany  ;  but  his  claims  were  set  aside  by  the  subse- 
quent election  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  The  last  great  work 
undertaken  by  Alfonso  was  a  kind  of  code  known  as  "  Las  Siete 
Partidas,"  or  The  Seven  Parts,  from  the  divisions  of  the  work 
itself.  This  is  the  most  important  legislative  monument  of 
the  age,  and  forms  a  sort  of  Spanish  common  law,  which,  with 
the  decisions  under  it,  has  been  the  basis  of  Spanish  jurispru- 
dence ever  since.  Becoming  a  part  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
State  in  all  Spanish  colonies,  it  has,  from  the  time  Louisiana 
and  Florida  were  added  to  the  United  States,  become  in  some 
cases  the  law  in  our  own  country. 

The  life  of  Alfonso  was  full  of  painful  vicissitudes.  He  was 
driven  from  his  throne  by  factious  nobles  and  a  rebellious  son,  and 
died  in  exile,  leaving  behind  him  the  reputation  of  being  the 
wisest  fool  in  Christendom.  Mariana  says  of  him  :  "  He  was 
more  fit  for  letters  than  for  the  government  of  his  subjects  ;  he 
studied  the  heavens  and  watched  the  stars,  but  forgot  the  earth 
and  lost  his  kingdom."  Yet  Alfonso  is  among  the  chief  found- 
ers of  his  country's  intellectual  fame,  and  he  is  to  be  remem- 
bered ahke  for  the  great  advancement  Castilian  prose  compo- 
sition made  in  his  hands,  for  his  poetry,  for  his  astronomical 
tables — which  all  the  progress  of  modern  science  has  not  deprived 
of  their  value — and  for  his  great  work  on  legislation,  which  is 
at  this  moment  an  authority  in  both  hemispheres. 

Juan  Lorenzo  Segura  (1  IT 6-1 250)  was  the  author  of  a  poem 
containing  more  than  10,000  hues,  on  the  history  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  In  this  poem  the  manners  and  customs  of  Spain  in 
the  13th  century  are  substituted  for  those  of  ancient  Greece, 
and  the  Macedonian  hero  is  invested  with  all  the  virtues  and 
even  equipments  of  European  chivalry. 

Don  Juan  Manuel  (1282-1347),  a  nephew  of  Alfonso  the 
Wise,  was  one  of  the  most  turbulent  and  dangerous  Spanish 
barons  of  his  time.  His  Hfe  was  full  of  intris-ue  and  violence, 
and  for  thirty  years  he  disturbed  his  country  by  his  military 
and  rebelHous  enterprises.  But  in  all  these  circumstances,  so 
adverse  to  intellectual  pursuits,  he  showed  himself  worthy  of  the 
family  in  which  for  more  than  a  century  letters  had  been  honored 
and  cultivated.  Don  Juan  is  known  to  have  v/ritten  twelve 
works,  but  it  is  uncertain  how  many  of  these  are  still  in  exist- 
ence ;  only  one,  "  Count  Lucanor/'  has  been  placed  beyond  the 
reach  of  accident  by  being  printed.  The  Count  Lucanor  is  the 
most  valuable  monument  of  Spanish  literature  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, and  one  of  the  earliest  prose  works  in  the  Castilian  tongue, 
as  the  Decameron,  which  appeared  about  the  same  time,  was 


SPAXISII    LITERATUEE.  313 

tlie  first  in  the  Italian.  Botli  are  collections  of  tales  ;  but  the 
object  of  tlie  Decameron  is  to  amuse,  while  tlie  Count  Lucanor 
is  the  production  of  a  statesman,  instructing  a  grave  and  serious 
nation  in  lessons  of  policy  and  morality  in  the  form  of  apologues. 
These  stories  have  suggested  many  subjects  for  the  Spanisli 
stage,  and  one  of  them  contains  the  groundwork  of  Shakspeare's 
Taming  of  the  Shrew, 

Juan  Ruiz,  arch-priest  of  Hita  (1292-1351),  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Don  Manuel  His  works  consist  of  nearly  seven  thou- 
sand verses,  forming  a  series  of  stories  which  appear  to  be 
sketches  from  liis  own  history,  mingled  witli  fictions  and  alle- 
gories. The  most  curious  is  "  The  Battle  of  Don  Carnival  with 
Madame  Lent,"  in  which  Don  Bacon,  Madame  Hungbeef,  and  a 
train  of  other  savory  personages,  are  marshalled  in  mortal  com- 
bat. The  cause  of  Madame  Lent  triumphs,  and  Don  Carnival 
is  condemned  to  solitary  imprisonment  and  one  spare  meal  each 
day.  At  the  end  of  forty  days  the  allegorical  prisoner  escapes, 
raises  new  followers,  Don  Breakfast  and  others,  and  re-appears 
in  alliance  v^'ith  Don  Amor.  Tlie  poetry  of  the  arch-priest  is 
very  various  in  tone.  In  general,  it  is  satirical  and  pervaded 
by  a  quiet  humor.  His  happiest  success  is  in  the  tales  and 
apologues  which  illustrate  the  adventures  that  constitute  a 
framework  for  his  poetry,  which  is  natural  and  spirited  ;  and 
in  this,  as  in  other  points,  he  strikingly  resembles  Chaucer. 
Both  often  sought  their  materials  in  Northern  French  poetry, 
and  both  have  that  mixture  of  devotion  and  of  licentiousness 
belonging  to  their  age,  as  well  as  to  the  personal  character  of 
each. 

Ilabbi  Santob,  a  Jew  of  Carrion  (fl.  1350),  was  the  author 
of  many  poems,  the  most  important  of  which  is  "The  Dance  of 
Death,"  a  favorite  subject  of  the  painters  and  poets  of  the  middle 
ages,  representhig  a  kind  of  spiritual  masquerade,  in  which  per- 
sons of  every  rank  and  age  appear  dancing  with  the  skeleton 
form  of  Death.  In  this  Spanish  version  it  is  perhaps  more 
striking  and  picturesque  than  in  any  other — the  ghastly  nature 
of  the  subject  being  brought  into  very  lively  contrast  with  the 
festive  tone  of  the  verses.  This  grim  fiction  had  for  several 
centuries  great  success  throughout  Europe. 

Pedro  Lopez  Ayala  (1332-140t),  grand-cliancellor  of  Castile 
under  four  successive  sovereigns,  was  both  a  poet  and  a  historian. 
His  poem,  "  Court  Rhymes,"  is  the  most  remarka])le  of  his  produc- 
tions. His  style  is  grave,  gentle  and  didactic,  with  occasional 
expressions  of  poetic  feeling,  which  seem,  however,  to  belong  as 
much  to  their  age  as  to  their  author. 

14 


314  SPANISH   LITERATURE. 

2.  Old  Ballads. — From  the  loth  to  the  15th  century,  the 
period  we  have  just  gone  over,  the  courts  of  the  different  sove- 
reigns of  Europe  were  the  principal  centres  of  refinement  and 
civilization,  and  this  was  pecuharly  the  case  in  Spain  during  this 
period,   when  literature  was  produced  or  encouraged  by  the 
sovereigns  and  other  distinguished  men.     But  this  was  not  the 
only  literature  of  Spain.     The  spirit  of  poetry  diffused  through- 
out the  peninsula,  excited  by  ihe  romantic  events  of  Spanish 
history,  now  began  to  assume  the  form  of  a  popular  literature, 
and  to  assert  for  itself  a  place  wiiich  in  some  particulars  it  has 
maintained  ever   since.      This  popular   literature   may  be  dis- 
tributed into  four  different  classes.     The  first  contains  the  Bal- 
lads, or  the  naiTative  and  lyrical  poetry  of  the  common  people 
from  the  earliest  times  ;  the  second,  the  Chronicles,  or  the  half- 
genuine,  half-fabulous  histories  of  the  great  events  and  heroes  of 
the  national  annals  ;  the  third  class  comprises  the  Romances  of 
Chivalry,  intimately  connected  with  both  the  others,  and,  after 
a  time,  as  passionately  admired  by  the  whole  nation  ;  and  the 
fourth  includes  the  Drama,  w^iich  in  its  origin  has  always  been 
a  popular  and  religious  amusement,  and  was  hardly  less  so  in 
Spain  than  it  was  in  Greece  or  in  France.     These  four  classes 
compose  what  was  generally  most  valued  in  Spanish  literature 
during  the  latter  part  of  the   14th  century,  the  whole  of  the 
15th,  and  much  of  the  16th.     They  rested  on  the  deep  founda- 
tions of  the  national  character,  and  therefore  by  then-  very  nature 
were  opposed  to  the  Proven9al,   the  Italian,    and  the  courtly 
schools,  which  flourished  during  the  same  period. 

The  metrical  structure  of  the  old  Spanish  ballad  was  extremely 
simple,  consisting  of  eight-syllable  lines,  which  are  composed 
with  great  facility  in  other  languages  as  well  as  the  Castilian. 
Sometimes  they  were  broken  into  stanzas  of  four  lines  eacli, 
thence  called  redondillas,  or  roundelays,  but  their  prominent 
peculiarity  is  that  of  the  asonante,  an  imperfect  rhyme  that 
echoes  the  same  vowel,  but  not  the  same  final  consonant  in  the 
terminating  syllables.  This  metrical  form  was  at  a  later  period 
adopted  by  the  dramatists,  and  is  now  used  in  every  department 
of  Spanish  poetry. 

The  old  Spanish  ballads  comprise  more  than  a  thousand  poems, 
first  collected  hi  the  16th  century,  whose  authors  and  dates  are 
alike  unknown.  Indeed,  until  after  the  middle  of  that  century, 
it  is  difficult  to  find  ballads  written  by  known  authors.  These 
collections,  arranged  without  regard  to  chronological  order, 
relate  to  the  fictions  of  chivalry,  especially  to  Charlemagne  and 
his  peers,  to  the  traditions  and  history  of  Spain,  to  Moorish 


*  SPANISH   LITEEATURE.  315 

adventures,  and  to  the  private  life  and  manners  of  the  Spaniards 
themselves  ;  they  belong  to  the  unchronicled  popular  life  and 
character  of  the  age  which  gave  them  birth.  The  ballads  of 
chivalry,  with  the  exception  of  those  relating  to  Charlemagne, 
occupy  a  less  important  place  than  those  founded  on  national 
subjects.  The  historical  ballads  are  by  far  the  most  numerous 
and  the  most  interesting  ;  and  of  those  the  first  in  the  order  of 
time  are  those  relating  to  Bernardo  del  Carpio,  concerning  whom 
there  are  about  forty.  Bernardo  (fl.  800)  was  the  offspring  of 
a  secret  marriage  between  the  Count  de  Saldaiia  and  a  sister  of 
Alfonso  the  Chaste,  at  which  the  king  was  so  much  offended 
that  he  sent  the  Infanta  to  a  convent,  and  k^pt  the  Count  in  per- 
petual imprisonment,  educating  Bernardo  as  his  own  son,  and 
keeping  him  in  ignorance  of  his  birth.  The  achievements  of 
Bernardo  ending  with  the  victory  of  Roncesvalles,  his  efforts  to 
procure  the  release  of  his  father,  the  falsehood  of  the  king,  and 
the  despair  and  rebellion  of  Bernardo  after  the  death  of  the 
Count  in  prison,  constitute  the  romantic  incidents  of  these  ballads. 

The  next  series  is  that  on  Fernan  Gonzalez,  a  chieftain  who 
in  the  middle  of  the  10th  century  recovered  Castile  from  the 
Moors  and  became  its  first  sovereign  count.  The  most  romantic 
are  those  whicli  describe  his  being  twice  rescued  from  prison  by 
his  heroic  wife,  and  his  contest  with  King  Sancho,  in  which  he 
displayed  all  the  turbulence  and  cunning  of  a  robber  baron  of 
the  middle  ages. 

The  Seven  Lords  of  Lara  form  the  next  group ;  some  of  them 
are  beautiful,  and  the  story  they  contain  is  one  of  the  most 
romantic  in  Spanish  history.  The  Seven  Lords  of  Lara  are 
betrayed  by  their  uncle  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors,  and  put  to 
death,  while  their  father,  by  the  basest  treason,  is  confined  in  a 
Moorish  prison.  An  eighth  son,  the  famous  Mudarra,  whose 
mother  is  a  noble  Moorish  lady,  at  last  avenges  all  the  wrongs 
of  his  race. 

But  from  the  earliest  period,  the  Cid  has  been  the  occasion 
of  more  ballads  than  any  other  of  the  great  heroes  of  Spanish 
history  or  fable.  They  were  first  collected  in  1612,  and  have 
been  continually  republished  to  the  present  day.  There  a.re  at 
least  a  hundred  and  sixty  of  them,  forming  a  more  complete 
scries  than  any  other,  all  strongly  marked  with  the  spirit  of 
their  age  and  country. 

The  Moorish  ballads  form  a  large  and  brilliant  class  by  them- 
selves. The  period  when  this  style  of  poetry  came  into  favor,  was 
the  century  after  the  fall  of  Granada,  when  the  south  with  its 
refinement  and  effeminacy,  its  magnificent  and  fantastic  archi- 


310  SPANISH   LITERATURE. 

tecture,  the  foreign  jet  not  strange  manners  of  its  people,  and 
the  stories  of  theii*  warhke  achievements,  all  took  strong  hold 
of  the  Spanish  imagination,  and  made  of  Granada  a  fairy  land. 
Of  the  ballads  relating  to  private  life,  most  of  them  are 
effusions  of  love,  others  are  sathical,  pastoral  and  burlesque,  and 
many  descriptive  of  the  manners  and  amusements  of  the  people 
at  large  ;  but  all  of  them  are  true  representations  of  S})anish 
life.  They  are  marked  by  an  attractive  simplicity  of  thought 
and  expression,  united  to  a  sort  of  mischievous  shrewdness. 
Ko  such  popular  poetry  exists  in  any  other  language,  and  no 
other  exhibits  in  so  great  a  degree  that  nationality  which  is  the 
truest  element  of  such  poetry  everywhere.  The  English  and 
Scotch  ballads,  with  which  they  may  most  naturally  be  compared, 
belong  to  a  ruder  state  of  society,  which  gave  to  the  poetry  less 
dignity  and  elevation  than  belong  to  a  people  who,  like  the 
Spanish,  were  for  centuries  engaged  in  a  contest  ennobled  by  a 
sense  of  religion  and  loyalty,  and  which  could  not  fail  to  raise 
the  minds  of  those  engaged  in  it  far  above  the  atmosphere  that 
settled  around  the  bloody  feuds  of  rival  barons,  or  the  gross 
maraudings  of  border  warfare.  The  great  Castilian  heroes,  the 
Cid,  Bernardo  del  Carpio  and  Pelayo  are  even  now  an  essential 
portion  of  the  faith  and  poetry  of  the  common  people  of  Spain, 
and  are  still  honored  as  they  were  centuries  ago.  The  stories 
of  Guarinos  and  of  the  defeat  at  Roncesvalles  are  still  sung  by 
tlie  wayfaring  muleteers,  as  they  were  when  Don  Quixote  heard 
them  on  his  journey  to  Toboso,  and  the  showmen  still  rehearse 
the  same  adventures  in  the  streets  of  Seville,  that  they  did 
at  the  solitary  inn  of  Montesinos  when  he  encountered  them 
there. 

3.  The  Chroxicles. — As  the  great  JNIoorish  contest  was 
transferred  to  the  south  of  Spain,  the  north  became  compara- 
tively quiet.  Wealth  and  leisure  followed  ;  the  castles  became 
the  abodes  of  a  crude  but  free  hospitality,  and  the  distinctions 
of  society  grew  more  apparent.  The  ballads  from  this  time 
began  to  subside  into  the  lower  portions  of  society;  the  educated 
sou<2:ht  forms  of  literature  more  in  accordance  with  their 
increased  knowledge  and  leisure,  and  their  more  settled  system 
of  social  life.  The  oldest  of  these  forms  was  that  of  the  Spanish 
]M'ose  chronicles,  of  which  there  are  general  and  royal  chronicles, 
chronicles  of  particular  events,  chronicles  of  particular  per- 
sons, chronicles  of  travels,  and  romantic  chronicles. 

The  lirst  of  these  chronicles  in  the  order  of  time  as  well  as 
that  of  merit,  comes  from  the  royal  hand  of  Alfonso  the  Wise, 


SPANISH    LITERATURE.  317 

and  is  entitled  "  The  Chronicle  of  Spain."  It  begins  with  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  concludes  with  the  death  of  St.  Fer- 
dinand, the  father  of  Alfonso.  The  last  part,  relating  to  the 
history  of  Spain,  is  by  far  the  most  attractive,  and  sets  forth  in 
a  truly  national  spirit  all  the  rich  old  traditions  of  the  country. 
This  is  not  only  the  most  interesting  of  the  Spanish  chronicles, 
but  the  most  interesting  of  all  that  in  any  country  mark  the 
transition  from  its  poetical  and  romantic  traditions  to  the  grave 
exactness  of  historical  truth.  The  chronicle  of  the  Cid  was  pro- 
bably taken  from  this  work. 

Alfonso  XI.  ordered  the  annals  of  the  kingdom  to  be  con- 
tinued down  to  his  own  reign,  or  through  the  period  from  1252 
to  1312.  During  many  succeeding  reigns  the  royal  chronicles 
were  continued — that  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  by  Pulgar,  is 
the  last  instance  of  the  old  style ;  but  though  the  annals  were  still 
kept  up,  the  free  and  pictui'esque  spirit  that  gave  them  life  was 
no  lono;er  there. 

The  chronicles  of  particular  events  and  persons  are  most  of 
them  of  little  value. 

Among  the  chronicles  of  travels,  the  oldest  one  of  any  value 
is  an  account  of  a  Spanish  embassy  to  Tamerlane,  the  great 
Tartar  potentate. 

Of  the  romantic  chronicles,  the  principal  specimen  is  that 
of  Don  Roderic,  a  fabulous  account  of  the  rei<2:n  of  Kino- 
Roderic,  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Moors,  and  the 
first  attempts  to  recover  it  in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century. 
The  style  is  heavy  and  verbose,  although  upon  it  Southey  has 
founded  much  of  his  beautiful  poem  of  "  Roderic,  the  last  of  the 
Goths."  This  chronicle  of  Don  Roderic,  which  was  little  more 
than  a  romance  of  chivalrv,  marks  the  transition  to  those 
romantic  fictions  that  had  already  begun  to  inundate  Spain. 
But  the  series  which  it  concludes  extends  over  a  period  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  from  the  time  of  Alfonso  the  Wise  to 
the  accession  of  Charles  Y.  (1221-1516),  and  is  unrivalled 
in  the  richness  and  variety  of  its  poetic  elements.  In  truth, 
these  old  Spanish  chronicles  cannot  be  compared  with  those  of 
any  other  nation,  and  whether  they  have  their  foundation  in 
truth  or  in  fable,  they  strike  further  down  than  those  of  any 
other  people  into  the  deep  soil  of  popular  feeling  and  character. 
The  old  Spanish  loyalty,  the  old  Spanish  religious  faith,  as  both 
were  formed  and  nourished  in  long  periods  of  national  trial  and 
sulTering,  everywhere  appear  ;  and  they  contain  such  a  body  of 
antiquities,  traditions  and  fables  as  has  been  offered  to  no  other 
people  ;  furnishing  not  only  materials  from  which  a  multitude 


318  SPANISH   LITERATURE. 

of  old  Spanish  plays,  ballads  and  romances  have  been  drawn, 
but  a  mine  which  has  unceasingly  been  wrought  by  the  rest  of 
Europe  for  similar  purposes,  and  which  still  remains  unex- 
hausted. 

4.  RoiiANCEs  OF  Chivalry. — The  ballads  originally  belonged 
to  the  whole  nation,  but  especially  to  its  less  cultivated  portions. 
The  chronicles,  on  the  contrary,  belonged  to  the  knightly  classes, 
who  sought  in  these  picturesque  records  of  their  fathers  a 
stimulus  to  their  own  virtue.  But  as  the  nation  advanced  in 
refinement,  books  of  less  grave  character  were  demanded,  and 
the  spirit  of  poetical  invention  soon  turned  to  the  national  tra- 
ditions, and  produced  from  thence  new  and  attractive  forms  of 
fiction.  Before  the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  the  romances 
of  chivalry  connected  with  the  stories  of  Arthur  and  the  knights 
of  the  Round  Table,  and  Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  which  had 
appeared  in  France  two  centuries  before,  were  scarcely  known 
in  Spain  ;  but  after  that  time  they  were  imitated,  and  a  new 
series  of  fictions  was  invented,  which  soon  spread  through  the 
world  and  became  more  famous  than  either  of  its  predecessors. 

This  extraordinary  family  of  romances  is  that  of  which  "  Ama- 
dis  "  IS  the  poetical  head  and  type,  and  this  was  probably  produced 
before  the  year  1400,  by  Vasco  de  Lobeira,  a  Portuguese, 
The  structure  and  tone  of  this  fiction  are  original,  and  much 
more  free  than  those  of  the  French  romances  that  had  preceded 
it.  The  stories  of  Arthur  and  Charlemagne  are  both  somewhat 
limited  in  invention  by  the  adventures  ascribed  to  them  in  the 
traditions  and  chronicles,  while  that  of  Amadis  belongs  purely  to 
the  imagination,  and  its  sole  purpose  is  to  set  forth  the  charac- 
ter of  a  perfect  knight.  Amadis  is  admitted  by  general  consent 
to  be  the  best  of  all  the  old  romances  of  chivalry.  The  series 
which  followed,  founded  upon  the  Amadis,  reached  the  number 
of  twenty-four.  They  were  successively  translated  into  French, 
and  at  once  became  famous.  Considering  the  passionate  admi- 
ration which  this  work  so  long  excited,  and  the  influence  that, 
with  little  merit  of  its  own,  it  has  ever  since  exercised  on  the 
poetry  and  romance  of  modern  Europe,  it  is  a  phenomenon 
without  parallel  in  literary  history. 

Many  other  series  of  romances  followed,  numbering  more  tlian 
seventy  volumes,  most  of  them  in  folio,  and  their  hifluence  over 
the  Spanish  character  extended  through  two  hundred  years. 
Their  extraordinary  popularity  may  be  accounted  for,  if  we 
remember  that,  when  they  first  appeared  in  Spain,  it  had  long 
been   pcculiiirly  the   land   of  knighthood.      Extravagant   and 


SPANISH   LITERATURE.  319 

impossible  as  are  many  of  the  adventures  recorded  in  these 
books  of  chivahy,  they  so  little  exceeded  the  absurdities  of  living 
men,  that  many  persons  took  the  romances  themselves  to  be 
true  histories,  and  believed  them.  The  happiest  work  of  the 
greatest  genius  Spain  has  produced,  bears  witness  on  every  page 
to  the  prevalence  of  an  absolute  fanaticism  for  these  books  of 
chivalry,  and  becomes  at  once  the  seal  of  their  vast  popularity 
and  the  monument  of  their  fate. 

5.  The  Drama. — The  ancient  theatre  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  was  continued  in  some  of  its  grosser  forms  in  Constan- 
tinople and  in  other  parts  of  the  fallen  empire  far  into  the  middle 
ages.  But  it  was  essentially  mythological  or  heathenish,  and  as 
such,  it  was  opposed  by  the  Christian  church,  which,  however, 
provided  a  substitute  for  what  they  thus  opposed,  by  adding  a 
dramatic  element  to  its  festivals.  Thus  the  manger  at  Bethle- 
hem, with  the  worship  of  the  shepherds  and  magi,  was  at  a  very 
early  period  solemnly  exhibited  every  year  before  the  altars  of 
the  churches  at  Christmas,  as  were  the  tragical  events  of  the 
last  days  of  the  Saviour's  life  during  Lent  and  at  the  approach 
of  Easter.  To  these  spectacles,  dialogue  was  afterwards  added, 
and  they  were  called,  as  we  have  seen.  Mysteries ;  they  were 
used  successfully  not  only  as  a  means  of  amusement,  but  for  the 
religious  edification  of  an  ignorant  multitude,  and  in  some 
countries  they  have  been  continued  quite  down  to  our  own  times. 
The  period  when  these  representations  were  first  made  in  Spain 
cannot  now  be  determined,  though  it  was  certainly  before  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century,  and  no  distinct  account  of  them  now 
remains. 

A  singular  combination  of  pastoral  and  satirical  poetry  indi- 
cates the  first  origin  of  the  Spanish  secular  drama.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  15th  century,  these  pastoral  dialogues  were 
converted  into  real  dramas  by  Euzina,  and  were  publicly  repre- 
sented. But  the  most  important  of  these  early  productions  is 
the  "  Tragi-comedy  of  Calisto  and  Meliboea,"  or  "  Celestina." 
Though  it  can  never  have  been  represented,  it  has  left  unmis- 
takable traces  of  its  influence  on  the  national  drama  ever  since. 
It  was  translated  into  various  languages,  and  few  works  ever 
had  a  more  brilliant  success.  The  great  fault  of  the  Celestina  is 
its  shameless  libertinism  of  thought  and  lauGTuage:  and  its  chief 
merits  are  its  life-like  exhibition  of  the  most  unworthy  forms  of 
human  character,  and  its  singularly  pure,  rich  and  idiomatic 
Castilian  style. 

The  dramatic  writers  of  this  period  seem  to  have  had  no  idea 


320  SPANISH   LITERATURE. 

of  founding  a  popular  national  drama,  of  which  there  is  no 
trace  as  late  as  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella. 

6.  PROVExgAL  Literature  in  Spain. — ^When  the  crown  of 
Provence  was  transferred,  by  the  marriage  of  its  heir,  in  1113, 
to  Berenger,  Count  of  Barcelona,  numbers  of  the  Provencal 
poets  followed  their  liege  lady  from  Aries  to  Barcelona,  and 
established  themselves  in  her  new  capital.  At  the  very  com- 
mencement, therefore,  of  the  12th  century,  Proven9al  refinement 
was  introduced  into  the  northeastern  corner  of  Spain.  Political 
causes  soon  carried  it  further  towards  the  centre  of  the  country. 
The  Counts  of  Barcelona  obtained,  by  marriage,  the  kingdom 
of  Aragon,  and  soon  spread  through  their  new  territories  many 
of  the  refinements  of  Provence.  The  literature  thus  introduced 
retained  its  Provencal  character  till  it  came  in  contact  with  that 
more  vigorous  spirit  which  had  been  advancing  from  tlie  novtli- 
west,  and  which  afterwards  gave  its  tone  to  the  consolidated 
monarcliy. 

The  poetry  of  the  troubadours  in  Catalonia,  as  well  as  in  its 
native  home,  belonged  much  to  the  court,  and  the  highest  in  . 
rank  and  power  were  earliest  and  foremost  on  its  lists.  From 
1209  to  1229,  the  war  against  the  Albigenses  was  carried  on 
with  extraordinary  cruelty  and  fnry.  To  this  sect  nearly  all  the 
contemporary  troubadours  belonged,  and  when  they  were  com- 
pelled to  escape  from  the  burnt  and  bloody  ruins  of  their 
homes,  many  of  them  hastened  to  the  friendly  court  of  Aragon, 
sure  of  being  protected  and  honored  by  princes  who  were  at  the 
same  time  poets. 

From  the  close  of  the  13th  century,  the  songs  of  the  trouba- 
dours were  rarely  heard  in  the  land  that  gave  them  birth  three 
hundred  years  before  ;  and  the  plant  that  was  not  permitted  to 
expand  in  its  native  soil,  soon  perished  in  that  to  which  it  had 
been  transplanted.  After  tlie  opening  of  the  14th  century,  no 
genuinely  Provencal  poetry  appears  in  Castile,  and  from  the 
middle  of  that  century  it  begins  to  recede  from  Catalonia  and 
Aragon  ;  or  rather,  to  be  corrupted  by  the  hardier  dialect  spo- 
ken there  by  the  mass  of  the  people.  The  retreat  of  the  trou- 
badours over  the  Pyrenees,  from  Aix  to  Barcelona,  from  Bar- 
celona to  Saragossa  and  Valencia,  is  everywhere  marked  by  the 
wrecks  and  fragments  of  their  peculiar  poetry  and  cultivation. 
At  length,  oppressed  by  the  more  powerful  Castilian,  what  re- 
mained of  the  language,  that  gave  the  first  impulse  to  poetic  feel 
ing  in  modern  times,  sank  into  a  neglected  dialect. 


SPANISH    LITERATURE.  321 

7.  The  Ixfluexce  of  Italian  Literature  in  Spain. — The 
iufliieucc  of  the  Itahan  literature  over  the  Spanish,  though  less 
apparent  at  first,  was  more  deep  and  lasting  than  that  of  the 
Provencal.  The  long  wars  that  the  Christians  of  Spain  waged 
against  the  Moors,  brought  them  into  closer  spiritual  connection 
with  the  churcli  of  Rome  than  any  other  people  of  modern  times. 
Spanish  students  repaired  to  the  famous  universities  of  Italy, 
and  returned  to  Spain,  bringing  with  them  the  influence  of  Ita- 
lian culture  ;  and  commercial  and  political  relations  still  further 
promoted  a  free  communication  of  the  manners  and  literature  of 
Italy  to  Spain.  The  language,  also,  from  its  affinity  with  the 
Spanish,  constituted  a  still  more  important  and  effectual  medium 
of  intercourse.  In  the  reign  of  John  II.  (1407-1454),  the 
attempt  to  form  an  Italian  school  in  Spain  became  apparent. 
This  sovereign  gathered  about  him  a  sort  of  poetical  court,  and 
gave  an  impulse  to  refinement  that  was  perceptible  for  several 
generations. 

Among  those  who  interested  themselves  most  directly  in  the 
progress  of  poetry  in  Spain,  the  first  in  rank,  after  the  king  himself, 
was  the  Marquis  of  Villena  (1384-1434),  whose  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  the  "  Labors  of  Hercules,"  a  short  prose  treatise  or  allegory. 

First  of  all  the  courtiers  and  poets  of  this  reign,  in  point  of 
merit,  stands  the  Marquis  of  Santillana  (1398-1458),  whose 
works  belong  more  or  less  to  the  Provencal,  Italian  and  Spanish 
schools.  He  was  the  founder  of  an  Italian  and  courtlv  school 
in  Spanish  poetry — one  adverse  to  the  national  school  and  finally 
overcome  by  it,  but  one  that  long  exercised  a  considerable  sway. 
Another  poet  of  the  court  of  John  II.,  is  Juan  de  ]\Ieua,  historio- 
grapher of  Castile.  His  principal  works  are,  "  The  Coronation," 
and  "  The  Labyrinth,"  both  imitations  of  Dante.  They  are  of 
consequence  as  marking  the  progress  of  the  language.  The  prin- 
cipal poem  of  Manrique  the  younger,  one  of  an  illustrious  family  of 
that  name,  who  were  poets,  statesmen  and  soldiers,  on  the  death 
of  his  father,  is  remarkable  for  depth  and  truth  of  feeling.  Its 
greatest  charm  is  its  beautiful  simplicity,  and  its  merit  entitles 
it  to  the  place  it  has  taken  among  the  most  admired  portions  of 
the  elder  Spanish  literature. 

8.  The  Cancioneros  and  Prose  Writings. — The  most  dis- 
tinct idea  of  the  poetical  culture  of  Spain,  during  the  15th  cen- 
tury, may  be  obtained  from  the  *'  Cancioneros,"  or  collections 
of  poetry,  sometimes  all  by  one  author,  sometimes  by  many. 
The  oldest  of  these  dates  from  about  1450,  and  was  the  work 
of  Baena.     Many  similar  collections  followed,  and  they  wero 

14* 


322  SPANISU   LITERATURE. 

amoiiff  the  fashionable  wants  of  the  aore.  In  1511,  Castillo 
printed  at  Valencia  the  "  Cancionero  General,"  which  contained 
poems  attributed  to  about  a  hundred  different  poets,  from  the 
time  of  Santillana  to  the  period  in  which  it  was  made.  Ten  edi- 
tions of  this  remarkable  book  followed,  and  in  it  we  find  the 
poetry  most  in  favor  at  the  court  and  with  the  refined  society  of 
Spain.  It  contains  no  trace  of  the  earliest  poetry  of  the  coun- 
try, but  the  spirit  of  the  troubadours  is  everywhere  present ; 
the  occasional  imitations  from  the  Italian  are  more  apparent 
than  successful,  and  in  general  it  is  wearisome  and  monotonous, 
overstrained,  formal  and  cold.  But  it  was  impossible  that  such 
a  state  of  poetical  culture  should  become  permanent  in  a  coun- 
try so  full  of  stirring  events  as  Spain  was  in  the  age  that  followed 
the  fall  of  Granada  and  the  discovery  of  America  ;  everything 
announced  a  decided  movement  in  the  literature  of  the  nation, 
and  almost  everything  seemed  to  favor  and  faciUtate  it. 

The  prose  writers  of  the  15th  century  deserve  mention  chiefly 
because  they  were  so  much  valued  in  their  own  age.  Their 
writings  are  encumbered  with  the  bad  taste  and  pedantry  of  the 
time.  Among  them  are  Lucena,  Alfonso  de  la  Torre,  Pulgar, 
and  a  few  others. 

9.  The  Inquisition. — The  first  period  of  the  history  of  Spanish 
literature,  now  concluded,  extends  through  nearly  four  centuries, 
from  the  first  breathings  of  the  poetical  enthusiasm  of  the  mass 
of  the  people,  down  to  the  decay  of  the  courtly  literature  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The  elements 
of  a  national  literature  which  it  contains — the  old  ballads,  the  old 
chronicles,  the  old  theatre — are  of  a  vigor  and  promise  not  to  be 
mistaken.  They  constitute  a  mine  of  more  various  wealth  than 
had  been  offered  under  similar  circumstances,  at  so  early  a  period, 
to  any  otlier  people  ;  and  they  give  indications  of  a  subsequent 
literature  that  shall  vindicate  for  itself  a  place  among  the  perma- 
nent monuments  of  modern  civilization. 

The  condition  of  things  in  Spain,  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  seemed  to  promise  a  long  period  of 
national  prosperity.  But  one  institution,  destined  to  check 
and  discourage  all  intellectual  freedom,  was  already  begin- 
ning to  give  token  of  its  great  and  blighting  power.  The 
Christian  Spaniards  had  from  an  early  period  been  essentially 
intolerant.  The  Moors  and  the  Jews  were  regarded  by  them 
with  an  intense  and  bitter  hatred  ;  the  first  as  their  conquerors, 
and  the  last  for  the  oppressive  claims  which  their  wealth  gave 
them  on  numbers  of  the  Christian  inhabitantr, ;  and  as  enemies 


SPANISH    LITERATURE.  323 

of  the  Cross,  it  was  considered  as  a  merit  to  punish  them.  The 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition,  therefore,  in  1481,  which  had 
been  so  effectually  used  to  exterminate  the  heresy  of  the  Albi- 
genses,  met  with  little  opposition.  The  Jews  and  the  Moors 
were  its  first  victims,  and  'with  them  it  was  permitted  to  deal 
michecked  by  the  power  of  the  state.  But  the  movements  of 
this  power  were  in  darkness  and  secrecy.  From  the  moment 
when  the  Inquisition  laid  its  grasp  on  the  object  of  its  suspicions 
to  that  of  his  execution,  no  voice  was  heard  to  issue  from  its 
cells.  The  very  witnesses  it  summoned  were  punished  with  death 
if  they  revealed  the  secrets  of  its  dread  tribunals  ;  and  often  of 
the  victim  nothing  was  known  but  that  he  had  disappeared  from 
his  accustomed  haunts  never  again  to  be  seen.  The  effect  was 
appalling.  The  imaginations  of  men  were  filled  with  horror  at 
the  idea  of  a  power  so  vast,  so  noiseless,  constantly  and  mvisibly 
around  them,  whose  blow  was  death,  but  whose  step  could 
neither  be  heard  nor  followed  amidst  the  gloom  into  which  it 
retreated.  From  this  time,  Spanish  intolerance  took  tliat  air  of 
sombre  fanaticism  which  it  never  afterwards  lost.  The  Inquisi- 
tion gradually  enlarged  its  jurisdiction,  until  none  was  too  hum- 
ble to  escape  its  notice,  or  too  high  to  be  reached  by  its  power. 
From  an  inquiry  into  the  private  opinions  of  individuals  to  an 
interference  with  books  and  the  press  was  but  a  step,  and  this 
was  soon  taken,  hastened  by  the  appearance  and  progress  of  the 
Reformation  of  Luther. 


PERIOD  SECOND. 

From  the   Accession   of  the  Austrian  Family  to  its   Ex- 
tinction (1500-1700) 

1.  The  Effect  of  Intolerance  on  Letters. — The  central 
point  in  Spanish  history  is  the  capture  of  Granada.  During 
nearly  eight  centuries  before  that  event,  the  Christians  of  Spain 
were  occupied  with  conflicts  that  developed  extraordinary  ener- 
gies, till  the  whole  land  was  filled  to  overflowing  with  a  power 
which  had  hardly  yet  been  felt  in  Europe.  But  no  sooner  had 
the  last  Moorish  fortress  yielded  up,  than  this  accumulated 
flood  broke  loose  and  threatened  to  overspread  the  best  portions 
of  the  civihzed  world.  Charles  the  Fifth,  grandson  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  inherited  not  only  Spain,  but  Naples,  Sicily  and 
the  Low  Countries.  The  untold  wealth  of  the  Indies  was 
already  beginning  to  pour  into  his  treasury.     lie  was  elected 


324  SPAXISII    LITERATLTEE. 

Emperor  of  Germany,  and  be  soon  began  a  career  of  conquest 
sucli  as  had  not  been  imagined  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne. 
Success  and  glory  seemed  to  wait  for  him  as  he  advanced,  and 
this  brilliant  aspect  seemed  to  promise  that  Spain  would  ere  long 
be  at  the  head  of  an  empire  more  extensive  than  the  Roman. 
But  a  moral  power  was  at  work,  destined  to  divide  Europe 
anew,  and  the  monk  Luther  was  already  become  a  counterpoise 
to  the  mihtary  master  of  so  many  kingdoms.  During  the  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years  of  struggle,  that  terminated  with  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  though  Spain  was  far  removed  from  the 
fields  where  the  most  cruel  battles  of  the  religious  wars  were 
fought,  the  interest  she  took  in  the  contest  may  be  seen  from  the 
presence  of  her  armies  in  every  part  of  Europe  where  it  was 
possible  to  assail  the  great  movement  of  the  Reformation. 

In  Spain,  the  contest  with  Protestantism  was  of  short  dura- 
tion. By  successive  decrees  it  was  at  flrst  ordained  that  all 
persons  who  kept  in  their  possession  books  infected  with  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  and  even  all  who  failed  to  denounce  such 
persons,  should  be  excommunicated,  and  subjected  to  cruel  and 
degrading  punishments.  The  power  of  the  Inquisition  was  con- 
summated in  15-46,  when  the  first  "  Index  Expurgatorius  "  was 
published  in  Spain.  This  was  a  list  of  the  books  that  all  per- 
sons were  forbidden  to  buy,  sell  or  keep  possession  of,  under 
penalty  of  confiscation  and  death.  The  tribunals  were  authorized 
and  required  to  proceed  against  all  persons  supposed  to  be  in- 
fected with  the  new  belief,  even  though  they  were  cardinals, 
dukes,  kings  or  emperors — a  power  more  formidable  to  the  pro- 
gress of  intellectual  improvement,  than  had  ever  before  been 
granted  to  any  body  of  men,  civil  or  ecclesiastical. 

The  portentous  authority  thus  given  was  freely  exercised.  The 
first  pubhc  auto  da  fe  of  Protestants  was  held  in  1559,  and 
many  others  followed.  The  number  of  victims  seldom  exceeded 
twenty  burned  at  one  time,  and  fifty  or  sixty  subjected  to  the 
severest  punishments;  but  many  of  those  who  sulTered  were 
among  the  active  and  leading  minds  of  the  age.  Men  of 
learning  were  particularly  obnoxious  to  suspicion,  nor  were  per- 
sons of  the  holiest  lives  beyond  its  reach  if  they  showed  a 
tendency  to  inquiry.  So  elfectually  did  the  Inquisition  ac- 
complish its  purpose,  that,  from  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Philip  II.,  the  voice  of  religious  dissent  was  scarcely  heard  in  the 
land.  The  great  body  of  the  Spanish  people  rejoiced  alike  in 
their  loyalty  and  their  orthodoxy,  and  the  few  who  differed  from 
the  mass  of  their  fellow-su])jects  were  either  silenced  by  their 
fears,  or  sunk  away  from  the  surface  of  society.     From  that  time 


SPAXISH    LITERATURE.  325 

down  to  its  overthrow,  in  1808,  this  institution  was  chiefly  a 
political  engine. 

The  result  of  such  extraordinary  traits  in  the  national  charac- 
ter could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  upon  the  literature.  Loyalty, 
wiiich  had  once  been  so  generous  an  element  in  the  Spanish  cha- 
racter and  cultivation,  was  now  infected  with  the  ambition  of 
universal  empire,  and  the  Christian  spirit  which  gave  an  air  of 
duty  to  the  wildest  forms  of  adventure  in  its  long  contest  with 
misbelief,  was  now  fallen  into  a  bigotry  so  pervading  that  the 
romances  of  the  time  are  full  of  it,  and  the  national  theatre  be- 
comes its  grotesque  monument. 

Of  course  the  literature  of  Spain  produced  during  this  interval 
— ^the  earlier  part  of  which  was  the  period  of  the  greatest  glory 
the  country  ever  enjoyed — was  injuriously  affected  by  so  dis- 
eased a  condition  of  the  national  mind.  Some  departments 
hardly  appeared  at  all,  others  were  strangely  perverted,  while 
yet  others,  like  the  drama,  ballads  and  lyrical  verse,  grew  exu- 
berant and  lawless,  from  the  very  restraints  imposed  on  the  rest. 
But  it  would  be  a  great  error  to  suppose  these  peculiarities  in 
Spanish  literature  were  produced  by  the  direct  action  either  of 
the  Inquisition  or  of  the  government.  The  foundations  of  this 
dark  work  were  laid  deep  and  sure  in  the  old  Castilian  character. 
It  was  the  result  of  the  excess  and  misdirection  of  that  very 
Christian  zeal  which  fought  so  gloriously  against  the  intrusion 
of  Mohammedanism  into  Spain,  and  of  that  loyalty  which  sus- 
tained the  Spanish  princes  so  faithfully  through  the  whole  of 
that  terrible  contest.  This  state  of  things,  however,  involved 
the  ultimate  sacrifice  of  the  best  elements  of  the  national 
character.  Only  a  little  more  than  a  century  elapsed,  before 
the  government  that  had  threatened  the  world  with  a  universal 
empire,  was  hardly  able  to  repel  invasion  from  abroad  or  main- 
'tain  its  subjects  at  home.  The  vigorous  poetical  life  which  had 
been  kindled  through  the  country  in  its  ages  of  trial  and 
adversity,  was  evidently  passing  out  of  the  whole  Spanish 
character.  The  crude  wealth  from  their  American  possessions 
sustained,  for  a  century  longer,  the  forms  of  a  miserable  political 
3xistence;  but  the  earnest  faith,  the  loyalty,  the  dignity  of  the 
Spanish  people  were  gone,  and  little  remained  in  their  place  but 
a  weak  subserviency  to  unworthy  masters  of  state,  and  a  low, 
timid  bigotry  in  whatever  related  to  religion.  The  old  en- 
thusiasm faded  away,  and  the  poetry  of  the  country,  which 
had  always  depended  more  on  the  state  of  the  popular  feel- 
ing than  any  other  poetry  of  modern  times,  faded  and  failed 
with  it. 


326  SPANISH   LITER ATUKE. 

2.  Influence  of  Italy  on  Spanish  Literature. — The  political 
connection  between  Spain  and  Italy  in  the  early  part  of  the  IGth 
century,  and  the  superior  civilization  and  refinement  of  the  latter 
country,  could  not  fail  to  influence  Spanish  literature.  Juan 
Boscan  (d.  1543)  was  the  first  to  attempt  the  proper  Italian 
measures  as  they  were  then  practised.  He  established  in  Spain 
the  Italian  iambic,  the  sonnet  and  canzone  of  Petrarch,  the  Urz(.i 
rima  of  Dante,  and  the  flowing  octaves  of  Ariosto.  As  an  origi- 
nal poet,  the  talents  of  Boscan  were  not  of  the  highest  order. 

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  (1503-1536),  the  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Boscan,  united  with  him  in  introducing  an  Italian 
school  of  poetry,  which  has  been  an  important  part  of  Spanish 
literature  ever  since.  The  poems  of  Garcilasso  are  remarkable 
for  their  gentleness  and  melancholy,  and  his  versification  is  un- 
commonly sweet,  and  well  adapted  to  the  tender  and  sad 
character  of  his  poetry. 

The  example  set  by  Boscan  and  Garcilasso  so  well  suited 
the  demands  of  the  age,  that  it  became  as  much  a  fashion  at  the 
court  of  Charles  Y.  to  write  in  the  Italian  manner,  as  it  did  to 
travel  in  Italy,  or  make  a  military  campaign  there.  Among 
those  who  did  most  to  establish  the  Italian  influence  in  Spanish 
literature  was  Diego  de  Mendoza  (1503-1575),  a  scholar,  a 
soldier,  a  poet,  a  diplomatist,  a  statesman,  a  historian,  and  a 
man  who  rose  to  great  consideration  in  whatever  he  undertook. 
One  of  his  earliest  works,  "  Lazarillo  de  Tormes,"  the  auto- 
biography of  a  boy,  little  Lazarus,  was  written  with  the  object 
of  satirizing  all  classes  of  society  under  the  character  of  a  servant, 
who  sees  them  in  undress  behind  the  scenes.  The  style  of  this 
work  is  bold,  rich  and  idiomatic,  and  some  of  its  sketches  are 
among  the  most  fresh  and  spirited  that  can  be  found  in  the 
wliole  class  of  prose  works  of  fiction.  It  has  been  more  or  less  a 
favorite  in  all  languages,  down  to  the  present  day,  and  was  the 
foundation  of  a  class  of  fictions  which  the  *'  Gil  Bias  "  of  Le  Sage 
has  made  famous  throughout  the  world.  !Mendoza,  after  having 
filled  many  high  ofiices  under  Charles  V.,  when  Philip  ascended 
the  throne,  was,  for  some  slight  offence,  banished  from  the  court 
as  a  madman.  In  the  poems  which  he  occasionally  wrote  during 
his  exile,  he  gave  the  influence  of  his  example  to  the  new  forna 
introduced  by  Boscan  and  Garcilasso.  At  a  later  period  he 
occupied  himself  in  writing  some  portions  of  the  history  of  his 
native  city,  Granada,  relating  to  the  rebellion  of  the  Moors 
(1568-1570).  Familiar  with  everything  of  which  he  speaks, 
there  is  a  freshness  and  power  in  his  sketches  that  carry  us  at 
once   into   the   midst   of  the   scenes  and  events  he  describes 


SPANISH   LITEKATUEE.  327 

"  The  War  of  Granada  "  is  an  imitation  of  Sallust.  Nothing  in 
the  style  of  the  old  chronicles  is  to  be  compared  to  it,  and  little  in 
any  subsequent  period  is  equal  to  it  for  manliness,  vigor  and  truth. 

3.  History. — The  imperfect  chronicles  of  the  age  of  Charles 
V.  were  surpassed  in  importance  by  the  histories  or  narra- 
tives, more  or  less  ample,  of  the  discoverers  of  the  western 
world,  all  of  which  were  interestmg  from  their  subject  and  their 
materials.  First  in  the  foreground  of  this  picturesque  group 
stands  Fernando  Cortes  (1485-1554),  of  whose  voluminous  docu- 
ments the  most  remarkable  were  five  long  reports  to  the  Em- 
peror on  the  affairs  of  Mexico, 

The  marvellous  achievements  of  Cortes,  however,  were  more 
fully  recorded  by  Gomara  (b.  1510),  the  oldest  of  the  regular 
historians  of  the  New  World.  His  principal  works  are  the 
"  History  of  the  Indies,"  chiefly  devoted  to  Columbus  and  the 
conquest  of  Peru,  and  the  "  Chronicle  of  New  Spain,"  which  is 
merely  the  history  and  life  of  Cortes,  under  which  title  it  has 
since  been  republished.  The  style  of  Gomara  is  easy  and  flow- 
ing, but  his  work  was  of  no  permanent  authority,  in  consequence 
of  the  great  and  frequent  mistakes  into  which  he  was  led  by 
those  who  were  too  much  a  part  of  the  story  to  relate  it  fairly. 
These  mistakes  Bernal  Diaz,  an  old  soldier  wlio  had  been  long 
in  the  New  World,  set  himself  at  work  to  correct,  and  the  book 
he  thus  produced,  with  many  faults,  has  something  of  the  honest 
nationality,  and  the  fervor  and  faith  of  the  old  chronicles. 

Among  those  who  have  left  records  of  their  adventures  in 
America,  one  of  the  most  considerable  is  Oviedo  (1478-155t), 
who  for  nearly  forty  years  devoted  himself  to  the  affairs  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  which  he  resided.  His  most  important  work 
is  "  The  Natural  and  General  History  of  the  Indies,"  a  series 
of  accounts  of  the  natural  condition,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants, 
and  the  political  affairs  of  the  Spanish  provinces  in  America,  as 
they  stood  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  It  is  of  great 
value  as  a  vast  repository  of  facts,  and  not  without  merit  as  a 
composition. 

In  Las  Casas  (14t4-1566)  Oviedo  had  a  formidable  rival, 
who,  pursumg  the  same  course  of  inquiries  in  the  New  World, 
came  to  conclusions  quite  opposite.  Convinced  from  his  first 
arrival  in  Hispaniola  that  the  gentle  nature  and  slight  frames 
of  the  natives  were  subjected  to  toil  and  servitude  so  "hard  that 
they  were  wasting  away,  he  thenceforth  devoted  his  life  to  their 
emancipation.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic  six  times,  in  order  to 
persuade  the  government  of  Charles  V.  to  ameliorate  their  co):i- 


328  SPANISH    LITERATUr.E. 

(lition,  and  always  with  more  or  less  success.  His  earliest  work, 
"  A  Short  Account  of  the  Kuin  of  the  Indies,"  was  a  tract  in 
which  the  sufl'erings  and  wrongs  of  the  Indians  were  doubtless 
much  overstated  by  the  zeal  of  its  author,  but  it  awakened  all 
Europe  to  a  sense  of  the  injustice  it  set  forth.  Other  short 
treatises  followed,  but  none  ever  produced  so  deep  and  solemn 
an  effect  on  the  world. 

The  great  work  of  Las  Casas,  however,  still  remains  incdited — 
''A  General  History  of  the  Indies  from  1492  to  lo25."  Like 
his  other  works,  it  shows  marks  of  haste  and  carelessness,  but 
its  value  is  great,  notwithstanding  his  too  fervent  zeal  for  the 
Indians.  It  is  a  repository  to  which  Herrera,  and  through  him 
all  the  historians  of  the  Indies  since,  have  resorted  for  materials, 
and  without  which  the  history  of  the  earliest  period  of  the 
Spanisli  settlements  in  America  cannot  even  now  be  written. 

There  are  numerous  otlier  works  on  the  discovery  and  con- 
quest of  America,  but  they  arc  of  less  consequence  than  those 
already  mentioned.  As  a  class,  they  resemble  the  old  chronicles, 
tliough  they  announce  the  approach  of  the  more  regular  form  of 
history. 

4.  The  Drama. — Before  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  the 
Mysteries  were  the  only  dramatic  exhibitions  of  Spain.  They 
were  upheld  by  ecclesiastical  power,  and  the  people,  as  such, 
had  no  sliare  in  them.  The  first  attempt  to  create  a  popular 
drama  was  made  by  Lope  de  Rueda,  a  goldbeater  of  Seville, 
who  flourished  between  1544  and  156T,  and  who  became  both 
a  dramatic  writer  and  an  actor.  His  works  consist  of  comedies, 
pastoral  colloquies,  and  dialogues  in  prose  and  verse.  They 
were  written  for  representation,  and  were  acted  before  popular 
audiences  by  a  strolling  company  led  about  by  Lope  de  Rueda 
himself.  Naturalness  of  thouirht,  tlie  most  easv,  idiomatic  Cas- 
tihan  terms  of  expression,  a  good  humored  gaiety,  a  strong  sense 
of  the  ridiculous,  and  a  happy  imitation  of  the  tone  and  man- 
ners of  common  life,  are  the  prominent  characteristics  of  these 
plays,  and  their  author  was  justly  reckoned  by  Cervantes  and 
Lope  de  Yega  as  the  true  founder  of  the  popular  national 
tlieatre.  The  ancient  simplicity  and  severity  of  the  Spanish 
})eople  had  now  been  superseded  by  the  luxury  and  extrava- 
gance which  the  treasures  of  America  had  introduced  ;  the 
ecclesiastical  fetters  imposed  on  opinion  and  conscience  had  so 
connected  all  ideas  of  morality  and  religion  with  inquisitorial 
severity,  that  the  mind  longed  for  an  escape,  and  gladly  took 
refuge  in  amusements  where  these  unwelcome  topics  had  no  place. 


SPANISH   LITERATUEE.  329 

So  far,  the  number  of  dramas  was  small,  and  these  had  been 
\mtteu  in  forms  so  different  and  so  often  opposed  to  each  other 
as  to  have  httle  consistency  or  authority,  and  to  offer  no  suffi- 
cient indication  of  the  chamiel  in  wliich  the  dramatic  literature 
of  the  country  was  at  last  to  flow.  It  was  reserved  for  Lope 
de  Vega  to  seize,  with  the  instinct  of  genius,  the  crude  and  un- 
settled elements  of  the  existing  drama,  and  to  form  from  them, 
and  from  the  abundant  and  rich  inventions  of  .his  own  overflow- 
ing fancy,  a  drama  which,  as  a  whole,  was  unlike  anything  tliat 
had  preceded  it,  and  yet  was  so  truly  national  and  rested  so 
faithfully  on  tradition,  that  it  was  never  afterwards  disturbed, 
till  the  whole  literature  of  which  it  was  so  brilliant  a  part  was 
swept  away  with  it. 

Lope  de  Yega  (1562-1635)  early  manifested  extraordinary 
powers  and  a  marvellous  poetic  genius.  After  completing  his 
education,  he  became  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Alba.  Engaging 
in  an  affair  of  honor,  in  which  he  dangerously  wounded  his  ad- 
versary, he  was  obliged  to  fly  and  to  remain  several  years  in 
exile.  On  his  return  to  Madrid,  religious  and  patriotic  zeal 
induced  him  to  join  the  expedition  of  the  Invincible  Armada  for 
the  invasion  of  England,  and  he  was  one  of  the  few  who  returned 
in  safety  to  his  native  country.  Domestic  afflictions  soon  after 
determined  him  to  renounce  tlie  world  and  to  enter  holy  orders. 
Notwithstanding  tliis  change,  he  continued  to  cultivate  poetry 
to  the  close  of  his  long  life,  with  so  wonderful  a  facility  that  a 
drama  of  more  than  2,000  lines,  intermingled  with  sonnets  and 
enlivened  with  all  kinds  of  unexpected  incidents  and  intrigues, 
frequently  cost  him  no  more  than  the  labor  of  a  single  day.  He 
composed  more  rapidly  than  his  amanuensis  could  transcribe,  and 
the  managers  of  tlie  theatres  left  him  no  time  to  copy  or  to  correct 
his  compositions  ;  so  that  his  plays  were  frequently  represented 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  their  first  conception.  His  fer- 
tility of  invention  and  his  talent  for  versification  are  unparalleled 
in  the  history  of  literature.  He  produced  2,200  dramas,  of 
which  only  about'  500  were  printed.  His  other  poems  were 
published  at  Madrid  in  1776,  in  twenty-one  volumes  quarto. 
His  prodigious  literary  labors  produced  him  almost  as  much 
money  as  glory  ;  but  his  liberality  to  the  poor  and  his  taste  for 
pomp  soon  dissipated  his  wealth,  and  after  living  in  splendor,  he 
died  almost  in  poverty. 

No  poet  has  ever  in  his  lifetime  enjoyed  so  much  glory.  The 
crowd  surrounded  him  whenever  he  showed  himself  abroad,  and 
saluted  him  with  the  appellation  of  Prodigy  of  Nature.  Every 
rve  was  fixed  on  him,  and  children  followed  liim  with  cries  of 


330  SPANISH    LITERATURE. 

pleasure.  He  was  chosen  President  of  the  Sph'itual  College  at 
Madrid,  and  the  Pope  conferred  upon  him  high  marks  of  dis- 
tinction, not  only  for  his  poetical  talents  but  for  his  enthusiastic 
zeal  for  the  interests  of  religion.  He  was  also  appointed  one  of 
the  familiars  of  the  Inquisition — an  ofiice  to  which  the  highest 
honor  was  at  that  time  attached. 

The  fame  of  Lope  de  Vega  rests  upon  his  dramas  alone,  and 
in  these  there  is  no  end  to  their  diversity,  the  subjects  varying 
from  the  deepest  tragedy  to  the  broadest  furce — from  the  solemn 
mysteries  of  religion  to  the  loosest  frolics  of  common  life — and 
the  style  embracing  every  variety  of  tone  and  measure  known  to 
the  language  of  the  country.  In  these  dramas,  too,  the  sacred 
and  secular,  the  tragic  and  comic,  the  heroic  and  vulgar,  all 
run  into  each  other,  until  it  seems  that  there  is  neither  separate 
form  nor  distinction  attributed  to  any  of  them. 

The  first  class  of  plays  that  Lope  seems  to  have  invented,  and 
the  one  which  still  remains  most  popular  in  Spain,  are  dramas  of 
the  cloak  and  sword,  so  called  from  the  picturesque  national  dress 
of  the  fashionable  class  of  society  from  which  the  principal  cha- 
racters were  selected.  Their  main  principle  is  gallantry.  The 
story  is  almost  always  involved  and  intriguing,  accompanied 
with  an  under-plot  and  parody  on  the  principal  parties,  formed 
by  the  servants  and  other  inferior  persons.  The  action  is  chiefly 
carried  on  by  lovers  full  of  romance,  or  by  low  characters,  whose 
wit  is  mixed  witli  buffoonery. 

To  the  second  class  belong  the  historical  or  heroic  dramas. 
Their  characters  are  usually  kings,  princes,  and  personages  in 
the  highest  rank  of  life,  and  their  prevailing  tone  is  imposing 
and  tragical.  A  love  story,  filled  as  usual  with  hair-breadth 
escapes,  jealous  quarrels,  and  questions  of  honor,  runs  through 
nearly  every  one  of  tliem;  but  truth,  in  regard  to  facts,  man- 
ners and  customs,  is  entirely  disregarded. 

The  third  class  contains  the  dramas  founded  on  the  manners 
of  common  life;  of  these  there  are  but  few.  Lope  de  Vega  would 
doubtless  have  confined  himself  to  these  three  forms,  but  that 
the  interference  of  the  church  for  a  time  forbade  the  representa- 
tions of  the  secular  drama,  and  he  therefore  turned  his  attention 
to  the  composition  of  religious  plays.  The  subjects  of  these  are 
taken  from  the  Scriptures,  or  lives  of  the  saints,  and  they  ap- 
proach so  near  to  the  comedies  of  intrigue,  that  but  for  the 
rehgious  passages  they  would  seem  to  belong  to  them.  His 
Sacramental  Acts  was  another  form  of  tlie  religious  drama  which 
v/as  still  more  grotesque  than  the  last.  They  were  performed 
in  the  streets  during  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Corpus 


SPANISH   LITERATURE.  331 

Christi.  The  spiritual  dramas  of  I^ope  de  Yega  are  a  hetero- 
geneous mixture  of  bright  examples  of  piety,  according  to  the 
yiews  of  the  age  and  country,  and  the  wildest  flights  of  imagi- 
nation, combined  into  a  wliole  by  a  fine  poetic  spirit. 

The  variety  and  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  genius  of  this 
writer  constituted  the  corner  stone  of  his  success,  and  did  much 
to  make  him  the  monarch  of  the  stage  while  he  lived,  and  the 
great  master  of  the  national  theatre  ever  since.  But  there 
were  other  cu'cun^stances  that  aided  in  producing  these  surpris- 
ing results,  the  first  of  which  is  the  principle,  that  runs  through 
all  his  plays,  of  making  all  other  interests  subordinate  to  the  in- 
terest of  the  story.  For  this  purpose  he  used  dialogue  rather 
to  bring  out  the  plot  than  the  characters,  and  to  this  end  also 
he  sacrificed  dramatic  probabilities  and  possibilities,  geography, 
history,  and  a  decent  moraUty. 

Another  element  which  he  estabhshed  in  the  Spanish  drama, 
was  the  comic  under-plot,  and  the  witty  gracioso  or  droll,  the 
parody  of  the  heroic  character  of  the  play.  Much  of  his  power 
over  the  people  of  his  time  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  charm  of 
his  versification,  which  was  always  fresh,  flowing,  and  efi'ective. 
The  success  of  Lope  de  Yega  was  in  proportion  to  his  rare 
powers.  For  the  forty  or  fifty  years  that  he  wrote,  nobody  else 
was  willmgly  heard  upon  the  stage,  and  his  dramas  were  per- 
formed in  France,  Italy,  and  even  in  Constantinople.  His 
extraordinary  talent  was  nearly  allied  to  improvisation,  and  it 
required  but  a  little  more  indulgence  of  his  feehng  and  fancy  to 
have  made  him  not  only  an  improvisator,  but  the  most  remark- 
able one  that  ever  lived. 

Nearly  thu-ty  dramatic  writers  followed  Lope  de  Yega;  but 
the  school  was  not  received  with  universal  applause.  In 
its  gross  extravagances  and  irregularities,  severe  critics  found 
just  cause  for  complaint.  The  opposition  of  the  church  to  the 
tlieatre,  however,  wliich  had  been  for  a  time  so  formidable,  had 
at  last  given  way,  and  from  the  beginning  of  the  Itth  century, 
the  popular  drama  was  too  strong  to  be  subjected  either  to  clas- 
sical criticism  or  ecclesiastical  rule. 

Calderon  de  la  Barca  (1600-1681)  was  the  great  successor 
and  rival  of  Lope  de  Yega.  At  the  age  of  thirty-two,  his 
reputation  as  a  poet  was  an  enviable  one.  Soon  after,  when  the 
death  of  Lope  de  Yega  left  the  theatre  without  a  master,  he  was 
formally  attached  to  the  court  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing 
dramas  to  be  represented  in  the  royal  theatres.  In  1651,  he 
followed  the  example  of  Lope  de  Yega  and  other  men  of  letters 
of  his    time,    by   entering   a    religious    brotherhood.      Many 


332  SPANISH    LITERATURE. 

ecclesiastical  dignities  were  conferred  upon  him,  but  he  did  not, 
however,  on  this  account  intermit  his  dramatic  labors,  but  con- 
tinued, through  his  long  life,  to  write  for  the  theatres,  for  the 
court,  and  for  the  churches.  Many  dramas  of  Calderon  were 
printed  without  his  consent,  and  many  were  attributed  to  him 
wliich  he  never  wrote.  His  reputation  as  a  dramatic  poet  rests 
on  the  seventy-three  sacramental  autos,  and  one  hundred  and 
eiglit  dramas,  which  are  known  to  be  his.  The  autos,  from  the 
12tli  and  13th  centuries,  were  among  the  favorite  amusements 
of  the  people;  but  in  the  age  of  Calderon  they  were  much 
increased  in  number  and  importance ;  they  had  become  attractive 
to  all  classes  of  society,  and  were  represented  with  great  luxury 
and  at  great  expense  in  the  streets  of  all  the  larger  cities.  A 
procession,  in  which  the  king  and  court  appeared,  preceded  by 
the  fantastic  figures  of  giants,  with  music,  banners  and  religious 
shows,  followed  the  sacrament  through  the  street,  and  then, 
before  the  houses  of  the  great  officers  of  state,  tlie  autos  were 
performed;  the  giants  made  sport  for  the  multitude,  and  the 
entertainment  concluded  with  music  and  dancing.  Sometimes 
the  procession  was  lieaded  by  the  figure  of  a  monster  called  the 
Tarasca,  half  serpent  in  form,  borne  by  men  concealed  in  its 
cumbrous  bulk,  and  surmounted  by  another  figure  representing 
the  woman  of  Babylon — all  so  managed  as  to  till  with  wonder 
and  terror  the  country  people  who  crowded  round  it,  and  whose 
hats  and  caps  were  generally  snatched  away  by  the  grinning 
beast,  and  became  the  lawful  prize  of  his  conductors.  Tliis 
exhibition  was  at  first  rude  and  simple,  but  under  the  influence 
of  Lope  de  Vega  it  became  a  well-defined,  popular  entertainment, 
divided  into  three  parts,  each  distinct  from  the  other.  First 
came  the  loa,  a  kind  of  prologue;  then  the  entre?nes,  a  kind  of 
interlude  or  farce;  and  last,  the  autos  sacr amenta les,  or  sacred 
acts  themselves,  wliich  were  more  grave  in  their  tone,  though 
often  whimsical  and  extravagant. 

The  seventy-three  autos  written  by  Calderon  are  all  allegorical, 
and  by  the  music  and  show  with  which  they  abound,  they 
closely  approach  to  the  ojKn-a.  They  are  upon  a  great  variety 
of  subjects,  and  indicate  by  their  structure  that  elaborate  and 
costly  machinery  must  have  been  used  in  their  representation. 
They  are  crowded  with  such  personages  as  Sin,  Death,  Judaism, 
Mercy  and  Charity,  and  the  purpose  of  all  is  to  set  forth  the 
Keal  Presence  in  the  Eucharist.  The  great  enemy  of  mankind 
of  course  fills  a  large  place  in  them.  Almost  all  of  them  con- 
tain passages  of  striking  lyrical  poetry. 

The  secular  plays  of  Calderon  can  scarcely  be  classified,  for  ia 


SPANISH   LITERATURE.  333 

many  of  them  even  more  than  t\YO  forms  of  the  drama  are 
mingled.  To  the  principle  of  making  a  story  that  shonld  sustain 
the  interest  throughout,  Calderon  sacrificed  almost  as  much  as 
Lope  de  Yega  did.  To  him  facts  are  never  obstacles.  Corio- 
lanus  is  a  general  under  Homulus;  the  Danube  is  placed  between 
Sweden  and  Russia;  and  Herodotus  is  made  to  describe  America. 
But  in  these  dramas  we  rarely  miss  the  interest  and  charm  of  a 
dramatic  story,  which  provokes  the  curiosity  and  enchains  the 
attention. 

In  the  dramas  of  the  Cloak  and  Sword  the  plots  of  Calderon 
are  intricate.  He  excelled  in  the  accumulation  of  surprises,  in 
plunging  his  characters  into  one  difficulty  after  another,  maintain- 
ing the  interest  to  the  last.  In  style  and  versification  Calderon 
has  high  merits,  though  they  are  occasionally  mingled  with  the 
defects  of  his  age.  He  added  no  new  forms  to  dramatic  compo- 
sition, nor  did  he  much  modify  those  which  had  been  already  settled 
by  Lope  de  Yega;  but  he  showed  greater  skill  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  his  incidents,  and  more  poetry  in  the  structure  and 
tendency  of  his  dramas.  To  his  elevated  tone  we  owe  much  of 
what  distuiguishes  Calderon  from  his  predecessors,  and  nearly 
all  that  is  most  individual  in  his  merits  and  defects.  In  carrying 
out  his  theory  of  the  national  drama,  he  often  succeeds  and 
often  fails;  and  when  he  succeeds,  he  sets  before  us  an  idealized 
drama,  resting  on  the  noblest  elements  of  the  Spanish  national 
character,  and  one  which,  with  all  its  unquestionable  defects,  is  to 
be  placed  among  the  extraordinary  phenomena  of  modern  poetry. 

The  most  brilliant  period  of  the  Spanish  drama  falls  within 
the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  which  extended  from  1620  to  1665,  and 
embraced  the  last  years  of  the  life  of  Lope  de  Yega,  and  the 
thirty  most  fortunate  years  of  the  life  of  Calderon.  After  this 
period  a  change  begins  to  be  apparent ;  for  the  school  of  Lope 
was  that  of  a  drama  in  the  freshness  and  buoyancy  of  youth, 
while  that  of  Calderon  belongs  to  the  season  of  its  maturity  and 
gradual  decay.  The  many  writers  who  were  either  contempo- 
rary with  Lope  de  Yega  and  Calderon,  or  who  succeeded  them, 
had  little  influence  on  the  character  of  the  theatre.  This,  in  its 
proper  c^tlines,  always  remained  as  it  was  left  by  these  great 
masters,  who  maintained  an  almost  unquestioned  control  over 
it  while  they  lived,  and  at  their  death  left  a  character  impressed 
upon  it,  which  it  never  lost  till  it  ceased  to  exist  altogether. 

When  Lope  de  Yega  first  appeared  as  a  dramatic  writer  at 
Madrid,  the  only  theatres  he  found  were  two  unsheltered  court- 
yards, which  depended  on  such  companies  of  strolling  players  as 
occasionally  visited  the  capital.     Before  he  died,  there  were, 


334  SPANISH    LITER ATUKE. 

besides  the  conrt-yards  in  Madrid,  several  theatres  of  great 
magnificeuce  in  the  royal  palaces,  and  many  thousand  actors; 
and  half  a  century  later,  the  passion  for  di'amatic  representations 
had  spread  into  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  there  was  hardly 
a  village  that  did  not  possess  a  theatre. 

During  the  whole  of  the  successful  period  of  the  drama,  the 
representations  took  place  in  the  day-time.  Dancing  was  early 
an  important  part  of  the  theatrical  exhibitions  in  Spain,  even  of 
the  religious,  and  its  importance  has  continued  down  to  the 
present  day.  From  the  earhest  antiquity  it  was  the  favorite 
amusement  of  the  rude  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  in 
modern  times  dancing  has  been  to  Spaiji  what  music  has  been  to 
Italy — a  passion  with  the  whole  population. 

In  all  its  forms  and  subsidiary  attractions,  the  Spanish  drama 
was  essentially  a  popular  entertainment,  governed  by  the  popular 
will.  Its  purpose  was  to  please  all  equally,  and  it  was  not  only 
necessary  that  the  play  should  be  interesting,  it  was,  above 
all,  required  that  it  should  be  Spanish,  and,  therefore,  whatever 
the  subject  might  be,  whether  actual  or  mythological,  Greek  or 
Roman,  the  characters  were  always  represented  as  Castilian, 
and  Castilian  of  the  17th  century.  It  was  the  same  with  their 
costumes.  Coriolanus  appeared  in  the  costume  of  Don  Juan  of 
Austria,  and  Aristotle  came  on  the  stage  dressed  like  a  Spanish 
Abbe,  with  curled  periwig  and  buckles  on  his  shoes. 

The  Spanish  theatre,  therefore,  in  many  of  its  characteristics 
and  attributes,  stands  by  itself.  It  is  entirely  national,  it  takes 
no  cognizance  of  ancient  example,  and  it  borrowed  nothing  from 
the  drama  of  France,  Italy  or  England.  Founded  on  traits  of 
national  character,  with  all  its  faults,  it  maintained  itself  as  long 
as  that  character  existed  in  its  original  attributes,  and  even  now 
it  remains  one  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting  portions  of 
modern  literature. 

5.  llo-MANCEs  AND  Tales. — Hithcrto  the  writers  of  Spain  had 
been  little  known,  except  in  their  own  country ;  but  we  are  now 
introduced  to  an  author  whose  fame  is  bounded  by  no  language 
and  no  country,  and  whose  name  is  not  alone  famiUar  to  men  of 
taste  and  learning,  but  to  almost  every  class  of  society. 

Cervantes  (1547-1610),  though  of  noble  family,  was  born  in 
poverty  and  obscurity,  not  for  from  Madrid.  When  he  was 
about  twenty-one  years  of  age,  he  attached  himself  to  the 
person  of  Cardinal  Aquaviva,  with  whom  he  visited  Rome.  He 
soon  after  enlisted  as  a  common  soldier  in  the  war  against  the 
Turks,  and,  in  the  great  battle  of  Lepanto,  1572,  he  received  a 


SPANISH   LITEKATURE.  335 

wound,  which  deprived  him  of  the  use  of  his  left  hand  and  arm, 
and  obhged  him  to  quit  the  mihtary  profession.  On  his  way 
home  he  was  captured  by  pirates,  carried  to  Algiers,  and  sold 
for  a  slave.  Here  he  passed  five  years  full  of  adventure  and 
suffering.  At  length  his  ransom  was  effected,  and  he  returned 
home  to  find  his  father  dead,  his  family  reduced  to  a  still  more 
bitter  poverty  by  his  ransom,  and  himself  friendless  and  unknown. 
He  withdrew  from  the  world  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and 
to  gain  a  subsistence  by  his  pen. 

One  of  the  first  productions  of  Cervantes  was  the  pastoral 
romance  of  "  Galatea."  This  was  followed  by  several  dramas, 
the  prmcipal  of  which  is  founded  on  the  tragical  fate  of 
Numantia  ;  notwithstanding  its  want  of  dramatic  skill,  it 
may  be  cited  as  a  proof  of  the  author's  poetical  talent,  and  as 
a  bold  effort  to  raise  the  condition  of  the  stage. 

After  many  years  of  poverty  and  embarrassment,  in  1G05, 
when  Cervantes  had  reached  his  fiftieth  year,  he  published  the 
first  part  of  "  Don  Quixote."  The  success  of  this  effort  was 
incredible.  Many  thousand  copies  are  said  to  have  been 
printed  during  the  author's  lifetime.  It  was  translated  into 
various  languages,  and  eulogized  by  every  class  of  readers,  yet 
it  occasioned  little  improvement  in  the  pecuniary  circumstances 
of  the  author.  In  1615,  he  published  the  second  part  of  the 
same  work,  and,  in  the  year  following,  his  eventful  and  troubled 
life  drew  to  its  close. 

"Don  Quixote,"  of  all  the  works  of  all  modern  times,  bears 
most  deeply  the  impression  of  the  national  character  it  represents, 
and  it  has  in  return  enjoyed  a  degree  of  national  favor  never 
granted  to  any  other.  The  object  of  Cervantes  in  writing  it  was, 
as  he  himself  declares,  "  to  render  abhorred  of  men  the  false 
and  absurd  stories  contamed  in  books  of  chivalry."  The 
fanaticism  for  these  romances  v/as  so  great  in  Spain  during  the 
16th  century,  and  they  were  deemed  so  noxious,  that  the  burning 
of  all  copies  extant  in  the  country  was  earnestly  asked  for  by 
the  Cortes.  To  destroy  a  passion  that  had  struck  its  roots  so 
deeply  in  the .  character  of  all  classes  of  men  ;  to  break  up  the 
only  reading  which,  at  that  time,  was  fashionable  and  popular, 
was  a  bold  undertaking,  yet  one  in  which  Cervantes  succeeded. 
No  book  of  chivalry  was  written  after  the  appearance  of  "  Don 
Quixote;"  and  from  that  time  to  the  present  they  have  been 
constantly  disappearing,  until  they  are  now  among  the  rarest  of 
literary  curiosities — a  solitary  instance  of  the  power  of  genius  to 
destroy,  by  a  well-timed  blow,  an  entire  department  of  litera- 
ture. 


336  SPANISH   LITERATURE. 

In  accomplishing  this  object,  Cervantes  represents  "  Don 
Quixote  "  as  a  country  gentleman  of  La  Mancha,  full  of  Cas- 
tilian  honor  and  enthusiasm,  but  so  completely  crazed  by  reading 
the  most  famous  books  of  chivalry,  that  he  not  only  believes 
them  to  be  true,  but  feels  himself  called  upon  to  become  the 
impossible  knight  errant  they  describe,  and  actually  goes  forth 
into  the  world  like  them,  to  defend  the  oppressed  and  avenge  the 
injured.  To  complete  his  chivalrous  equipment,  which  he  had  be- 
gun by  fitting  up  for  himself  a  suit  of  armor  strange  to  his 
century,  he  took  an  esquire  out  of  his  neighborhood,  a  middle 
aged  peasant,  ignorant,  credulous  and  good-natured,  but  shrewd 
enough  occasionally  to  see  the  folly  of  their  position.  The  two 
sally  forth  from  their  native  village  in  search  of  adventures,  of 
which  the  excited  imagination  of  the  knight — turning  windmills 
into  giants,  solitary  turrets  into  castles,  and  galley  slaves  into 
oppressed  gentlemen — finds  abundance  wherever  he  goes,  while 
the  esquire  translates  them  all  into  the  plain  prose  of  truth,  with 
a  simplicity  strikingly  contrasted  with  the  lofty  dignity  and 
the  mao-nificent  illusions  of  the  knight.  After  a  series  of  ridicu- 
lous  discomfitures,  the  two  are  at  last  brought  home  like  madmen 
to  their  native  village. 

Ten  years  later,  Cervantes  published  the  second  part  of  Don 
Quixote,  which  is  even  better  than  the  first.  It  shows  more 
vio-or  and  freedom,  the  invention  and  the  stvle  of  thou2:ht  are 
richer,  and  the  finish  more  exact.  Both  Don  Quixote  and  San- 
cho  are  brought  before  us  like  such  living  realities,  that  at  this 
moment  the  figures  of  the  crazed,  gaunt,  and  dignified  knight, 
and  of  his  round,  selfish  and  most  amusing  esquire,  dwell  bodied 
forth  in  the  imaginations  of  more,  among  all  conditions  of  men 
throughout  Christendom,  than  any  other  of  the  creations  of 
human  talent.  In  this  work  Cervantes  has  shown  himself  of 
kindred  to  all  times  and  all  lands — to  the  humblest  as  well  as  to 
the  highest  degrees  of  cultivation,  and  he  has  received  in  return, 
beyond  all  other  writers,  a  tribute  of  sympathy  and  admh*ation 
from  the  universal  spirit  of  humanity. 

This  romance,  which  Cervantes  threw  so  carelessly  from  him, 
and  which  he  regarded  only  as  a  bold  effort  to  break  up  the 
absurd  taste  for  the  fancies  of  chivalry,  has  been  established  by 
an  uninterrupted  and  an  unquestioned  success  ever  since,  as  the 
oldest  classical  specimen  of  romantic  fiction,  and  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  monuments  of  modern  genius.  But  Cervantes 
is  entitled  to  a  higher  glory  :  it  should  ))e  borne  in  mind  that 
this  delightful  romance  was  not  the  result  of  a  youtliful  exube- 
rance of  feeling,  and  a  happy  external  condition;  with  all  its 


SPANISH    LITERATURE.  337 

unquenchable  and  irresistible  humor,  its  bright  views  and  its 
cheerful  trust  in  goodness  and  virtue — it  was  written  in  his  old 
aa-e,  at  the  conclusion  of  a  life  which  had  been  marked  at 
nearly  every  step  with  struggle,  disappointment  and  calamity 
— it  was  begun  in  prison,  and  linished  when  he  felt  the  hand  of 
death  pressing  cold  and  heavy  upon  his  heart.  If  this  be 
remembered  as  we  read,  we  may  feel  what  admiration  and 
reverence  are  due,  not  only  to  the  h^ing  power  of  Don  Quixote, 
but  to  the  character  and  genius  of  Cervantes, — if  it  be  forgotten 
or  underrated, we  shall  fail  in  regard  to  both. 

The  first  form  of  romantic  fiction  which  succeeded  the 
romances  of  chivalry  was  that  of  'prose  pastorals,  which  was 
introduced  into  Spain  by  Montemayor,  a  Portuguese,  who  lived, 
probably,  between  1520  and  1561.  To  divert  his  mind  from 
the  sorrovj  of  an  unrequited  attachment,  he  composed  a  romance 
entitled  "  Diana,"  which,  with  numerous  faults,  possesses  a  high 
degree  of  merit.     It  was  succeeded  by  many  similar  tales. 

The  next  form  of  Spanish  prose  fiction,  and  the  one  which 
has  enjoyed  a  more  permanent  regard,  is  that  known  as  tales  in 
the  gusto  picaresco,  or  style  of  the  rogues.  As  a  class,  they 
constitute  a  singular  exhibition  of  character  and  are  as  separate 
and  national  as  anything  in  modern  literature.  The  first  fiction 
of  this  class  was  the  "  Lazarillo  de  Tonnes  "  of  Mendoza,  already 
spoken  of,  published  in  1554 — a  bold  unfinished  sketch  of  the 
life  of  a  rogue  from  tlie  very  lowest  condition  of  society.  Forty- 
five  years  afterwards  this  was  followed  by  the  *'  Guzman  de 
Alfarache  "  of  Aleman,  the  most  ample  portraiture  of  its  class 
to  be  found  in  Spanish  literature.  It  is  chiefly  curious  and 
interesting  because  it  shows  us,  in  the  costume  of  the  times,  the 
life  of  an  ingenious  Machiavellian  rogue,  who  is  never  at  a  loss 
for  an  expedient,  and  who  speaks  of  himself  always  as  an  honest 
man.  Tlie  work  was  received  with  great  favor,  and  translated 
into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 

But  the  work  which  most  plainly  shows  the  condition  of 
social  life  which  produced  this  class  of  tales,  is  the  "  Life  of 
Estevanillo  Gonzalez,"  first  printed  in  1646.  It  is  the  autobio- 
graphy of  a  buffoon  who  was  long  in  the  service  of  Piccolomini, 
the  great  general  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The  brilliant 
success  of  these  works  at  home  and  abroad  subsequently  pro- 
duced the  Gil  Bias  of  Le  Sage,  an  imitation  more  briUiant  than 
ally  of  the  originals  that  it  followed. 

The  serious  and  historical  fictions  produced  in  Spain  were 
limited  in  number,  and  with  few  exceptions  deserved  little  favor. 
Short  stories  or  tales  were  more  successful  than  any  other  form 

15 


338  SPANISH    LITEPwATUPwE. 

of  prose-fiction  during  tlic  latter  part  of  the  IGtli,  and  the  whola 
of  the  nth  century.  They  belonged  to  the  spirit  of  their  own 
times  and  to  the  state  of  society  in  which  they  appeared.  Taken 
together,  the  number  of  fictions  in  Spanish  literature  is  enor- 
mous ;  but  what  is  more  remarkable  than  their  multitude,  is  the 
fact  that  they  were  produced  when  the  rest  of  Europe,  with  a 
partial  exception  in  favor  of  Italy,  was  not  yet  awakened 
to  corresponding  efforts  of  the  imagination.  The  creative 
spirit,  however,  soon  ceased,  and  a  spirit  of  French  imitation 
took  its  place. 

6.  Historical  Narrative  Poems. — Epic  poetry,  from  its  dig- 
nity and  pretensions,  is  almost  uniformly  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  different  divisions  of  a  nation's  literature.  But  in  Spain 
little  has  been  achieved  in  this  department  that  is  worthy  of 
memory.  The  old  half-epic  poem  of  the  Cid — the  first  attempt 
at  narration  in  the  languages  of  modern  Europe  that  deserves 
the  name,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  outbreaks  of  poetical 
and  national  enthusiasm  on  record.  The  few  similar  attempts 
that  followed  during  the  next  three  centuries,  while  they  serve 
to  mark  the  progress  of  Spanish  culture,  show  little  of  the  power 
manifested  in  the  Cid. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  Y.,  the  poets  of  the  time  evidently 
imagined  that  to  them  was  assigned  the  task  of  celebrating  the 
achievements  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New,  wiiich  had 
raised  their  country  to  the  first  place  among  the  powers  of 
Europe.  Tliere  were  written,  therefore,  during  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding reigns,  an  extraordinary  number  of  epic  and  narrative 
poems  on  subjects  connected  with  ancient  and  modern  Spanish 
glory,  but  they  all  belong  to  patriotism  rather  than  to  poetry  ; 
the  best  of  these  come  with  equal  pretension  into  the  province 
of  history.  There  is  but  one  long  poem  of  this  class  which 
obtained  much  regard  when  it  appeared  and  which  has  been 
remembered  ever  since,  the  "Araucana."  The  author  of 
this  work,  Ercilla  (1533-1595),  was  a  page  of  Phihp  the 
Second  and  accompanied  him  to  England  on  the  occasion  'of 
his  marriage  with  Mary.  News  having  arrived  that  the  Arau- 
cans,  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  Chili,  had  revolted  against  the  Span- 
isli  authority,  Ercilla  joined  the  adventurous  expedition  that 
was  sent  out  to  subdue  them.  In  the  midst  of  his  exploits 
he  conceived  the  plan  of  writing  a  narrative  of  the  war  in  the 
form  of  an  epic  poem.  After  the  tumult  of  a  battle,  or  the 
fatigues  of  a  march,  he  devoted  the  hours  of  the  night  to  his 
literary  labors,   wielding  the  pen   and  sword  by   turns,   and 


SPANISH   LITERATUKE.  339 

often  obliged  to  write  on  pieces  of  skin  or  scraps  of  paper  so 
small  as  to  contain  onlj  a  few  lines.  In  this  poem  the  descrip- 
tive powers  of  Ercilla  are  remarkable,  and  his  characters, 
especially  those  of  the  American  chiefs,  are  drawn  with  force 
and  distinctness.  The  whole  poem  is  pervaded  by  that  deep 
sense  of  loyalty,  always  a  chief  ingredient  in  Spanish  honor  and 
heroism,  and  which,  in  Ercilla,  seems  never  to  have  been  chilled 
by  the  ingratitnde  of  the  master  to  whom  he  devoted  his  life, 
and  to  whose  glory  he  consecrated  this  poem. 

These  narrative  and  heroic  poems  continued  long  in  favor  in 
Spain,  and  they  retained  to  the  last  those  ambitious  feehngs  of 
national  greatness  which  had  given  them  birth.  Devoted  to 
the  glory  of  their  country,  they  w^ere  produced  when  the  national 
character  was  on  the  decline,  and,  as  they  sprang  more  directly 
from  that  character,  and  depended  more  on  its  spirit  than  did 
the  similar  poetry  of  any  other  people  in  modern  times,  so  they 
now  visibly  declined  with  them. 

1.  Lyric  Poetry. — The  number  of  authors  in  the  various 
classes  of  Spanish  lyric  poetry,  whose  works  have  been  preserved 
between  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Charles  Y.  and  the  end 
of  that  of  the  last  of  his  race,  is  not  less  than  a  hundred  and 
twenty  ;  but  the  number  of  those  wdio  were  successful  is  small. 
A  little  of  what  w^as  written  by  the  Argensolas,  more  of  Her- 
rera,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Bachiller  dc  la  Torre  and  Luis 
de  Leon,  with  occasional  efforts  of  Lope  de  Yega  and  Quevedo, 
and  single  odes  of  other  writers,  make  up  what  gives  its  cha- 
racter to  the  graver  and  less  popular  portion  of  Spanish  lyric 
poetry.  Their  writings  form  a  body  of  poetry,  not  large,  but 
one  that  from  its  living  national  feeling  on  the  one  side,  and  its 
dignity  on  the  other,  may  be  placed  without  question  among 
the  most  successful  efforts  of  modem  literature. 

The  Argensolas  were  two  brothers  who  flourished  in  Spain  at 
the  beginning  of  the  ITth  century  ;  both  occupy  a  high  place  in 
this  department  of  poetry.  The  original  poems  of  Luis  de  Leon 
(1528-1591)  lill  no  more  than  a  hundred  pages,  but  there  is 
hardly  a  line  of  them  w^hich  has  not  its  value,  and  the  whole 
taken  together  are  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  Spanish  lyric 
poetry.  They  are  chiefly  religious,  and  the  source  of  their 
inspiration  is  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Herrera  (1534-1597) 
is  the  earliest  classic  ode  writer  in  modern  literature,  and  his 
poems  are  characterized  by  dignity  of  language,  harmony  of  ver- 
sification, and  elevation  of  ideas.  Luis  de  Leon  and  Herrera 
are  considered  the  two  great  masters  of  Spanish  lyric  poetry. 


340  SPANISH    LITERATURE. 

Quevedo  (1580-1645)  was  successful  in  many  departments 
of  letters.  Tlie  most  prominent  characteristics  of  bis  verse  are 
a  broad,  grotesque  humor  and  a  satire  often  imitated  from  the 
ancients.  His  amatory  and  religious  poems  are  occasionally 
marked  by  extreme  beauty  and  tenderness.  The  works  upon 
which  his  reputation  principally  rests,  however,  are  in  prose,  and 
belong  to  theology  and  metaphysics  rather  than  to  elegant  lite- 
rature. They  were  produced  during  the  weary  years  of  an 
unjust  imprisonment.  His  prose  satires  are  the  most  celebrated 
of  his  compositions,  and  by  these  he  will  always  be  remembered 
throughout  the  world. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  11th  century  there  arose  a  sect  who 
attempted  to  create  a  new  epoch  in  Spanish  poetry,  by  affecting 
an  exquisite  refinement,  and  who  ran  into  the  most  ridiculous 
extravagance  and  pedantry.  The  founder  of  this  "cultivated 
style,"  as  it  was  called,  was  Luis  Gongora  (1561-1627),  and 
his  name,  like  that  of  Marini  in  Italy,  has  become  a  byword 
in  literature.  The  style  he  introduced  became  at  once 
fashionable  at  court,  and  it  struck  so  deep  root  in  the 
soil  of  the  whole  country,  that  it  has  not  yet  been  completely 
eradicated.  The  most  odious  feature  of  this  style  is  that  it 
consists  entirely  of  metaphors,  so  heaped  upon  one  another  that 
it  is  as  difficult  to  find  out  the  meaning  hidden  under  their  gro- 
tesque mass,  as  if  it  were  a  series  of  confused  riddles.  The 
success  of  this  style  was  very  great,  and  inferior  poets  bowed  to 
it  throughout  the  country. 

8.  Satirical  and  other  Poetry. — Satirical  poetry  never 
enjoyed  a  wide  success  in  Spain.  The  nation  has  always  been 
too  grave  and  dignified  to  endure  the  censure  it  implied.  It 
was  looked  upon  with  distrust,  and  thought  contrary  to  the 
conventions  of  good  society  to  indulge  in  its  composition. 
Neither  was  elegiac  poetry  extensively  cultivated.  Tiie  S])anish 
temperament  was  little  fitted  to  the  subdued,  simple  and  gentle 
tone  of  the  proper  elegy.  The  echoes  of  jjastoral  poetry  in 
Spain,  are  heard  far  back  among  the  old  ballads  ;  but  the 
Italian  forms  were  early  introduced  and  naturalized.  Two  Por- 
tuguese writers,  Montemayor  and  Miranda,  were  most  successful 
in  this  department  of  poetry.  Equally  characteristic  of  the 
Spanish  genius  as  its  pastorals,  were  the  short  epigrammatic 
poems  which  appeared  through  the  best  age  of  its  literature. 
They  are  generally  in  the  truest  tone  of  popular  verse.  Of 
didactic  poetry,  there  were  many  irregular  varieties  ;  but  the 
popular  character  of  Spanish  poetry,  and  the  severe  nature  of 


SPANISH   LITERATURE.  341 

the  ecclesiastical  and  political  constitutions  of  Spain,  were  un- 
favorable to  the  development  of  this  form  of  verse,  and  unlikely 
to  tolerate  it  on  any  important  subject.  It  remained,  therefore, 
one  of  the  feeblest  and  least  successful  departments  of  the 
national  literature. 

In  the  17th  century,  ballads  had  become  the  delight  of  the 
whole  Spanish  people.  The  soldier  solaced  himself  with  them  in 
his  tent,  the  maiden  danced  to  them  on  the  green,  the  lover  sang 
them  for  his  serenade,  the  street  beggar  chanted  them  for  alms; 
they  entered  into  the  sumptuous  entertainments  of  the  nobihty, 
the  holiday  services  of  the  church,  and  into  the  orgies  of  thieves 
and  vagabonds.  Xo  poetry  of  modern  times  has  been  so  widely 
spread  through  all  classes  of  society,  and  none  has  so  entered  into 
the  national  character.  They  were  often  written  by  authors 
otherwise  little  known,  and  they  were  always  found  in  the  works 
of  those  poets  of  note  who  desired  to  stand  well  with  the  mass 
of  their  countrymen. 

9.  History  and  other  Prose  Writings. — Tlie  fathers  of 
Spanish  history  are  Zurita  and  Morales.  Zurita  (1512-1580) 
w^as  the  author  of  the  "Annals  of  Aragon,"  a  work  more  im- 
portant for  Spanish  history  than  any  that  had  preceded  it.  Mo- 
rales (1513-1591)  was  historiographer  to  the  crown  of  Castile, 
and  his  unfinished  history  of  that  country  is  marked  by  much 
general  ability.  Contemporary  with  these  writers  was  Mendoza, 
already  mentioned.  The  honor  of  being  the  first  historian  of  the 
country,  however,  belongs  to  Mariana  (1536-1623),  a  fouudhng 
who  was  educated  a  Jesuit.  His  main  occupation  for  the  last  thirty 
or  forty  years  of  his  life  was  his  great  "  History  of  Spain."  There 
is  an  air  of  good  faith  in  his  accounts  and  a  vividness  in  his 
details  which  are  singularly  attractive.  If  not  in  all  respects  the 
most  trustworthy  of  annals,  it  is  at  least  the  most  remarkable 
union  of  picturesque  chronicling  with  sober  history  that  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  Sandoval  (d.  1621)  took  up  the  history  of  Spain 
where  Mariana  left  it,  but  while  his  is  a  work  of  authority,  it  is 
unattractive  in  style.  "  The  General  History  of  the  Indies," 
by  Herrera,  is  a  work  of  great  value,  and  the  one  on  which  the 
reputation  of  the  author  as  a  historian  chiefly  rests. 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  of  the  minor  Spanish  histories  is 
Argensola's  account  of  the  Moluccas.  It  is  full  of  tlie  traditions 
found  among  the  natives  by  the  Portuguese  when  they  first 
landed  there,  and  of  the  wild  adventures  that  followed  when  they 
had  taken  possession  of  the  island.  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  the 
Bon  of  one  of  the  unscrupulous  conquerors  of  Peru,  descended  ou 


342  SPANISH   LITERATURE. 

bis  mother's  side  from  the  lucas,  wrote  the  "  History  of  Florida," 
of  which  the  adventures  of  De  Soto  constitute  the  most  brilliant 
portion.  His  "  Commentaries  on  Peru  "  is  a  striking  and  inter- 
esting work. 

The  last  of  the  historians  of  eminence  in  the  elder  school  of 
Spanish  history  was  Solis,  whose  **  Conquest  of  Mexico "  is 
beautifully  written,  and  as  it  was  flattering  to  the  national  his- 
tory, it  was  at  once  successful,  and  has  enjoyed  an  unimpaired 
po})ularity  down  to  our  times. 

The  spirit  of  political  tyranny  in  the  government,  and  of  reli- 
gious tyranny  in  the  Inquisition,  now  more  than  ever  united, 
were  more  hostile  to  bold  and  faithful  inquiry  in  the  department 
of  history  than  in  almost  any  other.  Still,  the  historians  of  this 
period  were  not  unworthy  of  the  national  character.  Their 
works  abound  in  feeling  rather  than  philosophy,  and  are  written 
m  a  style  that  marks  not  so  much  the  peculiar  genius  of  their 
authors,  perliaps,  as  that  of  the  country  that  gave  them  birth ; 
although  they  may  not  be  entirely  classical,  they  are  entirely 
Spanish;  and  what  they  want  in  finish  and  grace  they  make  up 
in  picturesqueness  and  originality. 

In  one  form  of  didactic  composition,  Spain  stands  in  advance 
of  other  countries:  that  of  proverbs,  which  Cervantes  has  happily 
called  "  short  sentences  drawn  from  long  experience."  Spanish 
proverbs  can  be  traced  back  to  the  earliest  times.  Although 
twenty-four  thousand  have  been  collected,  many  thousands  still 
remain  known  only  among  the  traditions  of  the  humbler  classes 
of  society  that  have  given  birth  to  them  all. 

From  the  early  part  of  the  1*1  th  century,  Spanish  prose  be- 
came infected  with  that  pedantry  and  affectation  already  spoken 
of  as  Gongorism,  or  ''the  cultivated  style;"  and  from  this  time, 
everything  in  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry  announced  that  corrupt- 
ed taste  which  both  precedes  and  hastens  the  decay  of  a  litera- 
ture, and  which,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  was  in 
Spain  but  the  concomitant  of  a  general  decline  in  the  arts  and 
the  gradual  degradation  of  the  monarchy.  No  country  in 
Christendom  had  fallen  from  such  a  height  of  power  as  that 
which  Spain  occupied  in  the  time  of  Charles  V.  into  such  an 
abyss  of  degradation  as  she  reached  when  Charles  II.,  the  last 
of  the  house  of  Austria,  ceased  to  reign.  The  old  religion  of 
the  country,  the  most  prominent  of  all  the  national  characteris- 
tics, was  now  so  perverted  from  its  true  character  by  intolerance 
that  it  had  become  a  means  of  oppression  such  as  Europe  never 
before  witnessed.  Tlie  principle  of  loyalty,  now  equally  per- 
verted and  mischievous,  had  sunk  into  servile  submission,  and  as 


SPANISH   LITERATURE.  343 

we  approach  the  conclusion  of  tlie  century,  the  Inquisition  and 
the  despotism  seem  to  have  cast  their  blight  over  everything. 


PERIOD  THIRD. 

Froii  the  Accession  of  the  Bourbox  Family  to  the  Present 

Time  (ltOO-1859). 

1.  French  Influence  on  the  Literature  of  Spain. — The 
death  of  Charles  II.,  in  ItOO,  was  followed  by  the  War  of  the 
Succession  between  the  houses  of  Hapsburg  and  Bourbon, 
which  lasted  thirteen  years.  It  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  and  the  accession  of  Philip  Y.,  the  grandson  of  Louis 
XIY.  Under  his  reign  the  influence  of  France  became  appa- 
rent in  the  customs  of  the  country.  The  Academy  of  Madrid 
was  soon  estabhshedin  imitation  of  that  of  Paris,  with  the  object 
of  establishing  and  cultivating  the  purity  of  the  Castilian  lan- 
guage. The  first  work  published  by  this  association  was  a 
Dictionary,  which  has  continued  in  successive  editions  to  be  the 
proper  standard  of  the  language.  At  this  time  French  began 
to  be  spoken  in  the  elegant  society  of  the  court  and  the  capital, 
translations  from  the  French  were  multiplied,  and  at  last,  a 
poetical  system,  founded  on  the  critical  doctrine  of  Boileau,  pre- 
valent in  France,  was  formally  introduced  into  the  country  by 
Luzan,  in  his  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  which,  from  its  first  appearance 
(1737),  exercised  a  controlling  authority  at  the  court,  and  over 
the  few  writers  of  reputation  then  to  be  found  in  the  country. 
Though  the  works  of  Luzan  offered  a  remedy  for  the  bad  taste 
which  had  accompanied  and  in  no  small  degree  hastened  the  de- 
cline of  the  national  taste,  it  proved  insufficient  as  a  foundation 
for  advancement  in  literature.  The  national  mind  had  be- 
come dwarfed  for  want  of  its  appropriate  nourishment ;  the  moral 
and  physical  sciences  that  had  been  advancing  for  a  hundred 
years  throughout  Europe,  were  forl3idden  to  cross  the  Pyi'enees. 
The  scholastic  philosophy  was  still  maintained  as  the  highest 
form  of  intellectual  culture;  the  system  of  Copernicus  was  looked 
upon  as  contrary  to  the  inspired  record ;  while  the  philosophy  of 
Bacon  and  the  very  existence  of  mathematical  science  were  gen- 
erally unknown  even  to  the  graduates  of  universities.  It  seemed 
as  if  the  faculties  of  thinking  and  reasoning  were  becoming  ex- 
tinct in  Spain. 

2.  The  Dawn  of  Spanish  Literature  in  the  ISth  Century. 
— ^The  first  effort  for  intellectual  emancipation  was  made  by  a 


344  SPANISH    LITERATURE. 

monk,  Benito  Feyjoo  (1076-1*764),  wlio,  having  made  himself 
acquainted  with  the  truths  brought  to  light  by  Gahleo,  Bacon, 
Newton,  Leibnitz,  and  Pascal,  devoted  his  life  to  the  labor  of 
diffusing  them  among  his  countrymen.  The  opposition  raised 
against  him  only  drew  to  his  works  the  attention  he  desired. 
Even  the  Inquisition  summoned  him  in  vain,  for  it  was  impossible 
to  question  that  he  was  a  shicere  and  devout  Catholic,  and  he 
had  been  careful  not  to  interfere  with  any  of  the  abuses  sanc- 
tioned by  the  church.  Before  his  death  he  had  the  pleasure  of 
seeing  that  an  impulse  in  the  right  direction  had  been  imparted 
to  the  national  mind. 

One  of  the  striking  indications  of  advancement  was  an  attack 
upon  the  style  of  popular  preaching,  which  was  now  in  a  state  of 
scandalous  degradation.  The  assailant  was  Isla  (1703-1781), 
a  Jesuit,  whose  "  History  of  Friar  Gerund "  is  a  satirical  ro- 
mance, shghtly  resembling  Don  Quixote  in  its  plan,  describing 
one  of  those  bombastic  orators  of  the  age.  It  was  from  the 
first  successful  in  its  object  of  destroying  the  evil  at  which  it 
aimed,  and  preachers  of  tlie  class  of  Friar  Gerund  soon  found 
themselves  without  an  audience. 

The  policy  of  Charles  III.  (1759-1788)  was  highly  favorable 
to  the  progress  of  literature.  He  abridged  the  power  of  the  In- 
quisition, and  forbade  the  condemnation  of  any  book  till  its 
writer  or  publisher  had  been  heard  in  its  defence;  he  invited  the 
suggestion  of  improved  plans  of  study,  made  arrangements  for 
popular  education,  and  raised  the  tone  of  instruction  in  the 
institutions  of  learning.  Finally,  perceiving  the  Jesuits  to  be  the 
most  active  opponents  of  these  reforms,  he  expelled  them  from 
every  part  of  his  dominions,  breaking  up  their  schools,  and  con- 
fiscating their  revenues.  During  his  reign,  intellectual  life  and 
health  were  infused  into  the  country,  and  its  powers,  which  had 
been  so  long  wasting  away,  were  revived  and  renewed. 

Among  the  writers  of  this  age  are  Moratin  the  elder  (1737- 
1780),  whose  poems  are  marked  by  purity  of  language  and  har- 
mony of  versification,  and  Yriarte  (1750-1791),  who  was  most 
successful  in  fables,  which  he  applied  to  the  correction  of  the 
faults  and  follies  of  literary  men.  To  this  period  may  also 
be  referred  the  school  of  Salamanca,  whose  oliject  was  to 
combine  in  literature  the  power  and  richness  of  the  old  writers 
of  the  time  of  the  Philips  with  the  severer  taste  then  pre- 
vailing on  the  continent.  Melendez  (1754-1817),  who  was  the 
founder  of  this  school,  devoted  his  muse  to  the  joys  and  sorrows 
of  rustic  love,  and  the  leisure  and  amusements  of  country  life. 
Nothing   can   surpass    some   of  his   descriptions   in  llio   grace 


SrANISU   LITERATURE.  345 

ful  delineation  of  tender  feeling,  and  his  verse  is  considered,  in 
sweetness  and  native  strength,  to  be  such  a  return  to  the  tones  of 
Garcilasso,  as  had  not  been  heard  in  Spain  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury. Gonzalez  (d.  IT 94),  who,  with  happy  success,  imitated 
Luis  de  Leon,  Jovellanos  (1744-1811),  who  exerted  great 
iuhuence  on  the  literary  and  political  condition  of  his  country, 
and  Qaintana  (b.  1772),  whose  poems  are  distinguished  by  their 
noble  and  patriotic  tone,  are  considered  among  the  principal 
representatives  of  the  school  of  Salamanca. 

The  most  considerable  movement  of  the  18th  century  in  Spain, 
is  that  relating  to  the  theatre,  which  it  was  earnestly  attempted 
to  subject  to  the  rules  then  prevailing  on  the  French  stage. 
The  Spanish  theatre,  in  fact,  was  now  at  its  lowest  ebb,  and 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  populace.  The  plays  acted  for  pub- 
lic amusement  were  still  represented  as  they  had  been  in  the  17th 
century — in  open  court-yards,  in  the  day-time,  without  any  pre- 
tence of  scenery  or  of  dramatic  ingenuity.  Soon  after,  through  the 
influence  of  Isabella,  the  second  wife  of  Philip  Y.,  improvements 
were  made  in  the  external  arrangements  and  architecture  of  the 
theatres;  yet  owing  to  the  exclusive  favor  shown  to  the  opera 
by  the  Italian  queens,  the  old  spirit  continued  to  prevail. 

In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  a  reform  of  the  comedy 
and  tragedy  was  undertaken  by  Montiano  and  others,  who  intro- 
duced the  Frencli  style  in  dramatic  compositions,  and  from  that 
time  an  active  contest  went  on  between  the  innovators  and  the 
followers  of  the  old  drama.  The  latter  was  attacked,  in  1762, 
by  Moratin  the  elder,  who  wrote  against  it,  and  especially 
against  the  antos  sacramentales,  showing  that  such  wild,  coarse  and 
blasphemous  exhibitions,  as  they  generally  were,  ought  not  to 
be  tolerated  in  a  civihzed  and  rehgious  community.  So  far  as 
the  autos  were  concerned,  Moratin  was  successful;  they  were 
prohibited  in  1768,  and  since  that  time,  in  the  larger  cities,  they 
have  not  been  heard. 

Tlie  most  successful  writer  for  the  stage  was  Ramon  de  la 
Cruz  (1731-1799),  the  author  of  about  three  hundred  dramatic 
compositions,  founded  on  the  manners  of  the  middle  and  lower 
classes.  They  are  entirely  national  in  their  tone,  and  abound  in 
wit  and  in  faithful  delineations  of  character. 

While  a  number  of  writers  pandered  to  the  bad  taste  of  low 
and  vulgar  audiences,  a  formidable  antagonist  appeared  in  the 
person  of  Moratin  the  younger  (1760-1828),  son  of  that  poet 
who  first  produced,  on  the  Spanish  stage,  an  original  drama 
written  accordini]!:  to  the  French  doctrines.  Notwithstanding: 
the  taste  of  the  public,  he  determined  to  tread  in  the  footsteps 

15* 


34G  SPANISH    LITERATURE. 

of  his  father.  Tliough  his  comedies  have  failed  to  educate  a 
school  strong  enough  to  drive  out  the  bad  imitations  of  the  old 
masters,  they  have  yet  been  able  to  keep  their  own  place. 

The  18th  century  was  a  period  of  revolution  and  change  with 
the  Spanish  theatre.  While  the  old  national  drama  was  not 
restored  to  its  ancient  rights,  the  drama  founded  on  the  doc- 
trines taught  by  lAizan,  and  practised  by  the  Moratins,  had 
only  a  limited  success.  The  audiences  did  as  much  to  degrade 
it  as  was  done  by  the  poets  they  patronized,  and  the  actors  they 
applauded.  On  the  one  side  extravagant  and  absurd  dramas 
in  great  numbers,  full  of  low  buffoonery,  were  offered;  on  the 
other,  meagre  sentimental  comedies,  and  stiff,  cold  translations 
from  the  French,  were  forced,  in  almost  equal  numbers,  upon  the 
actors  by  the  voices  of  those  from  whose  authority  or  support 
they  could  not  entirely  emancipate  themselves. 

3.  Spaxish  Literature  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. — The  new 
life  and  health  infused  into  literature  in  the  age  of  Charles  III., 
was  checked  by  the  French  revolutionary  wars  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IV.,  and  afterwards  by  the  restoration  of  civil  despotism 
and  the  Inquisition,  brought  again  into  the  country  by  the 
i"eturn  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  1814.  Amidst  the  violence 
and  confusion  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  YII.  (1814-1833), 
elegant  letters  could  hardly  hope  to  find  shelter  or  resting-place. 
Nearly  every  poet  and  prose  writer,  known  as  such  at  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  IV.,  became  involved  in  the  fierce  pohtical 
changes  of  the  time — changes  so  various  and  so  opposite,  that 
those  who  escaped  from  the  consequences  of  one,  were  often  on 
that  very  account  sure  to  suffer  in  the  next  that  followed.  Indeed, 
tlie  reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  was  an  interregnum  in  all  elegant  cul- 
ture, such  as  no  modern  nation  has  yet  seen,  not  even  Spain  her- 
self during  the  War  of  the  Succession.  This  state  of  things  con- 
tinued throuQ*]!  the  lono*  civil  war  which  arose  soon  after  the 
death  of  that  king,  and,  indeed,  it  is  not  yet  entirely  abated. 
But  in  despite  of  the  troubled  condition  of  the  country,  even 
while  Ferdinand  was  living,  a  movement  was  begun,  the  first 
traces  of  which  are  to  be  found  among  the  emigrated  Spaniards, 
who  cheered  with  letters  their  exile  in  England  and  France,  and 
whose  subsequent  progress,  from  the  thne  when  the  death  of 
their  unfaithful  monarch  permitted  them  to  return  home,  is  dis- 
tinctly perceptible  in  their  own  country.  Of  late  there  has  not 
only  been  gi-eat  attention  bestowed  in  collecting  and  republishing 
all  the  best  works  that  Spain  produced  in  her  happier  days,  but 
in  almost  every  department  of  science  and  literature  there  have 


'  SrANISII    LITEllATUEE.  347 

arisen  authors  respectable  and  even  eminent  in  their  own  coun- 
try. Of  all  these  works,  however,  few,  if  any,  have  appeared 
of  such  a  character  as  to  command  our  attention,  or  de- 
mand to  be  translated  into  the  lano-ua^es  of  the  more  advanced 
nations. 

What  dh'ection  this  movement  may  ultimately  take,  or  where 
it  may  end,  it  is  impossible  to  foresee.  Happy  will  it  be  for  the 
old  Castilian  race,  if  they  have  been  taught,  by  the  experience 
of  the  past,  that  while  reverence  for  whatever  is  noble  and 
worthy  is  the  essence  of  poetical  inspiration,  and  while  rehgious 
faith  and  feeling  constitute  its  true  foundation,  there  is  yet  a 
loyalty  to  mere  rank  and  place,  which  degrades  alike  its  pos- 
sessor and  him  it  would  honor,  and  a  blind  submission  to  priestly 
authority,  which  narrows  and  debases  the  soul  more  than  any 
other,  because  it  sends  its  poison  deeper.  But  if  they  have 
failed  to  learn  this  solemn  lesson,  inscribed,  as  by  the  hand  of 
heaven,  on  the  walls  of  their  crumbhng  institutions,  then  is  their 
honorable  history,  both  in  civilization  and  letters,  closed  for 
ever. 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Portuiguese  Language. — 2.  Early  Literature  of  Portugal. — 3.  Poets  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century  ;  Macias,  Kibeyro.— 4.  Introduction  of  the  Italian  style ;  Saa  de 
Miranda,  Monteraayor,  Fenelra.— 5.  Epic  Poetry  ;  Camoens  ;  the  Lusiad.— 6.  Dramatic 
Poetry;  Gil  Vicente. — 7.  Prose  Writing;  Rodriguez  Lobo,  Barros,  Brito,  Veira. — 
8  Portuguese  Literature  in  tlie  Seventeenth,  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries ; 
Antonio  Josi;,  Manuel  do  Nascimento,  Manuel  de  Bocage. 


1.  The  Portuguese  Language. — Portugal  was  long  considered 
only  as  an  integral  part  of  Spain  ;  its  inhabitants  called  tliem- 
selves  Spaniards,  and  conferred  on  tlieir  neighbors  the  distinc- 
tive appellation  of  Castilians.  Their  language  was  originally  the 
same  as  the  Galician  ;  and  had  Portugal  remained  a  province  of 
Spain,  its  peculiar  dialect  would  probably,  lil^e  that  of  Arragoii, 
have  been  driven  from  the  fields  of  literature  by  the  Castilian. 
But  at  the  close  of  the  11th  century,  Alphonso  V^L,  celebrated 
in  Spanish  history  for  his  triumplis  over  the  Moors,  gave  Por- 
tugal as  a  dowry  to  his  daughter  on  her  marriage  with 
Henry  of  Burgundy,  with  permission  to  call  his  own  whatever 
accessions  to  it  the  young  prince  might  be  able  to  conquer  from 
the  Moorish  territory.  Alphonso  Henriquez,  the  son  of  this 
pair,  was  saluted  King  of  Portugal  by  his  soldiers,  on  the  battle 
field  of  Castro-Yerd,  in  the  year  1139  ;  his  kingdom  comprising 
all  the  provinces  we  now  call  Portugal,  except  the  province  of 
Algarve.  Tiieiiceforward  the  Portuguese  became  a  separate 
nation  from  the  Spaniards,  and  their  language  asserted  for  itself 
an  independent  existence.  Still,  however,  the  Castiuan  was 
long  considered  the  proper  vehicle  for  literature  ;  and  while  few 
Portuguese  writers  wholly  disused  it,  there  were  many  who  em- 
ployed no  other. 

Although  the  Portuguese  language,  founded  on  the  Galician 
dialect,  bears  much  similarity  to  the  Spanish  in  its  roots  and 
structure,  it  dilfers  widely  from  it  in  its  grammatical  combina- 
tions and  derivations,  so  that  it  constitutes  a  language  by  itself. 
It  has  far  more  French,  and  fewer  Basque  and  Arabic  ele- 
ments than  the  Spanish  ;  it  is  softer,  but  it  has  at  the  same 
time,   a  truncated  and   incomplete  sound,   compared  with  the 

848 


rOKTLTGUESE    LITERATURE.  349 

sonorous  beauty  of  the  Castilian,  and  a  predominance  of  nasal 
sounds  stronger  than  those  of  the  French.  It  is  graceful  and 
easy  in  its  construction,  but  it  is  the  least  energetic  of  all  the 
Romance  tongues. 

2.  Early  Literature  of  Portugal. — The  people,  as  well  as 
the  language  of  Portugal,  possess  a  distmctive  character  Early 
in  the  history  of  the  country  the  extensive  and  fertile  plains  were 
abandoned  to  pasturage,  and  the  number  of  shepherds  in  propor- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  population  was  so  great,  that  the  idea  of 
rural  life  among  them  was  always  associated  with  the  care  of 
flocks.  At  the  same  time,  their  long  extent  of  coast  invited  to  the 
pursuits  of  commerce  and  navigation  ;  and  the  nation  thus  divided 
into  hardy  navigators,  soldiers  and  shepherds,  were  better  calcu- 
lated for  the  display  of  energy,  valor  and  enterprise  than  for 
laborious  and  persevering  industry.  Accustomed  to  active  inter- 
course with  society,  rather  than  to  the  seclusion  of  castles,  they 
were  far  less  haughty  and  fanatical  than  the  Castilians  ;  and  the 
greater  number  of  Mo9arabians  that  were  incorporated  among 
them,  diffused  over  their  feelings  and  manners  a  much  stronger 
influence  of  orieiitalism.  The  passion  of  love  seemed  to  occupy  a 
larger  share  of  their  existence,  and  their  poetry  was  more 
enthusiastic  than  that  of  any  other  people  of  Europe. 

Althoucch  the  literature  of  Portu2:al,  like  the  character  of  its 
people,  is  marked  by  excessive  softness,  elegiac  sentimentality  and 
an  undefined  melancholy,  it  aflbrds  little  originality  in  the  gene- 
ral tone  of  its  productions.  Henry  of  Burgundy  and  his  knights 
early  introduced  Proven9al  poetry,  and  the  native  genius  was 
nurtured  in  the  succeeding  age  by  Spanish  and  Italian  taste, 
and  afterwards  modified  by  the  influence  of  French  and  English 
civilization.  National  songs  were  not  wanting  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  country,  yet  no  relics  of  them  have  been  preserved. 
The  earliest  monuments  of  PortuGTuese  literature  relate  to  the 
age  of  the  French  knights  who  founded  the  political  independ- 
ence of  the  country,  and  must  be  sought  in  the  "  Cancioneros," 
containing  courtly  ballads  composed  in  the  Galician  dialect,  after 
the  Proven9al  fashion,  and  sung  by  wandering  minstrels.  The 
Gancionero  of  King  Dionysius  (12T 9-1325)  is  the  most  ancient 
of  those  collections — the  kino-  himself  beins:  considered  bv  the 
Portugaese  as  the  earliest  poet.  In  fact,  Galician  poetry, 
modelled  after  the  Provengal,  was  cultivated  at  that  time  all 
along  the  western  portion  of  the  Pyreneean  peninsula.  Al- 
phonso  the  Wise,  King  of  Castile,  used  this  dialect  in  his 
l)oems  ;  and  as  a  poet  and  patron  of  the  Spanish  troubadours, 


350  rOKTUGUESE   LITEllATUEE. 

he  may  be  considered  as  belonging  both  to  the  Spanish  and 
Portuf>-uesc  Hteratures. 

In  the  14th  and  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  Portuguese  po- 
etry preserved  its  Proven9al  character.  The  poets  rallied  around 
the  court,  and  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  age  sang  to  the  Proven- 
9allyre  both  in  the  CastiUan  and  the  Galician  dialects  ;  but  only 
a  few  fragments  of  the  poetry  of  the  14th  century  are  extant. 

3.  Poets  of  the  15th  Century. — Early  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury, the  same  chivalrous  spirit  which  had  achieved  the  conquest 
of  the  country  from  the  Moors,  led  the  Portuguese  to  cross  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  plant  their  banner  on  the  walls  of 
Ceuta.  Many  other  cities  of  Africa  were  afterwards  taken  ; 
and  in  1487,  Bartolomeo  Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  Yasco  da  Gama  pointed  out  to  Europe  the  hitherto  unknown 
track  to  India.  Within  fifteen  years  after,  a  Portuguese  king- 
dom was  founded  in  Hindostan,  and  the  treasures  of  the  East 
flowed  into  Portugal.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  people  was  thus 
awakened,  and  high  views  of  national  importance,  and  high 
hopes  of  national  glory,  arose  in  the  public  mind.  The  time  was 
peculiarly  favorable  to  the  development  of  genius,  and  especially 
to  the  spirit  of  poetry.  Indeed,  the  last  part  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, and  the  beginning  of  the  16th,  the  age  of  King  John 
(1481-1495),  and  of  Emanuel  (1495-1521),  may  be  called  the 
golden  age  of  the  Portuguese  poetry. 

At  the  head  of  the  poetical  school  of  the  15th  century,  stands 
Macias,  surnamed  the  Enamored  (ft.  1420).  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  hero  in  the  wars  against  the  Moors  of  Granada,  and  as  a 
poet  in  the  retinue  of  the  Marquis  of  A^illena.  He  became 
attached  to  a  lady  of  the  same  princely  household,  who  was 
forced  to  marry  another.  Macias  continuing  to  express  his  love, 
though  prohibited  by  the  marquis  from  doing  so,  was  thrown 
into  prison  ;  but  even  there,  he  still  poured  forth  his  songs  on 
his  ill-fated  love,  regarding  the  hardships  of  captivity  as  light, 
in  comparison  with  the  pangs  of  absence  from  his  mistress.  The 
husband  of  the  lady,  stung  with  jealousy,  recognizing  Macias 
through  the  bars  of  his  prison,  took  deadly  aim  at  him  with  his 
javelin,  and  killed  him  on  the  spot.  The  weapon  was  suspended 
over  the  poet's  tomb,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Catherine,  with  the 
inscription,  "  Here  lies  Macias  the  Enamored." 

The  death  of  Macias  produced  such  a  sensation  as  could  only 
belong  to  an  imaginative  age  ;  all  those  who  desired  to  be 
thought  cultivated  mourned  his  fate.  His  few  poems  of  moderate 
merit  became  generally  known  and  admired,  and  his  melancholy 


POllTUGUESE   LITEllATCJEE.  351 

history  continued  to  be  the  theme  of  songs  and  ballads,  until,  in 
the  poetry  of  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderou,  the  name  of  Macias 
passed  into  a  proverb,  and  became  synonymous  with  the  highest 
and  tenderest  love. 

Ribeyro  (1495-1521),  one  of  the  earliest  and  best  poets  of 
Portugal,  was  attached  to  the  court  of  King  Emanuel.  Here 
he  indulged  a  passion  for  one  of  the  ladies  of  the  court,  which 
gave  rise  to  some  of  his  most  exquisite  effusions.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  lady,  whose  name  he  studiously  conceals,  was  the  Infanta 
Beatrice,  the  king's  own  daughter.  He  was  so  wholly  devoted 
to  the  object  of  his  love,  that  he  is  said  to  have  passed  whole 
nights  wandering  in  the  woods,  or  beside  the  banks  of  a  solitary 
stream,  pouring  forth  the  tale  of  his  woes  in  strains  of  mingled 
tenderness  and  despair.  The  most  celebrated  productions  of 
Ribeyro  are  eclogues.  The  scene  is  invariably  laid  in  his  own 
country  ;  his  shepherds  are  all  Portuguese,  and  his  peasant  girls 
have  christian  names.  But,  under  the  disguise  of  fictitious  cha- 
racters, he  evidently  sought  to  place  before  the  eyes  of  his 
beloved  mistress  the  feelings  of  his  own  breast ;  and  the  wretch 
edness  of  an  impassioned  lover  is  always  his  favorite  theme. 

The  bucolic  poets  of  Portugal  may  be  regarded  as  the  earli 
est  in  Europe,  and  their  favorite  creed,  that  pastoral  life  was 
the  poetical  model  of  human  life,  and  the  ideal  point  from  which 
every  sentiment  and  passion  ought  to  be  viewed,  was  first  repre- 
sented by  Ribeyro.  This  idea  threw  an  air  of  romantic  sweet- 
ness and  elegance  over  the  poetry  of  the  16th  century,  but  at  the 
same  time  it  gave  to  it  a  monotonous  tone  and  an  air  ot 
tedious  affectation. 

4.  Introduction  of  the  Italian  Style. — The  poet  who  first 
introduced  the  Italian  style  into  Portuguese  poetry  was  so  suc- 
cessful in  seizing  the  delicate  tone  by  which  the  blending  of  the 
two  was  to  be  effected  that  tlie  innovation  was  accomplished 
without  a  struggle.  Saa  de  Miranda  (1495-1558)  was  one  of 
the  most  pleasing  and  accomplished  men  of  his  age.  He  tra- 
velled extensively,  and  on  his  return  was  attached  to  the  court  of 
Lisbon.  It  is  related  of  him  that  he  would  often  sit  silent  and 
abstracted  in  company,  and  that  tears,  of  which  no  one  knew 
the  cause,  would  flow  from  his  eyes,  while  he  seemed  un- 
conscious of  the  circumstance,  and  indifferent  to  the  observation 
he  was  thus  attracting.  These  emotions  were  of  course  attributed 
to  poetic  thought  and  romantic  attachments.  He  insisted  on 
marrying  a  lady  who  was  neither  young  nor  handsome,  and 
whom  he  had  never  seen  ;  Jiaving  been  captivated  by  her  repu- 


352  rOUTUGUESE  litekatuke. 

tation  for  amialjility  and  discretion.  lie  became  so  attached  to 
licr,  that  when  she  died  he  renounced  all  his  previous  pursuits 
and  purposes  in  life,  remained  mconsolable,  and  soon  followed 
her  to  the  grave.  Miranda  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  lyric 
and  pastoral  poetry. 

Montemayor  was  a  contemporary  of  Miranda,  and  a  native 
of  Portugal,  but  he  declined  holding  any  literary  position  in  his 
own  country.  The  pastoral  romance  of  *'  Diana,^'  written  in  the 
Castiliau  language,  is  his  most  celebrated  work.  It  was  received 
with  great  favor,  and  extensively  imitated.  With  many  faults, 
it  possesses  a  high  degree  of  poetic  merit,  and  is  entitled  to  the 
esteem  of  all  ages. 

Ferreira  (1528-1569)  has  been  called  the  Horace  of  Portu- 
gal. His  works  are  correct  and  elegant,  but  they  are  wanting  in 
those  higher  efforts  of  genius  which  strike  the  imagination  and 
fire  the  spirit.  The  glory,  advancement  and  civilization  of  iiis 
country  were  his  darling  themes,  and  it  was  this  enthusiasm  of 
patriotism  that  made  him  great.  In  his  tragedy  of  Inez  de 
Castro,  Ferreira  raised  himself  far  above  his  Italian  contem- 
poraries. Many  similar  writers  shed  a  lustre  on  this,  the  brightest, 
and  indeed  the  only  brilliant  period  of  Portuguese  literature  ; 
but  they  are  all  more  remarkable  for  taste  and  elegance  than  for 
richness  of  invention. 

5.  Eric  Poetry. — The  chief  and  only  boast  of  his  country, 
the  sole  poet  whose  celebrity  has  extended  beyond  the  penin- 
sula, and  whose  name  appears  in  the  list  of  those  who  have  con- 
ferred honor  upon  Europe,  is  Luis  de  Camoens  (1524-1579). 
He  was  descended  from  a  noble,  but  by  no  means  a  wealthy 
family.  After  having  completed  his  studies  at  the  university, 
he  conceived  a  passion  for  a  lady  of  the  court,  so  violent  that 
for  some  time  he  renounced  all  literary  and  worldly  pursuits. 
He  entered  the  military  service,  and  in  an  engagement  before 
Ceuta,  in  which  he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  he  lost  an  eye. 
Neglected  and  contemned  by  his  country,  he  embarked  for  the 
East  Indies.  After  various  vicissitudes  there,  he  wrote  a  bitter 
satire  on  the  government,  which  occasioned  his  banishment  to  the 
island  of  Macao,  where  he  remained  for  five  years,  and  where  he 
completed  the  great  work  which  was  to  hand  down  his  name  to 
posterity.  There  is  still  to  be  seen  on  the  most  elevated  point 
of  the  isthmus  which  unites  the  town  of  Macao  to  the  Chinese 
continent,  a  sort  of  natural  gallery  formed  out  of  the  rocks,  ap- 
parently almost  suspended  in  the  air,  and  commanding  a  magni- 
ficent prospect  over  both  seas,  and  the  lofty  chain  of  mountains 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE.  353 

which  rises  above  their  shores.  Here  he  is  said  to  have  mvoked 
the  genius  of  the  epic  muse,  and  tradition  has  conferred  on  this 
retreat  the  name  of  the  Grotto  of  Camoens. 

On  his  return  to  Goa,  Camoens  was  shipwrecked,  and  of  all 
his  little  property,  he  succeeded  only  in  saving  the  manuscript  of 
the  Lusiad,  which  he  bore  in  one  hand  above  the  water,  while 
swimming  to  the  shore.  Soon  after  reaching  Goa,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison  upon  some  unjust  accusation,  and  suffered 
for  a  long  time  to  linger  there.  At  length  released,  he  took 
passage  for  his  native  country,  which  he  reached  after  an  ab- 
sence of  sixteen  years.  Portugal  was  at  this  time  ravaged  by 
the  plague,  and  in  the  universal  sorrow  and  alarm,  the  poet  and 
his  great  work  were  ahke  neglected.  The  king  at  length  con- 
sented to  accept  the  dedication  of  this  poem,  and  made  to  the 
author  the  wretched  return  of  a  pension,  amounting  to  about 
25  dollars.  Camoens  was  not  untrequently  in  actual  want  of 
bread,  for  which  he  was  in  part  indebted  to  a  black  servant 
who  had  accompanied  him  from  India,  and  who  was  in  the  habit 
of  stealinG:  out  at  nio'ht  to  bea;  in  the  streets  for  what  might 
support  his  master  during  the  following  day.  But  more  aggra- 
vated evils  were  in  store  for  the  unfortunate  poet.  The  young 
king  perished  in  the  disastrous  expedition  against  Morocco,  and 
with  him  expired  the  royal  house  of  Portugal.  The  indepen- 
dence of  the  nation  was  lost,  her  glory  eclipsed,  and  the  future 
pregnant  with  calamity  and  disgrace.  Camoens,  who  had  so 
nobly  supported  his  own  misfortunes,  sunk  under  those  of  his 
country.  He  was  seized  with  a  violent  fever,  and  expired  in  a 
public  hospital  without  having  a  shroud  to  cover  his  remains. 

The  poem  on  which  the  reputation  of  Camoens  depends,  is 
entitled  '' Os  Lusiadas;"  that  is,  ''The  Lusitanians,  or  Portu- 
guese," and  its  design  is  to  present  a  poetic  and  epic  grouping 
of  all  the  Qcreat  and  interesting  events  in  the  annals  of  Portugal. 
The  discovery  of  the  passage  to  India,  the  most  brilhant  point 
in  Portuguese  history,  was  selected  as  the  groundwork  of  the 
epic  unity  of  the  poem.  But  with  this,  and  the  Portuguese  con- 
quests in  India,  the  author  combined  all  the  illustrious  actions 
performed  by  his  countrymen  in  other  quarters  of  the  world,  and 
whatever  of  splendid  and  heroic  achievement  history  or  tradition 
could  supply.  Yasco  da  Gama  has  been  represented  as  the 
hero  of  the  work,  and  those  portions  not  immediately  connected 
with  his  expedition,  as  episodes.  But  there  is,  in  truth,  no 
other  leading  subject  than  the  country,  and  no  episodes  except 
such  parts  as  are  not  immediately  connected  with  her  glory. 
Camoens  was  familiar  with  the  works  of  his  Italian  contempo- 


354  PORTUGUESE   LITER ATUEE. 

raries,  but  the  circumstance  that  esseutially  distinguishes  him 
from  thcra,  and  which  forms  the  everlasting  monument  of  his 
own  and  his  country's  glory,  is  the  national  love  and  pride 
breathing  through  the  whole  work.  His  patriotic  spirit,  devot- 
ing a  whole  life  to  raise  a  monument  worthy  of  his  country, 
seems  never  to  have  indulged  a  thought  which  was  not  true  to 
the  glory  of  an  ungrateful  nation. 

The  Greek  mythology  forms  the  epic  machinery  of  the  Lu- 
siad.  Yasco  da  Uama,  having  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
is  steering  along  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  when  the  gods 
assemble  on  Mount  Olympus  to  deliberate  on  the  fate  of  India. 
Yenus  and  Bacchus  form  two  parties  ;  the  former  in  favor,  the 
latter  opposed  to  the  Portuguese.  The  poet  thus  gratihed  his 
national  pride,  as  Portugal  was  eminently  the  laud  of  love,  and 
moderation  in  the  use  of  wine  was  one  of  its  highest  virtues. 
Bacchus  lays  many  snares  to  entrap  and  ruin  the  adventurers, 
who  are  warned  and  protected  by  Yenus.  He  visits  the  palace 
of  the  gods  of  the  sea,  who  consent  to  let  loose  the  winds  and 
waves  upon  the  daring  adventurers,  but  she  summons  her 
nymphs,  and  adorning  themselves  with  garlands  of  the  sweetest 
flowers,  they  subdue  the  boisterous  Winds,  who,  charmed  by  the 
blandishments  of  love,  become  calm.  Yasco  is  hospitably  re- 
ceived by  the  African  king  of  Melinda,  to  whom  he  relates  the 
most  interesting  parts  of  the  history  of  his  native  country.  On 
the  homeward  voyage,  Yenus  prepares  a  magic  festival  for  tlie 
adventurers,  on  an  enchanted  island,  and  the  goddess  Thetis  be- 
comes the  bride  of  the  admiral.  Here  the  poet  finds  the  oppor- 
tunity to  complete  the  narrative  of  his  country's  history,  and  a 
prophetic  nymph  is  brought  forward  to  describe  the  future 
achievements  of  the  nation  from  that  period  to  the  time  of 
Camoens. 

The  Lusiad  is  one  of  the  noblest  monuments  ever  raised  to  tlie 
national  glory  of  any  people,  and  it  is  dilficult  to  conceive  how  so 
grand  and  beautiful  a  whole  could  be  formed  on  a  plan  so  trivial 
and  irregular.  The  plan  has  been  compared  to  a  scaffolding 
surrounded  and  concealed  by  a  majestic  building,  serving  to 
connect  its  parts,  but  having  no  share  in  producing  the  unity 
of  the  effect.  One  of  the  most  affecting  and  beautiful  of  all  the 
passages  of  the  Lusiad,  is  the  narrative  of  the  ti'agical  fate  of 
Inez  do  Castro,  who,  after  her  death,  was  proclaimed  queen  of 
Portugal,  upon  the  accession  of  her  lover  to  the  throne. 

In  the  poems  of  Camoens  we  find  examples  of  every  species 
of  composition  practised  in  his  age  and  country.  Some  of  them 
bear  the  impress  of  his  personal  character,  and  of  his  sad  and  agi- 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE.  355 

tated  career.  A  wild  tone  of  sorrow  runs  through  them,  which 
strikes  the  ear  hke  waihngs  heard  through  the  gloom  of  mid- 
night and  darkness.  We  know  not  by  what  calamity  they  were 
called  forth,  but  it  is  the  voice  of  grief,  and  it  awakens  an  an- 
swering throb  within  the  breast. 

6.  Dramatic  Poetry. — The  drama  is  quite  a  barren  field  in 
Portuguese  literature.  The  stage  of  Lisbon  has  been  occupied 
almost  exclusively  by  the  Italian  opera  and  Spanish  comedy. 
Only  one  poet  of  any  name  has  written  in  the  Portuguese  spirit. 
This  was  (iil  Vicente  ( 1490-1556).  He  resided  constantly  at  the 
court,  and  was  employed  in  providing  occasional  pieces  for  its 
civil  and  religious  festivities.  It  is  probable  that  he  was  an 
actor,  and  it  is  certain  that  he  educated  for  the  stage  his  daugh- 
ter, Paula,  who  was  equally  celebrated  as  an  actress,  a  poetess, 
and  a  musician.  The  dramas  of  Vicente  consist  of  autos,  come- 
dies, tragi-comedies,  and  farces.  The  autos,  or  religious  pieces, 
were  written  chiefly  to  farnish  entertainment  for  the  court  on 
Christmas  night.  The  shepherds  had  naturally  an  important 
part  assigned  to  them,  and  the  whole  was  pervaded  by  the  pas- 
toral feeliug  which  distinguishes  them  remarkably  from  the 
Spanish  autos.  But  the  best  productions  of  this  author  are  his 
farces,  which  approach  much  nearer  to  the  style  of  true  comedy 
than  the  plays  published  under  that  name. 

Saa  de  Mhanda,  desirous  of  conferring  on  his  country  a 
classical  theatre,  produced  two  erudite  comedies,  but  he  was 
born  a  pastoral  poet,  and  made  himself  a  dramatist  only  by  imi- 
tation. Ferreira  belonged  to  the  same  school,  and  the  favor 
bestowed  by  the  court  on  the  dramas  of  these  two  poets,  was 
one  obstacle  to  the  formation  of  a  national  drama.  Another  was, 
the  pertinacious  attachment  of  the  Portuguese  to  pastoral  poet- 
ry, and  nothing  could  be  more  contrary  to  dramatic  life  than  the 
languor,  sentimentality,  and  monotony  peculiar  to  the  eclogue. 

T.  Prose  Writing. — After  Camoens,  Saa  de  Miranda  and 
Ferreira,  the  language  and  the  literature  of  Portugal  are  in- 
debted to  no  other  writer  so  much  as  to  Rodriguez  Lobo 
(b.  1558).  The  history  of  Portuguese  eloquence  may  be  said  to 
commence  with  him,  for  he  laid  so  good  a  foundation  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  a  pure  prose  style  that,  in  every  effort  to  obtain  classic 
perfection,  subsequent  writers  have  merely  followed  in  his  steps. 
His  verse  is  nowise  inferior  to  his  prose.  Among  his  poetic 
works  appears  a  whole  series  of  historic  romances,  written  by 
way  of  ridiculing  that  species  of  composition. 


356  POETUGUESE  LITERATURE. 

Lobo  stood  alone,  iu  tlie  IGtli  century,  in  his  efforts  to  im- 
prove the  prose  of  his  country.  Gongorism  had,  meanwhile, 
introduced  bombast  and  metaphorical  obscurity,  and  no  writer 
of  eminence  arose  to  attempt  a  more  natural  style,  till  the  end 
of  the  17  th  century. 

Foremost  among  those  who  undertook  to  relate  the  history 
of  their  country,  especially  of  her  oriental  discoveries,  and  who 
communicated  to  their  records  an  ardent  patriotic  feeling,  is 
Barros  (149G-1571 ) ;  he  took  Livy  for  his  model,  and  his  labors 
are  worthy  of  honorable  notice.  India  was  the  favorite  topic 
of  Portuguese  historians  ;  and  several  similar  works,  but  infe- 
rior to  that  of  Barros,  appeared  in  the  same  age.  Bernardo 
de  Brito  (d.  1617)  undertook  the  task  of  compiling  a  history  of 
Portugal.  His  narration  begins  with  the  creation  of  the  world, 
and  breaks  off  where  the  history  of  modern  Portugal  commences. 
It  is  eminently  distinguished  for  style  and  descriptive  talent. 
The  biography  of  Juan  de  Castro,  written  by  Jacinto  de  Andrade, 
is  considered  as  a  masterpiece  of  the  Portuguese  prose. 

The  conquered  Indians  found  an  eloquent  defender  in  Yeira 
(1008-1697),  a  Catholic  missionary,  who  spent  a  great  part 
of  his  life  in  the  deserts  of  South  America,  and  wrote  cate- 
chisms in  different  languages  for  the  use  of  the  natives.  Having 
returned  to  the  court  of  John  IV.,  he  undertook  to  defend  the 
natural  rights  of  Indians  against  the  rapacity  of  the  conquerors. 
He  undertook  also  the  defence  of  the  Jews  in  his  native  country, 
and  showed  so  much  interest  in  their  cause,  that  he  was  twice 
brought  before  the  Inquisition.  Ilis  sermons  and  letters  are 
models  of  prose  writings,  full  of  the  inspiration  which  springs 
from  the  boldness  of  his  subjects. 

8.  Portuguese  Literature  in  the  17tii,  18th  and  IOth 
Centuries. — Portuguese  literature  during  the  17tli  century 
would  present  an  utter  blank,  but  for  the  few  literary  produc- 
tions to  which  we  have  alluded.  Previous  to  that  time,  patriotic 
valor  and  romantic  enterprise  expanded  the  national  genius  ;  but 
before  it  could  mature,  the  despotism  of  the  monarchy,  the  hor- 
rors of  the  Inquisition  and  the  influence  of  wealth  and  luxury 
had  done  their  work  of  destruction,  and  the  prostrate  nation 
had,  in  the  17th  century,  reaped  the  bitter  fruits.  The  most 
brilliant  period  of  Portuguese  poetry  had  passed  away,  and  no 
new  era  commenced.  The  flame  of  patriotism  was  extinct  ; 
Brazil  was  the  only  colony  that  remained  ;  the  spirit  of  national 
enterprise  was  no  more,  and  a  general  lethargy  overspread  the 
nation.     Labor  was  reckoned  a  disgrace,  commerce  a  degra- 


PORTUGUESE   LITERATUEE.  357 

dation,  and  agriculture  too  fatiguing  for  even  the  lowest  classes 
of  the  community.  Both  Spain  and  Portugal  felt  the  paralyzing 
influence  of  their  humbled  position  in  the  scale  of  nations,  and 
civil  and  religious  despotism  had  overthrown,  in  both  countries, 
the  intellectual  power  which  had  so  long  withstood  its  degrading 
influence. 

Thousands  of  sonnets,  chiefly  of  an  amorous  nature,  filled  up 
the  17th  century  in  Portugal,  while  Spain  was  exhausting  its 
expiring  energies  in  dramas.  Souza,  the  most  eminent  of  the 
sonneteers,  alone  produced  six  hundred.  In  the  first,  he  an- 
nounces that  the  collection  is  designed  to  celebrate  "  the  pene- 
trating shafts  of  love,  which  were  shot  from  a  pair  of  heavenly 
eyes,  and  which,  after  inflicting  immortal  wounds,  issued  trium- 
phant from  the  poet's  breast." 

In  the  18th  century,  the  influence  of  French  taste  crept 
quietly  into  the  literature  as  well  as  the  manners  of  the  Portu- 
guese nation.  Royal  academies  of  history  and  language  were 
founded,  and  an  academy  of  sciences,  which,  since  1792,  has 
exercised  an  influence  over  literary  taste,  and  given  birth  to 
many  excellent  treatises  on  philosophy  and  criticism. 

About  the  year  1735,  the  nation  seemed  on  the  eve  of  pos- 
sessing a  drama  of  its  own.  Antonio  Jose,  an  obscure  Jew, 
composed  a  number  of  comic  operas,  in  the  vernacular  tongue, 
which  had  long  been  banished  from  the  theatre  of  Lisbon.  In 
spite  of  much  coarseness,  their  genuine  humor  and  familiar 
gaiety  excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  for  ten  years  the 
theatre  was  crowded  with  delighted  audiences.  But  the  Jew 
was  seized  and  burnt,  by  order  of  the  Inquisition,  at  the  last 
auto  da  fe,  w^hich  took  place  in  1745,  and  the  theatre  was 
closed. 

Although  French  literature  continued  to  exert  its  influence  in 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  centary,  masterpieces  of  English 
literature  at  that  time  found  their  wav  into  PortuQ:al,  and  ex- 
cited  much  admiration  and  imitation.  Manuel  do  Nascimento 
(1734-1819)  is  the  representative  of  the  classic  style,  and  his 
works,  both  in  poetry  and  prose,  are  distinguished  by  purity  of 
Ian2:ua2:e.  Manuel  de  Bocasre  (1766-1805)  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  modern  poets,  and  though  his  poems  are  not  exam- 
ples of  refined  taste  or  elegance  of  style,  they  evince  enthusiasm 
and  poetical  fire.  Among  the  poets  of  the  present  day,  there 
are  some  who  have  emanci})ated  themselves  from  the  imitation 
of  foreign  models,  and  have  attempted  to  combine  the  earliest 
national  elements  of  their  hterature  with  the  characteristic 
tendencies  of  the  present  age. 


FINOTSPI,  HUJS^GAEIAlSr,  TUKKTSH  AiS^D 
ARMEXIAISr  LITEEATUEES. 

1.  The  Finnish  Language  and  Literature:  Poetry;  theKalevala;  Koronen. — 2.  The 
Hungarian  Language  and  Literature  :  the  Age  of  Stephen  I.  ;  Influence  of  the  House  of 
Anjou;  of  the  Reformation;  of  the  House  of  Austria;  Kossuth;  Josika;  Eutviis; 
Kuthy;  Szigh'geti;  Petofi. — 8.  The  Turkish  Language  and  Literature:  two  dialects ; 
Turkish  Poetry  and  Histor}^ :  Mohammed  Mir-Ali-Schir ;  Mohammed  Tschelebi;  Lami; 
Baki ;  Fasli;  Saad-Ed-Din;  Education.— 4.  Armenian  Language  and  Literature:  Cha- 
racter of  Armenian  Literature;  its  Golden  Age,  and  its  present  condition. 

1.  The  Finnish  Language  and  Literature. — On  passing 
northward  from  the  Iranian  plateaux  through  Turan  to  the 
TJrahan  mountains,  which  separate  Europe  and  Asia,  we  arrive 
at  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Finnish  race  ;  driven  westward  by 
other  invading  tribes,  it  scattered  through  northern  Europe, 
and  established  itself  more  particularly  in  Finland,  where, 
at  the  present  time,  we  find  its  principal  stock.  From  the 
earliest  period  of  the  history  of  the  Finns  until  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century,  they  lived  under  their  own  independent 
kings  ;  they  were  then  subjected  by  the  Swedes,  who  established 
colonies  upon  their  coasts,  and  introduced  Christianity  among 
them.  After  having  been  for  many  centuries  the  theatre  of 
Russian  and  Swedish  wars,  in  the  beginning  of  the  i)resent  cen- 
tury Finland  passed  under  the  dominion  of  Russia  ;  yet  through 
these  ages  of  foreign  domination,  its  inhabitants  preserved  their 
national  character,  and  maintained  the  use  of  their  native  tongue. 

The  Finnish  language  is  a  branch  of  the  Turanian  family  ;  it 
is  written  with  the  Roman  alphabet,  but  it  has  fewer  sounds  ;  it 
is  complicated  in  its  declension  and  conjugation,  but  it  has  great 
capacity  of  expressing  compound  ideas  in  one  word  ;  it  is  har- 
monious in  sound,  and  free,  yet  clear  in  its  construction. 

The  Finns,  at  an  early  period,  had  attained  a  high  degree  of 
civilization,  and  they  have  always  been  distinguislied  for  their 
love  of  poetry,  especially  for  the  melancholy  strains  of  the  elegy. 
They  possess  a  vast  number  of  popular  songs  or  ballads,  which 
are  either  lyrical  or  mythological  ;  they  are  sung  by  the  song- 
men  to  the  kantele,  a  kind  of  harp  with  five  wire  strings,   a 

358 


FINNISH    AND   HUNGARIAN   LITERATURES.  359 

favorite  iiatioual  instrument.  They  have  also  legends,  tales, 
and  proverbs,  some  of  which  have  recently  been  collected,  and 
published  at  Helsingfors,  the  capital  of  Finland. 

The  most  remarkable  monument  of  the  Finnish  literature  is 
the  "  Kalevala,"  the  great  national  epic.  It  contains  50  runes, 
or  songs,  and  is  composed  of  about  23,000  lines.  These  runes, 
preserved  through  many  centuries  by  oral  tradition,  were  col- 
lected and  arranged  in  one  poem  by  Lonnrot,  in  1849.  The 
subject  of  the  Kalevala  (a  name  of  Finland)  is  the  war  between 
the  Finns  and  the  Lapps.  This  poem  is  rich  in  episodes  of 
various  kinds,  and  breathes  an  animated  love  of  nature  rarely  to 
be  met  with  in  any  poetry.  There  are  translations  of  this  poem 
in  Swedisli,  French  and  German. 

The  most  popular  poet  of  Finland,  at  the  present  day,  is 
Khoronen,  a  peasant  ;  his  poems  were  published  in  1848. 

The  prose  of  Finland  has  a  religious  and  moral  character,  and 
is  especially  enriched  by  translations  from  Swedish  literature. 

2.  Hungarian  Language  and  Literature. — The  language 
of  the  Magyars  belongs  to  the  Turanian  family,  and  more  particu' 
larly  to  the  Finnish  branch.  The  Hungarian  differs  from  most 
European  languages  in  its  internal  structure  and  external  form. 
It  is  distinguished  by  harmony  and  energy  of  sound,  richness 
and  vigor  of  form,  regularity  of  inflexion,  and  power  of  expression. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  tth  century,  the  Magyars  emigrated 
from  Asia  into  Europe,  and  for  200  years  they  occupied  the 
country  between  the  Don  and  Dnieper  ;  being  at  length  pressed 
forward  by  other  emigrant  tribes,  they  entered  and  established 
themselves  in  Hungary,  after  subjugating  its  former  inhabitants. 

In  the  year  1000,  Stephen  I.  founded  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary ;  he  had  introduced  Christianity  into  the  country,  and  with 
it  a  knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  which  was  now  taught  in 
the  schools,  and  made  use  of  in  public  documents,  while  the  native 
idiom  was  spoken  by  the  people,  and  in  part  in  the  assemblies 
of  the  Diet.  On  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Anjou  to  the 
throne  of  Hungary,  in  the  14th  century,  anew  impulse  was  given 
to  the  Hungarian  tongue.  The  Bil)le  was  translated  into  it,  and 
it  became  the  language  of  the  court,  although  the  Latin  was 
still  the  organ  of  the  church  and  state,  and  from  the  14th  to  the 
close  of  the  15th  century,  remained  the  literary  language  of  the 
country.  This  Latin  literature  boasted  of  many  distinguished 
writers,  but  so  little  influence  had  they  on  the  nation  at  large, 
that  during  this  period  it  appears  that  many  of  the  high  officers 
of  the  kingdom  could  neither  read  nor  write. 


360  HUNGARIAN   LITERATURE. 

The  lOtli  century  was  more  favorable  to  Hungarian  literature, 
and  the  pohtical  and  rehgious  movements  which  took  place  iu 
the  reign  of  Ferdinand  I.  and  Maximilian  II.  (1527-1576), 
proved  to  be  most  beneficial  to  the  intellectual  development  of 
the  people.  The  Reformation,  which  was  introduced  into  Hun- 
gary through  Bohemia,  the  example  of  this  neighboring  country, 
and  the  close  alliance  which  existed  between  the  two  people, 
exercised  great  influence  on  the  public  mind.  The  Hungarian 
language  was  introduced  into  the  church,  the  schools  and  the 
relisfious  controversies,  and  became  the  vehicle  of  sacred  and 
popular  poetry.  It  was  thus  enriched  and  polished,  and 
acquired  a  degree  of  perfection,  which  it  retained  until  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  Translations  of  the  Bible  were 
multiphed;  chronicles,  histories,  grammars  and  dictionaries  were 
published,  and  the  number  of  schools,  particularly  among  the 
Protestants,  was  greatly  increased. 

But  these  brilliant  prospects  were  soon  blighted  when  the 
country  came  under  the  absolute  dominion  of  Austria.  In  order 
to  crush  the  national  tendencies  of  the  Magyars,  the  govern- 
ment now  restored  the  Latin  and  German  languages,  and  news- 
papers, calendars,  and  publications  of  all  kinds,  including  many 
valuable  works,  appeared  in  Latin.  Indeed,  the  interval  from 
1702  to  1780  was  the  golden  age  of  this  literature  in  Hungary. 
Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II.,  however,  by  prescribing  the  use 
of  the  German  language  in  the  schools,  official  acts  and  public 
transactions,  produced  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  national  tongue, 
which  was  soon  after  taught  in  the  schools,  heard  in  the  lecture- 
room,  the  theatre  and  popular  assemblies,  and  became  the  organ 
of  the  public  press.  These  measures,  however,  the  good  effects 
of  which  were  mainly  confined  to  the  higher  classes,  were  gra- 
dually pursued  with  less  zeal.  It  is  only  of  late  that  tlie  litera- 
ture of  Hungary  has  assumed  a  popular  character,  and  become 
a  powerful  engine  for  the  advancement  of  political  objects. 

Kossuth  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  a  national  party, 
which  is  at  the  head  of  the  contemporary  literature  of  the  Mag- 
yars. Through  the  action  of  this  party,  and  of  its  leader,  the 
Hungarian  Diet  passed,  in  1840,  the  celebrated  Law  of  the,  laii- 
gunge,  by  which  the  supremacy  of  the  Hungarian  tongue  was 
established  and  its  use  prescribed  in  the  administration,  and  in 
the  institutions  of  learning.  From  1841  to  1844,  Kossuth  pub- 
lished a  paper,  in  which  the  most  serious  and  important  questions 
of  politics  and  economy  were  discussed  in  a  style  characterized 
by  great  elegance  and  simplicity,  and  by  a  fervid  eloquence 
which  awakened  in  all  classes  the  liveliest  emotions  of  patriotism 


HUNGARIAN    AND   TURKISH   LITERATURES.  861 

and  independence.  His  writings  greatly  enriched  the  national 
language,  and  excited  the  emuhition  ev*en  of  those  who  did  not 
accept  his  political  views.  Many  valuable  works  were  pubUshed, 
and  popular  knowledge  was  greatly  increased. 

The  novels  of  Josika,  modelled  after  those  of  Walter  Scott, 
the  works  of  Eotvos  and  Kemeny  after  the  writers  of  Germany, 
and  those  of  Kuthy  and  others,  who  have  followed  the  French 
school,  have  greatly  contributed  to  enrich  the  literature  of  Hun- 
gary. The  comedies  and  the  dramas  of  EotvOs  and  Gal,  and 
particularly  those  of  Szigligeti,show  great  progress  in  the  Hun- 
garian theatre,  while  in  the  poems  of  Petofi  and  others  is  heard 
the  harmonious,  yet  sorrowful  voice  of  the  national  muse. 

Since  1849,  the  genius  of  Hungary  has  seemed  buried  under 
the  ruins  of  the  nation.  Many  of  the  most  eminent  writers 
cither  fell  in  the  national  struggle,  or  being  driven  into  exile, 
have  thrown  aside  their  pens  in  despair.  Yet  the  intellectual 
condition  of  the  people  has  of  late  been  greatly  improved.  Pub- 
lic education  has  been  promoted,  scholastic  institutions  have 
been  established,  and  at  the  present  time,  even  in  the  stifling 
atmosphere  of  a  military  despotism,  there  are  eloquent  voices 
heard,  which  testify  to  the  presence  of  a  vigorous  life,  latent  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  country. 

3.  The  Turkish  Language  and  Literature. — The  Turks,  or 
Osmanlis,  are  descendants  of  the  Tatars,  and  their  language^ 
which  is  a  branch  of  the  Turanian  family,  is  at  the  present  day 
the  commercial  and  political  tongue  throughout  the  Levant. 
This  language  is  divided  into  two  principal  dialects,  the  eastern 
and  the  western.  The  eastern,  though  rough  and  harsh,  has 
been  the  vehicle  of  certain  literary  productions,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  the  biographies  of  more  than  three  hundred 
ancient  poets,  written  by  Mir-AU-Schir,  who  flourished  in  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century,  and  who  was  the  Maecenas  of  seve- 
ral Persian  poets,  particularly  of  Jami ;  several  historical 
memoirs,  and  a  number  of  ballads,  founded  on  the  traditions  of 
the  ancient  Turkish  tribes,  belong  also  to  the  literature  of  this 
dialect.  The  western  idiom  constitutes  what  is  more  properly 
called  the  Turkish  language.  It  is  euphonious  in  sound,  and 
regular  in  its  grammatical  forms,  though  poor  in  its  vocabulary. 
To  supply  its  deficiencies,  the  Osmanlis  have  introduced  many 
elements  of  the  Arabic  and  Persian.  They  have  also  adopted 
the  Arabic  alphabet,  with  some  alterations;  and,  like  the  Arabi- 
ans, they  write  from  right  to  left. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  14th  century,  when  the  Turks,  < 


362  TUliKISII    LITERATUIIE. 

under  Osinan,  had  founded  an  independent  empire,  they  began 
to  feel  the  necessity  of  more  literary  cultivation.  The  Sultan 
Orkhan,  who  succeeded  Osmau,  founded,  in  1330,  at  Brussa,  a 
literary  institution,  which  became  so  celebrated  that  even  Arabs 
and  Persians  resorted  to  it.  The  golden  age  of  Turkish  litera- 
ture was  in  the  second  half  of  the  15th  century  ;  but  though  it 
abounds  in  historical  and  poetical  works,  they  consist  chiefly  of 
imitations  of  Persian  and  Arabian  models.  Among  the  Turkish 
poets  may  be  mentioned  Mohammed  Tschelebi,  who  flourished  at 
the  close  of  the  15tli  century,  and  whose  poems  are  founded  on 
legends  relating  to  Mohammed;  and  Lami  (d.  1531),  who,  be- 
sides a  number  of  works  in  prose,  wrote  four  epic  poems  on 
different  Persian  traditions.  Baki  (d.  IGOO),  a  lyric  poet,  and 
Fasli  (d.  1563),  an  erotic  poet,  attained  also  a  high  reputation. 
Turkish  poetry  is  always  written  in  rhyme,  and,  like  the  Persian, 
has  often  a  mystical  meaning.  In  the  historical  department,  the 
annals  of  Saad-Ed-Din  (d.  1599)  arc  important  for  the  student  of 
the  history  of  the  Ottoman  Empu'e.  They  begin  with  the  origin  of 
the  reigning  dynasty  of  the  Osmanlis  (1300),  and  were  continued 
by  different  writers,  to  the  close  of  the  18th  century.  Their 
style,  however,  is  for  the  most  part  bombastic,  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  poetry  and  prose,  overladen  with  figures.  Novels 
and  tales  abound  in  this  literature,  and  it  affords  many  speci- 
mens of  geographical  works,  many  important  collections  of 
juridical  decisions,  and  valuable  researches  on  the  Persian  and 
Arabian  langua2;es. 

At  the  present  day,  all  parents  arc  obliged  to  send  their 
children  to  the  schools,  which  arc  attached  to  the  mosques, 
where  thev  are  tauj^^ht  readino;,  writing  and  the  Koran.  In 
writing,  they  do  not  use  the  quill,  the  peculiarity  of  the  Turkish 
language  requiring  the  stifl"ness  of  the  reed  ;  the  importance 
attached  to  calligraphy  is  so  great,  that  the  paper  is  held  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand  in  order  to  give  the  flexibility  requisite  for 
the  formation  of  the  letters.  At  Constantinople  several  news- 
papers are  published  in  diiferent  languages  ;  there  are  many 
primary  free  schools,  and  several  high  scholastic  institutions  are 
opened  for  the  education  of  the  people.  There  are  also  some 
l)ublic  libraries,  consisting  chiefly  of  books  in  the  oriental 
tongues,  Foreiorn  literature  has  of  late  been  much  in  vosrue, 
from  wliich  many  translations  into  Turkisli  have  been  made. 
The  present  sultan  has  done  as  much  to  elevate  the  intellectual 
condition  of  the  country,  as  the  superstition  and  moral  degrada- 
tion of  the  people  would  allow. 


ARMEXIAX   LITER ATUKE.  303 

4.  The  Armenian  Language  and  Literature. — The  language 
of  Armenia  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family,  and  particu- 
larly to  the  Iranian  variety;  but  it  has  been  greatly  modified 
by  contact  with  other  languages,  especially  the  Turkish.  At 
present  the  modern  dialect  is  spoken  in  southern  Russia  around 
the  sea  of  Azof,  hi  Turkey,  Galicia  and  Hungary.  The  ancient 
Armenian,  which  was  spoken  down  to  the  12th  century,  is  pre- 
served in  its  purity  in  tlie  ancient  books  of  the  people,  and  is  still 
used  in  their  best  works.  This  tongue,  owing  to  an  abundance 
of  consonants,  is  lacking  in  euphony  ;  it  is  deficient  in  distinc- 
tion of  gender,  though  it  is  redundant  in  cases  and  inflexions. 
Its  alphabet  is  modelled  after  the  Greek. 

The  Armenians,  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  existence 
through  all  the  political  disasters  which  have  signalized  their 
history,  have  exhibited  a  strong  love  for  a  national  literature, 
and  maintained  themselves  as  a  cultivated  people  amidst  all  the 
revolutions  which  barbarism,  despotism  and  war  have  occasioned. 
During  so  many  ages  they  have  faithfully  preserved  not  only 
their  historical  traditions,  reaching  back  to  the  period  of  the 
ancient  Hebrew  histories,  but  also  their  national  character. 
Their  first  abode — the  vicinity  of  Mount  Ararat — is  even  at  the 
present  day  the  centre  of  their  religious  and  political  union. 
Commerce  has  scattered  them,  like  the  Israelites,  among  all 
nations,  but  without  debasing  their  character  ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  are  distinguished  by  superior  cultivation,  manners  and 
honesty,  from  the  barbarians  under  whose  yoke  they  live.  The 
cause  is  to  be  found  in  their  creed  and  in  their  religious  union. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century  a.d.,  the  Armenians 
were  Parsees  ;  the  literature  of  the  country  up  to  this  period 
was  contained  in  a  few  songs  or  ballads,  and  its  civilization  was 
only  that  which  could  be  wrought  out  by  the  philosophy  of 
Zoroaster.  In  319,  when  Christianity  was  introduced  into 
Armenia,  the  language  and  learning  of  the  Greeks  were  exciting 
the  profound  admiration  of  the  most  eminent  fathers  of  the 
church,  and  this  attention  to  Greek  literature  was  immediately 
manifest  in  the  literary  history  of  Armenia.  A  multitude  of 
Grecian  works  were  translated,  commented  upon,  and  their 
philosophy  adopted,  and  the  literature  was  thus  established  upon 
a  Grecian  basis. 

About  the  same  period,  the  alphabet  at  present  in  use  in  the 
Armenian  language  was  invented,  or  the  old  alphabet  perfected 
by  Mesrob,  in  connection  with  which  the  language  underwent 
many  modifications.  Mesrob,  with  his  three  sons,  especially 
educated  for  the  task,  commenced  the  translation  of  the  Biljle, 


364  ARMENIAN    LITEEATURE. 

411  A.D.,  and  its  completion,  nearly  half  a  century  later,  gave  a 
powerful  impulse  to  Armenian  learning,  and  at  the  same  time 
stamped  upon  it  a  religious  cliaracter  which  it  has  never  lost. 
The  period  from  the  6th  to  the  10th  century  is  the  golden  age 
of  this  literature.  Its  temporary  decline  after  this  period  was 
owing  to  the  invasion  of  the  Arabians,  w^hen  many  of  the 
inhabitants  w^re  converted  to  the  Mohammedan  faith  and  many 
more  compelled  to  suflfer  persecution  for  their  refusal  to  abjure 
Christianity.  After  the  subjection  of  Armenia  to  the  Greek 
empire,  literature  again  revived,  and  until  the  14th  century 
was  in  a  flourishing  condition.  In  1375,  when  the  Turks  took 
possession  of  the  country,  the  inhabitants  were  again  driven 
from  their  homes,  and  from  that  time  their  hterature  has  steadily 
dechned.  After  their  emigration,  the  Armenians  established 
themselves  in  various  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  amidst 
all  the  disadvantages  of  their  position,  they  still  preserve  not 
only  the  unity  of  their  religious  faith,  but  the  same  unwearied 
desire  to  sustain  a  national  literature.  Wherever  they  have 
settled,  in  Amsterdam,  Leghorn,  Venice,  Constantinople  and 
Calcutta,  they  have  established  printing  presses,  and  published 
valuable  books.  Of  their  colonies  or  monasteries,  the  most 
interesting  and  fruitful  in  literary  works  is  that  of  Venice,  which 
was  founded  in  the  18th  century  by  Mechitar,  an  Armenian, 
and  from  him  its  monks  are  called  Mechitarists.  From  the  time 
of  their  establishment  they  have  constantly  issued  translations  of 
important  religious  works.  They  now  publish  a  serai-monthly 
paper  in  the  Armenian  language,  which  is  circulated  and  read 
among  the  scattered  families  of  the  Armenian  faith  over  the 
world.  They  also  translate  and  publish  standard  works  of 
modern  literature. 


SLAVIC  LITERATUEES. 

1.  The  Slavic  Race  and  Languages ;  the  Eastern  and  Western  Stems ;  the  Alphabets  ; 
the  Old  or  Church  Slavic  Language ;  St.  Cyril's  Bible ;  the  Pravda  Russkaya  ;  the 
Annals  of  Nestor. — 2,  The  Russian  Language  and  Literature ;  from  the  earliest  times 
to  Peter  the  Great;  from  Peter  the  Great  to  Lomonosof ;  Kirsha  Danilof,  Kantemir; 
from  Lomonosof  to  Karamsin ;  Lomonosof,  Sumarokof,  Von  Wisin,  Dershavin ;  from 
Karamsin  to  Nicholas  I. ;  Karamsin,  Dmitrief,  Shukofsky,  Koslof ;  from  Nicholas  I. 
to  the  present  time  ;  Polevoi,  Skromenko,  Oustralof,  Bestushef,  Pushkin,  Popular 
Songs.— 3.  The  Servian  Language  and  Literature  ;  Popular  Poetry ;  the  Female  Songs  ; 
the  Heroic  Poems. — i.  The  Bohemian  Language  and  Literature ;  from  the  earliest  time 
to  John  Huss  :  Early  Poetry ;  John  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague;  Golden  Age  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Literature,  its  Decline  and  Revival ;  Comenius,  Kramerius,  Dobrovsky,  KoUar, 
Schaffarik.— 5.  The  Polish  Language  and  Literature  ;  from  the  Introduction  of  Christ- 
ianity to  Casimir  the  Great ;  from  Casimir  the  Great  to  the  beginning  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  ;  Rey  of  Naglowic,  John  Kochanowski,  Rybinski,  Copernicus ;  Decline 
of  the  Polish  Literature,  and  its  revival ;  Konarski,  Zaluski,  Czartoryski,  Naruszewicz, 
Krasicki,  Niemcewicz ;  from  the  Revolution  of  1S30  to  the  present  time  ;  Mochnacki, 
Lelewel,  Mickiewicz ;  Popular  Songs. 

1.  The  Slavic  Race  and  Languages. — The  Slavic  race, 
which  belongs  to  the  great  Indo-European  family  of  nations, 
probably  first  entered  Europe  from  Asia,  seven  or  eight  centu- 
ries B.C.  About  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  a.d.,  we  find 
Slavic  tribes  crossing  the  Danube  in  great  multitudes,  and  set- 
tling on  both  the  banks  of  that  river  ;  from  that  time  they 
frequently  appear  in  the  accounts  of  the  Byzantine  historians, 
under  different  appellations,  mostly  as  involved  in  the  wars  of 
the  two  Roman  empires  ;  sometimes  as  allies,  sometimes  as  con- 
querors, often  as  vassals,  and  oftener  as  emigrants  and  colonists, 
thrust  out  of  their  own  countries  by  the  pressing  forward  of  the 
more  warlike  Teutonic  tribes.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  11th 
century  the  Slavic  nations  were  already  in  possession  of  the 
whole  extent  of  territory  which  they  still  occupy,  from  the 
Arctic  ocean  on  the  north  to  the  Black  and  Adriatic  seas  on 
the  south,  and  from  Kamtschatka  and  the  Russian  islands  of  the 
Pacific  to  the  Baltic,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Elbe, 
Muhr  and  Ruab  again  to  the  Adriatic.  They  are  represented 
by  early  historians  as  having  been  a  peaceful,  industrious,  hospi- 
table people,  obedient  to  theur  chiefs,  and  religious  in  their 
habits.  Wherever  they  established  themselves,  they  began  to 
cultivate  the  earth,  and  to  trade  in  the  productions  of  the  coun- 

865 


866  RUSSIAN   LITERATURE. 

try.  There  are  also  early  traces  of  their  fondness  for  music  and 
poetry. 

The  analogy  between  the  Slavic  and  the  Sanscrit  languages 
indicates  the  oriental  origin  of  the  Slavonians,  which  appears  also 
from  their  mythology.  The  antithesis  of  a  good  and  evil  prin- 
ciple is  met  with  among  most  of  the  Slavic  tribes  ;  and  even  at 
the  present  time,  in  some  of  their  dialects,  everything  good  and 
beautiful  is  to  them  synonymous  with  the  purity  of  the  white 
color  ;  they  call  the  good  spirit  the  white  God,  and  the  evil 
spirit  the  black  God.  We  find  also  traces  of  their  oriental  ori- 
gin in  the  Slavic  trinity,  which  is  nearly  allied  to  that  of  the 
Hindus.  Other  features  of  their  mythology  remind  us  of  the 
sprightly  and  poetical  imagination  of  the  Greeks.  Such  is  the 
life  attributed  to  the  inanimate  objects  of  nature,  rocks,  brooks 
and  trees  ;  such  are  also  the  supernatural  beings  dwelling  in  the 
woods  and  mountains,  nymphs,  naiads  and  satyrs.  Indeed,  the 
Slavic  languages,  in  their  construction,  richness  and  precision, 
appear  nearly  related  to  the  Greek  and  Latin,  with  which  they 
have  a  common  origin. 

Following  the  division  of  the  Slavic  nations  into  the  eastern 
and  western  stems,  their  languages  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  first  containing  the  Russian  and  the  Servian  idioms, 
the  second  embracing  the  Bohemian  and  the  Polish  varieties. 
The  Slavi  of  the  Greek  faith  use  the  Cyrillic  alphabet,  so  called 
from  St.  Cyril,  its  inventor,  a  Greek  monk,  who  went  from  Con- 
stantinople (862  A.D.)  to  preach  to  them  the  Gospel.  It  is  founded 
on  the  Greek,  with  modifications  and  additions  from  oriental 
sources.  Tiie  Ilieronymic  alphabet,  particularly  used  by  the 
priests  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia,  is  so  called  from  the  tradition 
which  attributes  it  to  St.  Hieronymus.  The  Bohemians  and 
Poles  use  the  lloman  alphabet,  with  a  few  alterations. 

St.  Cyril  translated  the  Bible  into  the  language  called  the  Old 
or  Church  Slavic,  and  from  the  fact  that  this  translation,  made  in 
the  middle  of  the  9th  century,  is  distinguished  by  great  copious- 
ness, and  bears  the  stamp  of  uncommon  perfection  in  its  forms,  it 
is  evident  that  this  languai?e  must  have  been  flourishing  long  be- 
fore  that  time.  The  celebrated  "  Pravda  llusskaya,"  a  collection 
of  the  laws  of  Jaroslav  (1035  a.d.),  and  the  "  Annals  of  Nestor," 
of  the  13th  century,  are  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  the 
old  Slavic  language.  This,  however,  has  for  centuries  ceased  to 
be  a  living  tongue. 

2.  The  Russiax  Language  and  Literature. — In  the  Russian 
language  three  principal  dialects  are  to  be  distinguished  ;  but 


RUSSIAN   LITERATURE.  SO  7 

th3  Russian  'proper,  as  it  is  spoken  in  Moscow  and  all  the  cen- 
tral and  northern  parts  of  European  Russia,  is  the  literary 
language  of  the  nation.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  immense  copi- 
ousness, the  consequence  of  its  great  flexibility  in  adopting 
foreign  words,  merely  as  roots,  from  which,  by  means  of  its  own 
resources,  stems  and  branches  seem  naturally  to  sprhig.  Another 
excellence  is  the  great  freedom  of  construction  which  it  allows, 
without  any  danger  of  becoming  ambiguous.  It  is  clear,  eupho- 
nious, and  admirably  adapted  to  poetry. 

The  germs  of  Russian  civilization  arose  with  the  foundation  of 
the  empire  by  the  Yaregians  of  Scandinavia  (862  a.d.),  but  more 
particularly  with  the  iutroduction  of  Christianity  by  Yladimu: 
the  Great,  who,  towards  the  close  of  the  10th  century,  estab- 
lished the  first  schools,  introduced  the  Bible  of  St.  Cyril,  called 
Greek  artists  from  Constantinople,  and  became  the  patron,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  hero  of  poetry.  Indeed,  he  and  his  knights 
are  the  Russian  Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  and  their  deeds 
have  proved  a  rich  source  for  the  popular  tales  and  songs  of 
succeeding  times.  Jaroslav,  the  son  of  Vladimir,  v/as  not  less 
active  than  his  father  in  advancing  the  cause  of  Christianity  ;  he 
sent  friars  through  the  country  to  instruct  the  people,  founded 
theological  schools,  and  continued  the  translation  of  the  church 
books.  To  this  age  is  referred  the  epic,  **  Igor's  Expedition 
against  the  Polovtzi,"  discovered  in  the  18tli  century,  a  work 
characterized  by  uncommon  grace,  beauty  and  power. 

From  1238  to  14G2  a.d.,  the  Russian  princes  were  vassals 
of  the  Mongols,  and  during  this  time  nearly  every  trace  of  culti- 
vation perished.  The  invaders  burned  the  cities,  destroyed  all 
written  documents,  and  demolished  the  monuments  of  national 
culture  ;  but  at  length  Ivan  I.  (14G2-1505)  delivered  his  coun- 
try from  the  Mongols,  and  prepared  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
Russian  civilization. 

At  this  early  period  the  first  germs  of  dramatic  art  were  car- 
ried from  Poland  to  Russia.  In  Kief  the  theological  students 
performed  ecclesiastical  dramas,  and  travelled  about,  during  the 
holidays,  to  exhibit  their  skill  in  other  cities.  The  tragedies  of 
Simeon  of  Polotzk  (1G28-1G80),  in  the  old  Slavic  language, 
penetrated  from  the  convents  to  the  court,  where  they  were  per- 
formed in  the  middle  of  the  17  th  centurv.  At  this  time  the 
first  secular  drama,  a  translation  from  Moliere,  was  also  repre- 
sented. 

Peter  the  Great  (1GS9-It25)  raised  the  Russian  dialect  to 
the  dic^nitv  of  a  written  lanG^uao-e,  introduced  it  into  the  adminis- 
tration  and  courts  of  justice,  and  caused  many  books  to  be  trans- 


3G8  EUSSIAN    LITERATURE. 

lated  from  foreign  languages.  He  rendered  the  Slavic  cliarac- 
ters  more  conformable  to  the  Latin,  and  these  letters,  then  gene- 
rally adopted,  continue  in  use  at  the  present  time.  Among  the 
writers  of  the  age  of  Peter  the  Great  may  be  mentioned  Kirsha 
Danilof,  who  versified  the  popular  traditions  of  Vladimir  and  his 
heroes;  and  Kantemir,  a  satirist,  who  translated  many  epistles 
of  Horace,  and  the  work  of  Fontenelle  on  the  plurality  of 
worlds. 

Peter  the  Great  laid  the  corner  stone  of  a  national  literature, 
but  the  temple  was  not  reared  above  the  ground  until  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  and  of  Catharine  II.  Lomonosof  (1711-1165),  a 
peasant,  born  in  the  dreary  regions  of  Archangel,  has  the  honor 
of  behig  the  true  founder  of  the  Russian  literature.  In  his 
Russian  grammar  he  first  laid  down  the  principles  and  fixed  the 
rules  of  the  language  ;  he  first  ventured  to  draw  the  boundary 
line  between  the  old  Slavic  and  the  Russian,  and  endeavored 
to  fix  the  rules  of  poetry  according  to  the  Latin  standard. 
Among  his  contemporaries  mav  be  mentioned  Sumarokof 
(1718-1777)  and  Kheraskof  (1733-1807),  both  very  produc- 
tive writers  in  prose  and  verse,  and  highly  admired  by  then* 
contemporaries. 

In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  the  dramatic  talent  of  the 
Russians  was  awakened,  through  the  establishment  of  theatres 
at  Jaroslav,  St,  Petersburg  and  Moscow  ;  and  several  gifted 
literary  men  employed  themselves  in  dramatic  compositions;  but 
of  all  the  productions  of  this  time,  those  of  Yon  Wisin  (1745- 
1792)  only  have  continued  to  hold  possession  of  the  stage. 

Among  the  poets  of  the  18th  century,  Dershavin  (1743-1816) 
sang  the  glory  of  Catharine  II.,  and  of  the  Russian  arms.  His 
*'  Ode  to  God"  has  obtained  tlie  distinction  of  being  translated 
ink)  several  European  languages,  and  also  into  Chinese,  and 
hung  up  in  the  Emperor's  palace,  printed  on  white  satin  in 
golden  letters. 

The  reign  of  Alexander  I.  (1801-1825)  opened  a  new  era  in 
the  literature.  He  manifested  great  zeal  for  the  mental  eleva- 
tion of  his  subjects  ;  he  increased  the  number  of  universities, 
established  theological  seminaries  and  institutions  for  the  study 
of  oriental  languages,  and  founded  gymnasia  and  numerous 
common  schools  for  the  people  ;  he  richly  endowed  the  Asiatic 
museum  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  for  a  time  patronized  the  Rus- 
sian Bible  Society,  and  promoted  the  printing  of  books  on  almost 
all  subjects.  But  toward  the  close  of  his  reign,  in  consequence 
of  certain  political  measures,  literature  sunk  with  great  rapidity. 

Karamsin  (1765-1826),  the  rei^resentative  of  this  age,  under- 


RUSSIAN    LITERATURE.  369 

took  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  classical  rules  established  by 
Loraonosof,  and  introduced  into  poetry  more  simplicity  and 
naturalness.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly  upon  his  "  History 
of  the  Russian  Empire,"  which,  with  many  faults,  is  a  standard 
work  in  Slavic  literature.  Considering  the  French  and  English 
mode  of  construction  as  better  adapted  to  the  present  state  of 
the  Russian  language  than  the  classical,  Karamsin  adopted  their 
peculiarities  with  ease  and  grace.  Against  this  movement,  an 
opposition  was  formed,  the  head  of  which.  Admiral  Shishkof,  in- 
sisted upon  preserving  the  influence  of  the  old  Slavonic  language ; 
while  he  reproached  Karamsin  with  having  injured  the  purity 
of  the  latter  by  tlie  introduction  of  foreign  forms.  This  originated 
two  parties,  the  Russian  or  the  Moscow,  and  the  Slavonic  or 
St.  Petersburg  parties,  which  still  divide  Russian  literature. 

Dmitrief  (1760-1827)  combined  in  his  poems  imagination, 
taste,  correctness  and  purity  of  language  ;  Shukofsky  (b.  1784), 
a  poet  of  true  and  deep  feeling,  took  his  model  from  the  Ger- 
mans, while  Koslof  studied  and  imitated  with  success  the  English 
poets.  The  fables  of  Krylof  (b.  1768)  are  equally  celebrated 
among  all  classes  and  ages,  and  they  are  among  the  first  books 
read  by  Russian  children. 

The  period  from  1825  to  the  present  time  is  characterized  by 
the  predominance  of  a  strictly  national  literature,  the  result  of 
the  policy  of  the  government.  The  reign  of  the  Emperor  Nicho- 
las opened  with  a  bloody  tragedy,  which  exhibited  in  a  striking 
manner  the  dissatisfied  and  unhealthy  spirit  of  the  literary  youth 
of  Russia.  Several  poets  and  men  of  literary  fame  were  among 
the  conspirators  ;  and  to  awaken  patriotism  and  to  counteract 
the  tendencies  of  the  age,  the  government  promoted  historical 
and  archaeological  researches,  but  at  the  same  time  abolished 
professorships  of  philosophy,  increased  the  vigilance  of  its  cen- 
sorship of  the  press,  lengthened  the  catalogue  of  forbidden  books, 
and  reduced  the  term  of  lawful  absence  for  its  subjects.  It  took 
the  most  energetic  measures  to  promote  national  education,  and 
to  cultivate  those  fields  of  science  where  no  political  tares  could 
be  sown. 

The  leading  idea  of  the  time  was  Panslavisvi,  the  object  of 
which  was  the  union  of  the  Slavic  race,  an  opposition  to  all 
foreign  domination,  and  the  attainment  of  a  higher  intellectual 
and  political  condition  in  the  general  march  of  mankind.  Pan- 
slavism  rose  to  a  special  branch  of  literature,  and  its  principal 
writers  were  Kollar,  Grabowski  and  Gurowski. 

In  reference  to  the  critical  researches  which  extended  to  aU 
branches  of  history,  this  may  be  called  the  historic  period. 

16* 


370  RUSSIAN   LITERATURE. 

The  departmcut  of  belles  lettres  evinces  the  same  interest  for 
all  that  is  native  or  Slavic.  The  historical  novel  was  cultivated 
with  marked  preference,  and  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  Rus- 
sian characters.  Among  the  writers  of  these  works,  Bestushef 
deserves  to  be  mentioned,  who  was,  like  his  friend  Ilileyef,  a 
celebrated  poet  of  this  age,  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  1825. 
His  sketches  of  the  Caucasus  and  of  Siberia  are  animated  and 
spirited  pictures  of  scenes  quite  novel  and  full  of  interest. 

Above  all  the  others,  Pushkin  (1T99-1835)  must  be  consi- 
dered as  the  representative  of  Russian  poetry  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. He  was  in  the  service  of  the  government,  when  an  ode 
''  to  Liberty,"  written  in  too  bold  a  spirit,  induced  Alexander  I. 
to  banish  him  from  St.  Petersburg.  The  Emperor  Nicholas 
recalled  him  and  became  his  patron.  Though  by  no  means  a 
mere  imitator,  his  poetry  bears  strong  marks  of  the  influence  of 
Bvron. 

The  Russians  have  few  ballads  of  great  antiquity,  and  these 
rarely  have  any  reference  to  the  subjects  of  the  heroic  prose 
tales  which  are  the  delight  of  Russian  nurseries,  the  favorite 
subjects  of  which  are  the  traditions  of  Vladimir  and  his  giant 
heroes,  which  doubtless  once  existed  in  the  form  of  ballads.  The 
Russians  have  ever  been  a  singing  race.  Every  festival  day  and 
every  extraordinary  event  has  its  accompanying  song.  Though 
these  songs  have  been  modernized  in  language  and  form,  that 
they  date  from  the  age  of  paganism  is  evident  from  their  frequent 
invocations  of  heathen  deities  and  allusions  to  heathen  customs. 
Allied  to  these  songs  are  the  various  ditties  which  the  peasant 
girls  and  lads  sing  on  certain  occasions,  consisting  of  endless 
repetitions  of  words  or  syllables  ;  yet  through  this  melodious 
tissue,  apparently  without  meaning,  sparks  of  real  poetry  often 
shine. 

The  Russian  songs,  like  the  language,  have  a  peculiar  tender- 
ness, and  are  full  of  caressing  epithets,  which  are  often  applied 
even  to  inanimate  objects.  Russian  lovers  arc  quite  inexhausti- 
ble in  their  endearing  expressions,  and  the  abundance  of  diminu- 
tives which  the  language  possesses  is  especially  favorable  to  their 
atfectionate  mode  of  address.  With  this  exquisite  tenderness  of 
the  love  song  is  united  a  pensive  feeling,  which,  indeed,  pervades 
the  whole  popular  poetry  of  Russia,  and  which  may  be  charac- 
terized as  mdancholy  vmsiad,  and  in  harmony  with  the  Russian 
national  music,  the  expressive  sweetness  of  which  has  been  the 
admiration  of  all  foreign  composers  to  whom  it  has  been  known. 

In  the  rich  and  fertile  steppes  of  the  Ukraine,  where  every  forest 
tree  seems  to  harbor  a  singer,  and  every  blade  of  grass  on  the 


SERVIAN    LITERATURE.  37 1 

boundless  plains  seems  to  whisper  tlie  echo  of  a  song,  this  pen- 
sive character  of  Russian  poetry  deepens  into  a  melancholy  that 
finds  expression  in  a  variety  of  sweet  elegiac  melodies.  A  Ger- 
man writer  says  of  them,  "  they  are  the  sorrows  of  whole  centu- 
ries blended  in  one  everlasting  sigh."  The  spirit  of  the  past 
indeed  breathes  through  their  mournful  strains.  The  cradle  of 
the  Kozak  was  rocked  to  the  music  of  clashing  swords,  and  for 
centuries  the  country,  on  both  banks  of  the  Dnieper  to  the 
northwestern  branch  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  the  seat  of 
this  race,  was  the  theatre  of  constant  warfare.  Their  narrative 
ballads,  therefore,  have  few  other  subjects  than  the  feuds  with 
the  Poles  and  Tartars,  the  Kozak's  parting  with  his  beloved 
one,  his  lonely  death  on  the  border  or  on  the  bloody  field  of 
battle. 

These  ballads,  however,  have  sometimes  a  spirit  and  boldness 
which  presents  noble  relief  to  the  habitual  melancholy  of  this 
poetry  in  general.  Professional  singers,  with  a  kind  of  guitar 
in  their  hand,  wander  through  the  country,  sure  to  find  a  willing 
audience  in  whatever  village  they  may  stop.  Their  ballads  are 
not  confined  to  the  scenes  of  their  early  history,  but  find  subjects 
in  the  later  wars  with  the  Turks  and  Tartars,  and  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  more  modern  times  ;  they  illustrate  the  warlike  spirit, 
as  well  as  the  domestic  relations  of  the  Kozaks,  and  their  skill 
in  narrative,  as  well  as  their  power  of  expressing  in  lyric  strains 
the  unsophisticated  emotions  of  a  tender  heart. 

3.  The  SER^^AN  LanguacxE  axd  Literature. — The  Servian 
language  extends,  with  some  slight  variations  of  dialect,  and 
various  systems  of  writing,  over  the  Turkish  and  Austrian  pro- 
vinces of  Servia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  Montenegro  and  Dalma- 
tia,  and  the  eastern  part  of  Croatia.  The  southern  sky,  and  the 
beauties  of  natural  scenery  that  abound  in  all  these  regions  so 
favorable  to  the  development  of  poetical  genius,  appear  also  to 
have  exerted  a  happy  influence  on  the  language.  While  it 
yields  to  none  of  the  other  Slavic  dialects  in  richness,  cleaniess 
and  precision,  it  far  surpasses  them  all  in  euphony. 

The  most  interestinc:  feature  of  the  literature  of  these  coun- 
tries  is  their  popular  poetry.  This  branch  of  literature  still  sur- 
vives among  the  Slavic  race,  particularly  the  Servians  and  Dal- 
matians, in  its  beauty  and  luxuriance,  while  it  is  almost  extinct 
in  other  nations.  Much  of  this  poetry  is  of  unknown  antiquity, 
and  has  been  handed  down  by  tradition  from  generation  to 
generation  ;  from  the  grey  ages  of  paganism  it  reaches  us  like 
ika  chimes  of  distant  bells,  unconnected,  and  half  lost  in  the  air. 


372  SEKVIAN    LITERATURE. 

It  often  manifests  the  strong,  deep-rooted  superstitions  of  the 
Slavic  race,  and  is  fall  of  dreams,  omens  and  forebodings ;  witch- 
craft, and  a  certain  oriental  fatalism,  seeming  to  direct  will  and 
destiny.  Love  and  heroism  form  the  subject  of  all  Slavic  poetry, 
which  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  of  manners  it  evinces. 
Wild  passions  or  complicated  actions  are  seldom  represented, 
but  rather  the  quiet  scenes  of  domestic  grief  and  joy.  The 
peculiar  relation  of  brother  and  sister,  particularly  among  the 
Servians,  often  forms  an  interesting  feature  of  the  popular  songs. 
To  have  no  brother  is  a  misfortune,  almost  a  disgrace,  and  the 
cuckoo,  the  constant  image  of  a  mourning  woman  in  Servian  poe- 
try, was,  according  to  the  legend,  a  sister  who  had  lost  her  brother. 

This  poetry  was  first  collected  by  Yuk  Stephanovitch  Karad- 
shitch  (b.  1786),  a  Turkish  Servian,  the  author  of  the  first 
oriental  Servian  grammar  and  dictionary,  who  gathered  the 
songs  from  the  lips  of  the  peasantry.  His  work,  published  at 
Yienna  in  1815,  has  been  made  known  to  the  world  through  a 
translation  into  German  by  the  distinguished  authoress  of  the 
"  Languages  and  Literature  of  the  Slavic  Nations,"  from  which 
this  brief  sketch  has  been  made.  Nearly  one  third  of  these  songs 
consist  of  epic  tales  several  hundred  verses  in  length.  The 
lyric  songs  compare  favorably  with  those  of  other  nations,  but 
the  long  epic  extemporized  compositions,  by  which  the  pea- 
sant bard,  in  the  circle  of  other  peasants,  in  unpremeditated  but 
regular  and  harmonious  verse,  celebrates  the  heroic  deeds  of 
their  ancestors  or  contemporaries,  have  no  parallel  in  the  whole 
history  of  literature  since  the  days  of  Homer. 

The  poetry  of  the  Servians  is  intimately  interwoven  with  their 
daily  life.  The  hall  where  the  women  sit  spinning  around  the 
fireside,  the  mountain  on  which  the  boys  pasture  their  flocks,  the 
square  where  the  village  youth  assemble  to  dance,  the  plains 
where  the  harvest  is  reaped,  and  the  forests  through  which  the 
lonely  traveller  journeys,  all  resound  with  song.  Short  composi- 
tions, sung  without  accompaniment,  are  mostly  composed  by 
women,  and  are  called  female  son^-s  ;  they  relate  to  domestic  life, 
and  are  distinguished  by  cheerfulness,  and  often  by  a  spirit  of 
graceful  roguery.  The  feeling  expressed  in  the  Servian  love 
songs  is  gentle,  often  playful,  indicating  more  of  tenderness  than 
of  passion.  In  their  heroic  poems  the  Servians  stand  quite 
isolated;  no  modern  nation  can  be  compared  to  them  in  epic 
})roductiveness,  and  the  recent  publication  of  these  poems  throws 
uew  light  on  the  grand  compositions  of  the  ancients.  The  gene- 
ral character  of  these  Servian  tales  is  objective  and  plastic;  the 
poet  is,  in  most  cases,  in  a  remarkal^le  degree  above  his  subject  j 


BOHEMIAN    LITERATURE.  373 

he  paints  his  pictures,  not  in  glowing  colors,  but  in  prominent 
features,  and  no  explanation  is  necessary  to  interpret  what  the 
reader  thinks  he  sees  with  his  own  eyes.  The  number  and  vat'i- 
ety  of  the  Servian  heroic  poems  is  immense,  and  many  of  them, 
until  recently  preserved  only  by  tradition,  cannot  be  supposed  to 
have  retained  their  original  form ;  they  are  frequently  inter- 
woven with  a  belief  in  certain  fanciful  creatures  of  pagan  super- 
stition, which  exercise  a  constant  influence  on  human  affairs. 
The  modern  heroic  ballads — for  the  productiveness  of  this 
remarkable  people  still  continues — exhibit  an  astonishing  variety 
of  invention  and  skill  in  combination  and  development.  Some 
of  them  relate  to  the  last  war  between  the  Servians  and  the 
Turks,  others  are  devoted  to  duels,  love-stories,  or  other  subjects. 
The  poems  are  often  recited,  but  most  frequently  sung  to  the 
music  of  a  rude  kind  of  guitar.  The  bard  chants  two  lines,  then 
he  pauses  arid  gives  a  few  plaintive  strokes  on  his  instrument  ; 
then  he  chants  again,  and  so  on.  While  in  Slavic  poetry 
generally  the  musical  element  is  prominent,  in  the  Servian  it  is 
completely  subordinate.  Even  the  lyric  poetry  is  in  a  high 
degree  monotonous,  and  is  chanted  rather  than  sung. 

4.  The  Bohemian  Language  and  Literature, — The  Bohe- 
mian is  one  of  the  principal  Slavic  languages.  It  is  spoken  in 
Bohemia  and  in  Moravia,  and  is  used  by  the  Slovaks  of  Hun- 
gary in  their  literary  productions.  Of  all  the  modern  Slavic 
dialects,  the  Bohemian  was  the  first  cultivated  ;  it  early  adopted 
the  Latin  characters,  and  was  developed  under  the  influence  of 
the  German  language.  In  its  free  construction,  the  Bohemian 
approaches  the  Latin,  and  is  capable  of  imitating  the  Greek  in 
all  its  lighter  shades. 

The  first  written  documents  of  the  Bohemians  are  not  older 
than  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  their  country  ;  but 
there  exists  a  collection  of  national  songs  celebrating  battles  and 
victories,  which  probably  belong  to  the  8th  or  9th  century. 
During  the  11th  and  12th  centuries  the  influence  of  German 
customs  and  habits  is  apparent  in  Bohemian  literature;  and  in  the 
13th  and  14th  this  influence  increased,  and  was  manifest  in  the 
lyric  poetry,  which  echoed  the  lays  of  the  German  Minnesingers. 
Of  these  popular  songs,  however,  very  few  are  left. 

In  1348  the  first  Slavic  university  was  founded  in  Prap-ue,  on 
the  plan  of  those  of  Paris  and  Bologna,  by  the  Emperor  C/harles 
IV.,  who  united  the  crowns  of  Germany  and  Bohemia.  The 
influence  of  this  institution  was  felt,  not  merely  in  the  two  coun- 
tries, but  throughout  Europe. 


374  BOHEMIAN    LITERATURE. 

The  name  of  John  Huss  (I3t3-1415)  stands  at  the  head  of  a 
new  period  in  Bohemian  literature.  He  was  professor  at  the 
university  of  Prague,  and  early  became  acquainted  with  the 
writings  of  WicklitFe,  whose  doctrines  he  defended  in  his  lectures 
and  sermons.  The  care  and  attention  he  l^estowed  on  his  com- 
positions exerted  a  decided  and  lasting  influence  on  the  language. 
The  old  Bohemian  alphabet  he  arranged  anew,  and  first  settled 
the  Bohemian  orthography  according  to  fixed  principles.  Sum- 
moned to  appear  before  the  council  of  Constance  to  answer  to 
the  charges  of  heresy,  he  obeyed  the  call  under  a  safe-conduct 
from  the  Emperor  Sigismund.  But  he  was  soon  arrested  by 
order  of  the  council,  condemned,  and  l)urned  alive. 

Among  the  coadjutors  of  Huss  was  Jerome  of  Prague,  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  same  university,  and  in  erudition  and  eloquence  he 
surpassed  his  friend,  whose  doctrinal  views  he  adopted,  but  he 
had  not  the  mildness  of  disposition  nor  the  moderation  of  conduct 
which  distino'uished  Huss.     He  wrote  several  works  for  the 

CD 

instruction  of  the  people,  and  translated  some  of  the  writmgs  of 
Wicklitfe  into  the  Bohemian  lano;uao:e.  On  hearing  of  the 
dangerous  situation  of  his  friend  he  hastened  to  Constance  to 
assist  and  support  him.  He,  too,  was  arrested,  and  even  terrified 
into  temporary  submission  ;  but  at  the  next  audience  of  the 
council  he  reaffirmed  his  faith,  and  declared  that  of  all  his  sins 
he  repented  of  none  more  than  his  apostasy  from  the  doctrines 
he  had  maintained.  In  consequence  of  this  avowal  he  was  con- 
demned to  the  same  fate  as  his  friend. 

These  illustrious  martyrs  were,  with  the  exception  of  Wickliffe, 
the  first  advocates  of  truth  a  century  before  the  Beformation. 
Since  then,  in  no  language  has  the  Bible  been  studied  with  moi'e 
zeal  and  devotion  than  in  the  Bohemian.  The  long  contest  for 
freedom  of  conscience  which  desolated  the  country  until  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  nation,  is  one  of  the  great  tragedies  of  human 
history. 

The  period  from  1529  to  1620  is  considered  the  golden  age  of 
Bohemian  literature.  Xe^rly  two  hundred  writers  distinguished 
the  reign  of  Rudolph  I.  (1526-lGll),  and  anu»ng  them  were 
numy  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the  court,  of  which  Tycho 
Brahe,  Kepler  and  other  scientific  men,  from  foreign  countries, 
were  the  chief  ornaments.  Numerous  historical  works  were  i)ub- 
lished,  theology  was  cultivated  with  talent  and  zeal,  the  elo- 
quence of  the  pulpit  and  the  bar  acquired  a  high  degree  of  culti- 
vation, and  in  religious  hymns  all  sects  were  equally  productive. 

Tlie  triumph  of  the  Catholic  party,  which  followed  the  battle 
of  the  White  Mountain,  near   Prague   (1620),   gave  a  fatal 


bohem:ia>j"  literature.  375 

blow  to  Bohemia.  The  leaduig  men  of  the  country  were  exe- 
cuted, exiled,  or  imprisoned  ;  the  Protestant  relii^ion  was  abo- 
lished, and  the  country  was  declared  a  hereditary  Catholic  monar- 
chy. The  Bohemian  language  ceased  to  be  used  in  public  trans- 
actions; and  every  book  written  in  it  was  condemned  to  the 
flames  as  necessarily  heretical.  Great  numbers  of  monks  came 
from  southern  Europe,  and  seized  whatever  native  books  they 
could  find  ;  and  this  destruction  continued  to  go  on  until  the 
close  of  the  last  century. 

Among  the  Bohemian  emigrants  who  continued  to  write 
in  their  foreign  homes,  Comenius  (1592-1671)  surpassed  all 
others.  Wlien  the  great  persecution  of  the  Protestants  broke 
out  he  fled  to  Poland,  and  in  his  exile  he  published  several  works 
iu  Latin  and  in  Bohemian,  distinguished  for  the  classical  perfec- 
tion of  their  style. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  the  efforts  to  introduce 
into  Bohemia  the  German  as  the  official  language  of  the  country, 
awoke  the  national  feeling  of  the  people,  and  produced  a  strong 
reaction  in  favor  of  their  native  tongue.  When  the  tolerant 
views  of  Joseph  II.  were  known,  more  than  a  hundred  thousand 
Protestants  returned  to  their  country;  books  long  hidden  were 
brought  to  light,  and  many  works  were  reprinted.  During  the 
reign  of  his  two  successors,  the  Bohemians  received  still  more 
encouragement;  the  use  of  the  language  was  ordained  in  all 
the  schools,  and  a  knowledge  of  it  was  made  a  necessary  qualifi- 
cation for  office.  Among  the  writers  who  exerted  a  favorable 
iiifluence  in  this,movement  may  be  mentioned  Kramerius  (1753- 
1808),  the  editor  of  the  first  Bohemian  newspaper,  and  the 
author  of  many  original  works  ;  Dobrovsky  (1753-1829),  the 
patriarch  of  modern  Slavic  literature,  and  one  of  the  profoundest 
scholars  of  the  age  ;  and  Kollar  (b.  1763),  the  leading  poet  of 
modern  times  in  the  Bohemian  language.  Schalfarik  (b.  1795), 
a  Slovak,  is  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Slavic  Language 
and  Literature,"  in  German,  which  has  perhaps  contributed 
more  than  any  other  work  to  a  knowledge  of  Slavic  literature. 
Palacky,  a  Moravian  by  birth,  was  the  faithful  fellow-laborer 
of  Schaffarik  ;  his  most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  Bo- 
hemia." 

5.  The  Polish  Language  and  Literature. — The  Polish  lan- 
guage is  the  only  existing  representative  of  that  variety  of  idioms 
originally  spoken  by  the  Slavic  tribes,  which,  under  the  name  of 
Lekhes,  in  the  6th  or  7th  century,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Vistula  and  Yarta.     Although  very  little  is  known  of  the  pro- 


376  POLISH    LITERATURE. 

gress  of  the  language  into  its  present  state,  it  is  sufficiently  obvi- 
ous that  it  has  developed  from  the  contlict  of  its  natural  ele- 
ments with  the  Latin  and  German  idioms.  Of  the  other  Slavic 
dialects,  the  Bohemian  is  the  only  one  which  has  exerted  any 
influence  upon  this  tongue.  The  Pohsh  language  is  refined  and 
artificial  in  its  grammatical  structure,  rich  in  its  words  and 
phrases,  and,  like  the  Bohemian,  capable  of  faithfully  imitating 
the  refinements  of  the  classical  languages.  It  has  a  great  vari- 
ety and  nicety  of  shades  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  vowels,  and 
such  combinations  of  consonants  as  can  only  be  conquered  by  a 
Slavic  tongue. 

The  literary  history  of  Poland  begins,  like  that  of  Bohemia, 
at  the  epoch  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  In  the 
year  965,  Miecislav,  Duke  of  Poland,  married  the  Bohemian 
princess  Dombrovka,  who  consented  to  the  marriage  on  the 
condition  of  the  duke  becoming  a  convert  to  Christianity ; 
and  from  that  time  the  Polish  princes,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  nation,  adopted  the  new  faith.  The  clergy  in  those  early 
ages  in  Poland,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  were  the  depositaries  of 
mental  light;  and  the  Benedictine  monks  who,  with  others,  had 
been  invited  to  the  converted  country,  founded  convents,  to 
which  they  early  attached  schools.  Their  example  was  followed 
at  a  later  period  by  other  orders,  and  for  several  centuries  the 
natives  were  excluded  from  all  clerical  dignities  and  privileges, 
and  the  education  of  the  country  was  directed  by  foreign  monks. 
They  burned  the  few  writings  which  they  found  in  the  vernacu- 
lar tongue,  and  excited  unnatural  prejudices  against  it.  From 
the  9th  to  the  16th  century,  Polish  literature  was  almost' en- 
tirely confined  to  the  translation  of  a  part  of  the  Bible,  and  a 
few  chronicles  written  in  Latin,  Among  these  must  be  noticed 
the  chronicle  of  Martin  Gallus  (d.  1132),  an  emigrant  French- 
man, who  is  considered  as  the  oldest  historian  of  Poland. 

Casimir  (1333-1370)  was  one  of  the  few  princes  who  acquired 
the  name  of  the  Great,  not  by  conquests,  but  by  the  substantial 
benefits  of  laws,  courts  of  justice  and  means  of  education  which 
he  procured  for  his  subjects.  In  his  reign  was  formed  the  first 
code  of  laws,  known  by  the  name  of  "  Statute  of  Wislica,"  a 
l)art  of  which  is  written  in  the  Polish  language  ;  and  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  university  of  Cracow  (1347),  which,  however, 
was  only  organized  half  a  century  later.  Iledevig,  the  grand- 
daughter of  Casimh',  married  Jagello  of  Lithuania,  and  under 
tlieir  descendants,  who  reigned  nearly  two  centuries,  Poland  rose 
to  the  summit  of  power  and  glory.  With  Sigismund  I.  (1505- 
1542),  and  Sigismund  Augustus  (1542-1613),  a  new  period  of 


POLISH    LITEKATDKE.  3  7  "7 

Polish  literature  begins.  The  university  of  Cracow  had  been 
organized  in  1400  on  the  model  of  that  of  Prague,  and  this 
opened  a  door  for  the  doctrines,  tirst  of  the  Bohemian,  then  of 
the  German  reformers.  The  wild  flame  of  superstition  which 
kindled  the  fagots  for  the  disciples  of  the  new  doctrines  in  Po- 
land, was  extinguished  by  Sigismund  I.  and  Sigismund  II.,  in 
whom  the  lleformation  found  a  decided  support.  Under  their 
administration  Poland  was  the  seat  of  a  toleration  then  un- 
equalled in  the  world;  the  Polish  language  became  more  used  in 
literary  productions,  and  was  fixed  as  the  medium  through  which 
laws  and  decrees  were  promulgated. 

Rey  of  Naglowic  (1515-1569),  who  lived  at  the  courts  of 
the  Sigismunds,  is  called  the  father  of  Polish  poetry.  Most  of 
his  productions  are  of  a  religious  nature,  and  bear  the  stamp  of  a 
truly  poetical  talent.  John  Kochanowski  (1530-1584)  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Psalms,  which  is  still  considered  as  a 
classical  work.  His  other  poems,  in  which  Pindar,  Anacreon 
and  Horace  were  alternately  his  models,  are  distinguished  for 
their  conciseness  and  terseness  of  style.  Rybinski  (fl.  1581) 
and  Simon  Szymonowicz  (d.  1629),  the  former  as  a  lyric  poet, 
the  latter  as  a  writer  of  idyls,  maintain  a  high  rank. 

The  Poles  possess  all  the  necessary  qualities  for  oratory,  and 
the  16th  century  w^as  eminent  for  forensic  and  pulpit  eloquence. 
History  was  cultivated  with  much  zeal,  but  mostly  in  the  Latin 
language.  Martin  Bielski  (1500-1576)  was  the  author  of  the 
"  Chronicle  of  Poland,"  the  first  historical  work  in  Polish.  Sci- 
entific works  were  mostly  written  in  Latin,  the  cultivation 
of  which,  in  Poland,  has  ever  kept  pace  with  the  study  of  the 
vernacular  tongue.  Indeed,  the  most  eminent  writers  and  ora- 
tors of  the  16th  centurv,  who  made  use  of  the  Polish  languasre, 
managed  the  Latin  with  equal  skill  and  dexterity,  and  in  com- 
mon conversation  both  Latin  and  Polish  were  used. 

Among  the  scientific  writers  of  Latin  is  the  astronomer  Coper- 
nicus (1473-1543).  He  early  went  to  Italy,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Rome.  He  at  length  returned  to 
Poland,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  astronomy.  Having 
spent  twenty  years  in  observations  and  calculations,  he  brought 
his  scheme  to  perfection,  and  established  the  theory  of  the  uni- 
verse, which  is  now  everywhere  received. 

The  interval  between  1622  and  1760  marks  a  period  of  a 
general  decadence  in  Polish  literature.  The  perversion  of  taste 
which,  at  the  begining  of  that  age,  reigned  in  Italy,  and  thence 
spread  over  Europe,  reached  Poland  ;  and  for  nearly  a  hundred 
and  fifty  years  the  country,  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits, 


378  POLISH    LITEEATURE. 

was  the  victim  of  a  stifling  intolerance,  and  of  a  general  mental 
paralysis.  Ba:  in  the  reign  of  Stanislaus  Augustus  (1T62- 
1795),  Poland  began  to  revive,  and  the  national  Uterature  re- 
ceived a  new  impulse.  Though  the  French  language  and  man- 
ners prevailed,  and  the  bombastic  school  of  Marini  was  only 
supplanted  by  that  of  the  cold  and  formal  poets  of  France,  the 
cultivation  of  the  Polish  language  was  not  neglected;  a  periodi- 
cal work,  to  which  the  ablest  men  of  the  country  contributed,  was 
published,  public  instruction  was  made  one  of  the  great  concerns 
of  the  government,  and  the  power  of  the  Jesuits  was  destroyed. 

The  dissolution  of  the  kingdom  which  soon  followed,  its  parti- 
tion and  amalgamation  with  foreign  nations,  kindled  anew  the 
patriotic  spirit  of  the  Poles,  who  devoted  themselves  with  more 
zeal  than  ever  to  the  cultivation  of  their  native  language,  the 
sole  tie  which  still  binds  them  together.  The  following  are  the 
principal  representatives  of  this  period :  Stephen  Konarski 
(1700-17T3),  a  writer  on  pohtics  and  education,  who  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  the  literary  and  mental  reform  of  his  country; 
Zaluski  (1724-1786),  known  more  especially  as  the  founder  of 
a  larire  librarv,  which,  at  the  dismemberment  of  Poland,  was 
transferred  to  St.  Petersburg;  and  above  all,  Adam  Czartoryski 
(1731-1823),  and  the  two  brothers  Potocki,  distinguished  as 
statesmen,  orators,  writers  and  patrons  of  literature  and  art. 
At  the  head  of  the  historical  writers  of  the  18th  century  stands 
Xaruszewicz  (1753-179G),  whose  history  of  Poland  is  considered 
as  a  standard  work.  In  respect  to  erudition,  philosophical  con- 
ception and  purity  of  style,  it  is  a  masterpiece  of  Polish  Utera- 
ture. Krasicki  (1739-1802),  the  most  distinguished  poet  under 
Stanislaus  Augustus,  was  called  the  Polish  Yoltaire.  His  poems 
and  prose  writings  are  replete  with  wit  and  spirit,  though  bear- 
in  "•  evident  marks  of  French  influence,  which  was  felt  in  almost 
all  the  poetical  productions  of  that  age. 

Nienicewicz  (1707-1846)  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
poets  of  the  18th  and  19  th  centuries.  Having  fought  by  the 
side  of  Kosciusko,  and  shared  his  fate  as  a  prisoner,  he  accompa- 
nied him  to  America,  where  he  became  the  friend  and  associate 
of  Washington,  whose  life  he  afterwards  described.  His  other 
works  consist  of  historical  songs,  dramas,  and  a  history  of  the 
reign  of  Sigismund. 

There  is  no  branch  of  literature  in  which  the  Poles  have  mani- 
fested greater  want  of  original  power  than  in  the  drama,  where 
the  influencee  of  the  French  school  is  decided,  and,  indeed,  ex- 
clusive. Novels  and  tales,  founded  on  domestic  life,  are  not 
abundant  in  Polish  literature  ;  philosophy  has  had  few  votaries, 


POLISH    LTTERATURE.  "        3^9 

and  the  other  sciences,  with  the  exception  of  the  mathematical 
and  physical  branches,  have  been,  till  recently,  neglected. 

The  failure  of  the  revolution  of  1830  forms  a  melancholy 
epoch  in  Polish  history,  and  especially  in  Polish  literature.  The 
universities  of  Warsaw  and  Wilna  were  broken  up,  and  their 
rich  libraries  removed  to  St.  Petersburg.  Even  the  lower 
schools  were  mostly  deprived  of  their  funds,  and  changed  to 
Russian  government  schools.  The  press  was  placed  under  the 
strictest  control,  the  language  and  the  national  peculiarities 
of  the  country  were  everywhere  persecuted,  the  Russian 
tongue  and  customs  substituted,  and  the  poets  and  learned  men 
either  silenced  or  banished.  Yet  since  that  time  the  national 
history  has  become  more  than  ever  a  chosen  study  with  the  peo- 
ple; and  as  the  results  of  these  researches,  since  1830,  cannot 
be  written  in  Poland,  Paris  has  become  the  principal  seat  of 
Polish  learning.  One  of  the  first  works  of  importance  published 
there  was  the  "  History  of  the  Polish  Insurrection/'  by  Moch- 
uachi  (1804-1835),  known  before  as  the  author  of  a  work  on 
the  Polish  literature  of  the  19th  century,  and  as  the  able  editor 
of  several  periodicals.  Lelewel,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  revo- 
lution, wrote  a  work  on  the  civil  rights  of  the  Polish  peasantry, 
which  has  exercised  a  more  decided  influence  in  Poland  than  that 
of  any  modern  author.  Mickiewicz  (1798-1848),  a  leader  of 
the  same  revolution,  is  the  most  distinguished  of  the  modern 
poets  of  Poland.  His  magnificent  poem  of  "  The  Peast  of  the 
Dead  "  is  a  powerful  expression  of  genius.  His  "  Sonnets  on  the 
Crimea"  are  among  his  happiest  productions,  and  his  "Sir 
Thaddeus  "  is  a  grajjliic  description  of  the  civil  and  domestic  life 
of  Lithuania.  Mickiewicz  is  the  founder  of  the  modern  romantic 
school  in  Poland,  to  which  belong  the  most  popular  productions 
of  Polish  literature.  Zalesski,  Grabowski  and  others  of  this 
school  have  chosen  the  Ukraine  as  the  favorite  theatre  of  their 
poems,  and  give  us  pictures  of  that  country,  alternately  sweet, 
wild  and  romantic. 

Of  all  the  Slavic  nations,  the  Poles  have  most  neglected  their 
popular  poetry,  a  fact  which  may  be  easily  explained  in  a  nation 
among  whom  whatever  refers  to  mere  boors  and  serfs  has  always 
been  regarded  with  the  utmost  contempt.  Their  beautiful 
national  dances,  however,  the  graceful  Polonaise,  the  bold  Masur, 
the  ingenious  Cracovienne,  are  equally  the  property  of  the  nobi- 
lity and  peasantry,  and  were  formerly  always  accompanied  by 
singing  instead  of  instrumental  music.  These  songs  were  extem- 
porized, and  were  probably  never  committed  to  writing. 


SCANDIKAYIAN   LITEEATUEE. 

1.  Introduction.  The  Ancient  Scandinavians  ;  their  influence  on  the  English  race. — 
2.  The  Mythology. — 3.  The  Scandinavian  Languages. — 4.  Icelandic,  or  old  Norse  Lite- 
rature :  the  Poetic  Edda,  the  Prose  Edda,  the  Scalds,  the  Sagas,  the  "  Ileimskringla." 
The  Folks-sagas  and  Ballads  of  the  Middle  Ages.— 5.  Danish  Literature  :  Saxo  Gramma- 
ticus  and  Theodoric.  Arreboe,  Kingo,  Tycho  Brahe,  Holberg,  Evald,  Baggesen,  Rah- 
bek,  Oehlenschlager,  Grundtvig,  Blicher,  Ingemann,  Heiberg,  Hans  Christian  Andersen 
and  others.  Malte  Brun,  Rask,  Rafn,  Magnusen,  the  brothers  Oersted. — 6.  Swedish 
Literature :  Messenius,  Stjernhjelm,  Lucidor  and  others.  The  Gallic  period;  Dalin, 
Nordenflycht,  Crutz  and  Gyllenborg,  Gustavus  III.,  Kellgren,  Leopold,  Oxenstjerna. 
The  new  Era  ;  Bellman,  Hallman,  Kexel,  Wallenberg,  Lidner,  Thorild,  Lengren,  Fran- 
zen,  Wallin.  The  Phosphorists  •,  Atterbom,  Hammarskold  and  Palmblad.  The  Gothic 
School;  Geijer,  Tegner,  Stagnelius,  Almqulst,  Vitalis,  Runeberg  and  others.  The  Ro- 
mance writers  ;  Cederborg,  Bremer,  Carlen,  Knorring.  Science  ;  Swedenborg,  Linnajua 
and  others. 

1.  Introduction. — It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  progressive 
and  expanding  spirit  which  characterizes  the  Enghsh  race  should 
be  so  universally  referred  to  their  Anglo-Saxon  blood,  while  the 
transcendent  influence  of  the  Scandinavian  element  is  entirely 
overlooked.  The  so-called  Anglo-Saxons  were  a  handful  of 
people  in  Holstein,  where  they  may  still  be  found  in  inglorious 
obscurity,  the  reluctant  subjects  of  Denmark.  The  early  emi- 
grants who  bore  that  name,  were,  it  is  true,  from  various  por- 
tions of  Germany  ;  but  even  if  the  glory  of  our  English  ancestry 
be  transferred  from  Anglen,  and  spread  over  the  whole  country, 
we  find  a  race  bearing  no  resemblance  to  the  English  in  their 
more  active  and  powerful  qualities,  but  an  intellectual  people, 
possessed  of  a  patient  and  conceding  nature,  which,  without 
other  more  aspiring  attributes,  would  have  doubtless  left  the 
English  people  in  the  same  condition  of  political  slavery  that  the 
Germans  continue  in  to  this  day.  Of  all  those  institutions  so 
commonly  and  gratuitously  ascribed  to  them,  of  representative 
government,  trial  by  jury,  and  such  machinery  of  political  and 
social  independence,  there  is  not  a  vestige  to  be  found  in  any 
age  in  Germany,  from  the  Christian  era  to  the  present  time. 
During  the  period  of  their  dominion  in  England,  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  so  far  from  showing  themselves  an  enterprising  people, 
were  notoriously  weak,  slothful  and  degenerate,  overrun  by  the 

S80 


SCAXDIXAVIAN   LITERATURE.  381 

Danes,  and  soon  permanently  subjugated  by  the  Xormans.  It 
is  evident,  from  the  trifling  resistance  they  made,  that  they  had 
neither  energy  to  fight,  nor  property,  laws  nor  institutions  to  de- 
fend, and  that  they  were  merely  serfs  on  the  lands  of  the  nobles 
or  of  the  church,  who  had  nothing  to  lose  by  a  change  of  mas- 
ters. It  is  to  the  renewal  of  the  original  spirit  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  by  the  fresh  infusion  of  the  Danish  conquerors  into  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  whole  population,  in  the  11th  cen- 
tm-y,  that  we  must  look  for  the  actual  origin  of  the  national 
character  and  institutions  of  the  English  people,  and  for  that 
check  of  popular  opinion  and  will  upon  arbitrary  rule  which 
grew  up  by  degrees,  and  which  slowly  but  necessarily  produced 
the  English  laws,  character  and  institutions.  These  belong  not 
to  the  Uerman  or  Anglo-Saxon  race  settled  in  England  previous 
to  the  10th  or  11th  century,  but  to  that  small,  cognate  branch 
of  Northmen  or  Danes,  w^ho,  between  the  9th  and  12th  centu- 
ries, brought  their  paganism,  energy  and  social  institutions  to 
conquer,  mingle  with  and  invigorate  the  inert  descendants  of  the 
old  race.  That  this  northern  branch  of  the  common  race  has 
been  more  influential  on  the  society  of  modern  Europe,  w^e  need 
only  compare  England  and  the  United  States  with  Saxony, 
Prussia,  Hanover,  or  any  country  of  strictly  ancient  Teutonic 
descent,  to  be  satisfied  that  from  whatever  quarter  civil,  reUgious 
and  political  liberty  and  independence  of  mind  may  have  come, 
it  was  not  from  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  or  the  forests  of  Ger- 
many. 

The  diflference  in  the  spirit  of  the  two  branches  of  the  same 
original  race  was  Immense,  even  at  the  earliest  period.  When 
the  Danes  and  Norwegians  overran  England,  the  Germans 
had,  for  six  centuries,  been  growing  more  and  more  pliant  to 
despotic  government,  and  the  Scandinavians  more  and  more 
bold  and  independent.  At  home  they  elected  their  kings,  and 
decided  everything  by  the  general  voice  of  the  Althing,  or  open 
Parliament.  Abroad  they  became  the  most  daring  of  adven- 
turers ;  their  Yikings  spread  themselves  along  the  shores  of 
Europe,  plundering  and  planting  colonies  ;  they  subdued  Eng- 
land, seized  Normandy,  besieged  Paris,  conquered  a  large  por- 
tion of  Belgium  and  made  extensive  inroads  into  Spain.  They 
made  themselves  masters  of  lower  Italy  and  Sicily  under  Robert 
Guiscard,  in  the  11th  century  ;  during  the  crusades  they  ruled 
Antioch  and  TilDcrias,  under  Tancred  ;  and  in  the  same  century 
they  marched  across  Germany,  and  established  themselves  in 
Switzerland,  where  traditions  of  their  arrival,  and  traces  of  their 
language,  still  remain.     In  861   they  discovered  Iceland,  and 


382  SCANDIXAVIAX   LITERATURE. 

soon  after  peopled  it ;  thence  tliey  stretched  still  further  west, 
discovered  Greenland,  and  proceeding  southward,  towards  the 
close  of  the  lOtli  century  they  struck  upon  the  shores  of  North 
America,  it  would  appear,  uear  the  coast  of  Massachusetts. 
They  seized  on  Novogorod,  and  became  the  founders  of  the 
llussian  Empire,  and  of  a  line  of  Czars,  which  only  became 
extinct  in  1598,  when  the  Slavonic  dynasty  succeeded.  From 
Russia  they  made  their  way  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  in  866  ap- 
peared before  Constantinople,  where  their  attacks  were  only 
bought  off  l)y  the  payment  of  large  sums  by  the  degenerate 
emperors.  From  902  to  the  fall  of  the  empire,  the  emperors 
retained  a  large  body-guard  of  Scandinavians,  who,  armed  with 
double-edged  battle-axes,  were  renowned  through  the  world, 
under  the  name  of  Yarengar,  or  the  V'dringjar  of  the  old  Ice- 
landic Sagas. 

Such  were  the  ancient  Scandinavians.  To  this  extraordinary 
people  the  English  and  their  descendants  alone  bear  any  resem- 
blance. In  them  the  old  Norse  fire  still  burns,  and  manifests 
itself  in  the  same  love  of  martial  daring  and  fame,  the  same 
indomitable  seafaring  spirit,  the  same  passion  for  the  discovery 
of  new  seas  and  new  lands,  and  the  same  insatiable  longing,  when 
discovered,  to  seize  and  colonize  them. 

2.  The  Mythology. — The  mythology  of  the  northern  nations, 
as  represented  in  the  Edda,  was  founded  on  Polytheism  ;  but 
through  it,  as  through  the  religion  of  all  nations,  there  is  dimly 
visible,  like  the  sun  shining  through  a  dense  cloud,  the  idea  of 
one  Supreme  Being,  of  infinite  power,  boundless  knowledge  and 
incorruptible  justice,  who  could  not  be  represented  by  any  cor- 
poreal form.  Such,  according  to  Tacitus,  was  the  supreme  God 
of  the  Germans,  and  such  was  the  primitive  belief  of  mankind. 
Doubtless,  the  i)oet  priests,  who  elaborated  the  imaginative,  yet 
philosophical  mythology  of  the  north,  were  aware  of  the  true 
and  only  God,  infinitely  elevated  above  the  attributes  of  that 
Nature,  which  they  shaped  into  deities  for  the  multitude  whom 
they  believed  incapable  of  more  than  the  worship  of  the  material 
powers  which  they  saw  working  in  everything  around  them. 

The  dark,  hostile  powers  of  nature,  such  as  frost  and  fire,  are 
represented  as  giants,  "jotuns,"  huge,  chaotic  demons  ;  while 
the  friendly  powers,  the  sun,  the  summer  heat,  all  vivifying  prin- 
ciples, were  gods.  From  the  opposition  of  light  and  darkness, 
water  and  fire,  co^d  and  heat,  sprung  the  first  life,  the  giant 
Ymer  and  his  evil  progeny  the  frost  giants,  the  cow  Adhumla 
and  Bor,  the  father  of  the  god  Od.'n.     Odin,  with  his  brothers, 


SCANDINAVIAN   LITERATURE.  383 

slew  the  ffiant  Yraer,  and  from  his  body  formed  the  heavens  and 
earth.  From  two  stems  of  wood  they  also  shaped  the  first  man 
and  woman,  whom  they  endowed  with  hfe  and  spirit,  and  from 
whom  descended  all  the  human  race. 

There  were  twelve  principal  deities  among  the  Scandinavians, 
of  whom  Odin  was  the  chief.     There  is  a  tradition  in  the  north, 
of  a  celebrated  warrior  of  that  name,  who,  near  the  period  of 
the  Christian  era,  fled  from  his  country,  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Black  Sea,  to  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  Romans,  and 
marched  toward  the  north  and  west  of  Europe,  subduing  all 
who  opposed  him,  and  finally  established  himself  in  Sweden, 
where  he  received  divine  honors.      According  to  the  Eddas, 
however,  Odin  was  the  son  of  Bor,  and  the  most  powerful  of  the 
gods  ;  the  father  of  Thor,  Balder  and  others  ;  the  god  of  war, 
eloquence  and  poetry.     He  was  made  acquainted  with  every- 
thing that  happened  on  earth,  through  two  ravens,  Hugin  and 
Munin  (mind  and  memory)  ;  they  flew  daily  round  the  world, 
and  returned  every  night  to  whisper  in  his  ear  all  that  they  had 
seen  and  heard.     Thor,  the  god  of  thunder,  was  the  implacable 
and  dreaded  enemy  of  the  giants,  and  the  avenger  and  defender 
of  the  s:ods.     His  stature  was  so  loftv  that  no  horse  could  bear 
him,  and  hghtning  flashed  from  his  eyes  and  from  his  chariot 
Avheels  as  they  rolled  along.     His  mallet  or  hammer,  his  belt  of 
strength  and  his  gauntlets  of  iron,  were  of  wonderful  power,  and 
with  them  he  could  overthrow  the  giants  and  monsters  who  were 
at  war  with  the  gods.     Balder,  the  second  son  of  Odin,  was  the 
noblest  and  fairest  of  the  gods,  beloved  by  everything  in  nature. 
He  exceeded  all  beings  in  gentleness,  prudence  and  eloquence, 
and  he  was  so  fair  and  graceful  that  lio-ht  emanated  from  him  as 
he  moved.     In  his  palace  nothing  impure   could   exist.     The 
death   of  Balder  is   the  principal  event  in   the   mythological 
drama  of  the  Scandinavians.     It  was  foredoomed,  and  a  prog- 
nostic of  the  approaching  dissolution  of  the  universe  and  of  the 
gods  themselves.     Heimdall  was  the  warder  of  the  gods  ;  his 
post  was  on  the  summit  of  Bifrost,  called  by  mortals  the  rain- 
bow— ^the  bridge  which  connects  heaven  and  earth,  and  down 
which  the  gods  daily  travelled  to  hold  their  councils  under  the 
shade  of  the  tree  Yggdrasil.     The  red  color  was  the  flaming  fire, 
which  served  as  a  defence  against  the  giants.     Heimdall  slept 
more  lightly  than  a  bird,  and  his  ear  was  so  exquisite  that  he 
could  hear  the  grass  grow  in  the  meadows  and  the  wool  upon 
the  backs  of  the  sheep.     He  carried  a  trumpet,  the  sound  of 
which  echoed  through  all  worlds.     Loke  was  essentially  of  an 
evil  nature,  and  descended  from  the  giants,  the  enemies  of  the 


3S4.  SCAXDIXAVIAN    LITERATURE. 

gods  ;  but  he  was  mysteriously  associated  with  Odin  from  the 
infancy  of  creation.  He  instilled  a  spark  of  his  fire  into  man  at 
his  creation,  and  he  was  the  father  of  three  monsters,  Hela  or 
Death,  the  Midgard  Serpent,  and  the  wolf  Fenris,  the  constant 
terror  of  the  gods,  and  destined  to  be  the  means  of  their  destruc- 
tion. 

Besides  these  deities,  there  were  twelve  goddesses,  the  chief  of 
whom  was  Frigga,  the  wife  of  Odin,  and  the  queen  and  mother  of 
the  gods.  She  Jknew  the  future,  but  never  revealed  it ;  and  she 
understood  the  language  of  animals  and  plants,  Freya  was  the 
goddess  of  love,  unrivalled  in  grace  and  beauty — the  Scandina- 
vian Venus.  Iduna  was  possessed  of  certain  apples,  of  such 
virtue  that,  by  eating  of  them,  the  gods  became  exempted  from 
the  consequences  of  old  age,  and  retained,  unimpaired,  all  the 
freshness  of  youth.  The  gods  dwelt  above,  in  Asgard,  the 
garden  of  the  Asen  or  the  Divinities;  the  home  of  the  giants,  with 
whom  they  were  in  perpetual  war,  was  Jotunheim,  a  distant, 
dark,  chaotic  land,  of  which  XJtgard  was  the  chief  seat.  Mid- 
gard, or  the  earth,  the  abode  of  man,  was  represented  as  a  disk 
in  the  midst  of  a  vast  ocean  ;  its  caverns  and  recesses  were  peo- 
pled with  elves  and  dwarfs,  and  around  it  lay  coiled  the  huge 
Mid.G^ard  Sequent.  Muspelheim,  or  Flameland,  and  Nifelhem 
or  Mistland,  lay  without  the  organized  universe,  and  were  the 
material  regions  of  light  and  darkness,  the  antagonism  of  which 
had  produced  the  universe  with  its  gods  and  men.  uS'ifelhem 
was  a  dark  and  dreary  realm,  where  Hela,  or  Death,  ruled  with 
despotic  sway  over  those  who  had  died  ingloriously  of  disease  or 
old  age.  Helheira,  her  cold  and  gloomy  palace,  was  thronged 
with  their  shivering  and  shadowy  spectres.  She  was  livid  and 
ghastly  pale,  and  her  very  looks  inspired  horror. 

The  chief  residence  of  Odin,  in  Asgard,  was  Valhalla,  or  the 
Hall  of  the  Slain  ;  it  was  hung  round  with  golden  spears,  and 
shields,  and  coats  of  mail ;  and  here  he  received  the  souls  of 
warriors  killed  in  battle,  who  were  to  assist  him  in  the  final  con- 
flict with  the  giants  ;  and  here,  every  day,  they  armed  them- 
selves for  battle,  and  rode  forth  by  thousands  to  their  mimic 
combat  on  the  plains  of  Asgard,  and  at  night  they  returned  to 
Valhalla  to  feast  on  the  flesh  of  the  boar,  and  to  drink  the 
intoxicating  mead.  Here  dwelt,  also,  the  numerous  virgins 
called  the  Valkyrior,  or  Choosers  of  the  Slain,  whom  Odin  sent 
forth  to  every  battle-field  to  sway  the  victory,  to  make  choice  of 
those  who  should  fall  in  the  combat,  and  to  direct  them  on  their 
way  to  Valhalla.  They  were  called,  also,  the  Sisters  of  War ; 
they  watched  with  intense  interest  over  their  favorite  warriors. 


SCANDIX AVIAN    LlTEllATUHE.  385 

and  sometimes  lent  an  ear  to  their  love.  In  the  field  they  were 
always  in  complete  armor  ;  led  on  by  Sknlda,  the  youngest  of 
the  Fates,  they  were  foremost  in  battle,  with  helmets  on  their 
heads,  armed  with  flaming  swords,  and  surrounded  by  lightning 
and  meteors.  Sometimes  they  were  seen  riding  through  the  air 
and  over  the  sea  on  shadowy  horses,  from  whose  manes  fell  hail 
on  the  mountains  and  dew  on  the  valleys;  and  at  other  times 
their  fiery  lances  gleamed  in  the  spectral  lights  of  the  aurora 
borealis  ;  and  again,  they  were  represented  clothed  in  white, 
with  flowing  hair,  as  cupbearers  to  the  heroes  at  the  feasts  of 
Valhalla. 

In  the  centre  of  the  world  stood  the  great  ash  tree  Yggdrasil, 
the  Tree  of  Life,  of  which  the  Christmas  tree  and  the  Maypole 
of  northern  nations  are  doubtless  emblems.  It  spread  its  Hfe- 
giving  arms  through  the  heavens,  and  struck  its  three  roots  down 
through  the  three  worlds.  It  nourished  all  life,  even  that  of 
JS'edhog,  the  most  venomous  of  serpents,  which  continually 
gnawed  at  the  root  that  penetrated  Nifelhem.  A  second  root 
entered  the  region  of  the  frost  giants,  where  was  the  well  in 
which  wisdom  and  understanding  were  concealed.  A  third  root 
entered  the  region  of  the  gods  ;  and  there,  beside  it,  dwelt  the 
three  Nornor  or  Fates,  over  whom  even  the  gods  had  no  power, 
and  who,  every  day,  watered  it  from  the  primeval  fountain,  so 
that  its  boughs  remained  green. 

The  gods  were  benevolent  spu'its — the  friends  of  mankind,  but 
they  were  not  immortal.  A  destiny  more  powerful  than  they  or 
their  enemies  the  giants,  was  one  day  to  overwhelm  them.  At 
the  Ragnarok,  or  twilight  of  the  gods,  foretold  in  the  Edda, 
the  monsters  shall  be  unloosed,  the  heavens  be  rent  asunder,  and 
the  sun  and  moon  disappear  ;  the  great  Midgard  Serpent  shall 
lash  the  waters  of  the  ocean  till  they  overflow  the  earth  ;  the 
wolf  Fenris,  whose  enormous  mouth  reaches  from  heaven  to 
earth,  shall  rush  upon  and  devour  all  within  his  reach  ;  the  genii 
of  fire  shall  ride  forth,  clothed  in  flame,  and  lead  on  the  giants 
to  the  storming  of  Asgard.  Heundall  sounds  his  trumpet,  which 
echoes  through  all  worlds  ;  the  gods  fly  to  arms  ;  Odin  appears 
in  his  golden  casque,  his  resplendent  cuirass,  with  his  vast  scimi- 
tar in  his  hand,  and  marshals  his  heroes  in  battle  array.  The 
great  ash  tree  is  shaken  to  its  roots,  heaven  and  earth  are  full 
of  horror  and  affright,  and  gods,  giants  and  heroes  are  at  length 
buried  in  one  common  ruin.  Then  comes  forth  the  mighty  one, 
who  is  above  all  gods,  who  may  not  be  named.  He  pronounces 
his  decrees,  and  establishes  the  doctrines  which  shall  endure  for- 
ever.    A  new  earth,  fairer  and  more  verdant,  springs   forth 

17 


386  SCAXDIXAVIAX    LTTEKATURE. 

from  the  bosom  of  the  waves,  the  fields  bring  fortli  without  cul- 
ture, cahimities  are  unknown,  and  in  Heaven,  the  a])ode  of  the 
good,  a  palace  is  reared,  more  shining  than  the  sun,  where  the 
just  shall  dwell  for  evermore. 

Traces  of  the  worship  of  these  deities  by  our  pagan  ancestors, 
still  remain  in  the  names  given  to  four  days  of  the  week.  Tues- 
day was  consecrated  to  Tyr,  a  son  of  Odin  ;  Wednesday,  Odin's 
or  Woden's  day,  to  Odin  ;  Thursday,  or  Thor's  day,  to  Thor  ; 
and  Friday,  or  Freya's  day,  was  sacred  to  the  goddess  Freya. 

3.  The  Language. — The  Scandinavian  or  Norse  languages 
include  the  Icelandic,  Danish,  Swedish  and  Norwegian  dialects. 

The  Icelandic  or  Old  Norse,  which  was  the  common  language 
of  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway,  in  the  9th  century,  was 
carried  into  Iceland,  where,  to  the  present  time,  it  has  wonder- 
fully retained  its  early  characteristics.  The  wi'itten  alphabet 
was  called  Runic,  and  the  letters  Ilunes,  of  which  the  most 
ancient  specimens  are  the  inscriptions  on  Rune  stones,  rings  and 
wooden  tablets. 

The  Danish  and  Swedish  may  be  called  the  New  Norse 
languages;  they  began  to  assume  a  character  distinct  from  the 
Old  Norse  about  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century.  The 
Danish  language  is  not  confined  to  Denmark,  but  is  used  in  the 
literature,  and  by  the  cultivated  society  of  Norway. 

The  Swedish  is  the  most  musical  of  the  Scandinavian  dialectfi, 
its  pronunciation  being  remarkably  soft  and  agreeable.  Its 
character  is  more  purely  Norse  than  the  Danish,  which  has  been 
greatly  affected  by  its  contact  with  the  German. 

The  Norwegian  exists  only  in  the  form  of  dialects  spoken  by 
the  peasantry.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  two  by  a  rich 
vocabulary  of  words  peculiar  to  itself,  and  by  its  own  pronuncia- 
tion and  peculiar  construction;  literary  cultivation  is  only  wanted 
to  make  it  an  independent  language  like  the  others. 

4.  Icelandic  or  Old  Norse  Literature. — In  8G8,  one  of  the 
Norwegian  vikings  or  sea  rovers,  being  driven  on  the  coast  of 
Iceland,  first  made  known  the  existence  of  the  island.  Harold, 
the  fair-haired,  having  soon  after  subdued  or  slain  the  petty 
kings  of  Norway,  and  introduced  the  feudal  system,  many  of  tlie 
inhabitants,  disdaining  to  sacrifice  their  independence,  set  forth 
to  colonize  this  dreary  and  inhospitable  region,  whose  wild  and 
desolate  aspect  seemed  to  attract  their  imaginations.  Huge 
mountains  of  ice  here  rose  against  the  northern  sky,  from  which 
the  smoke  of  volcanoes  rolled  balefully  up ;  and  the  large  tracts 


SCANDINAVIAN   LITERATUEE.  387 

of  lava  which  had  descended  from  them  to  the  sea,  were  cleft  into 
fearful  abysses,  where  no  bottom  could  be  found.  Here  were 
strange,  desolate  valleys,  with  beds  of  pure  sulphur,  torn  and 
overhanging-  precipices,  gigantic  caverns  and  fountains  of  boiling 
water,  which,  mingled  with  flashing  fires,  soared  up  into  the 
air,  amid  the  undergroans  of  earthquakes,  and  howlings  and 
hissings,  as  of  demons  in  torture.  Subterranean  fires,  in  terrific 
contest  with  the  wintry  ocean,  seemed  to  have  made  sport  of 
rocks,  mountains  and  rivers,  tossing  them  into  the  most  fantastic 
and  appalling  shapes.  Yet  such  was  the  fondness  of  the  Scandi- 
navian imao-ination  for  the  wild  and  desolate,  and  such  their 
hatred  of  oppression,  that  they  soon  peopled  this  chaotic  island 
to  an  extent  it  has  never  smce  reached.  In  spite  of  the  rigor 
of  the  climate,  where  corn  refused  to  ripen,  and  where  the  labors 
of  fishing  and  agriculture  could  only  be  pursued  for  four  months 
of  the  year,  the  people  became  attached  to  this  wild  country. 
They  established  a  republic  which  lasted  400  years,  and  for  ages 
it  was  destined  to  be  the  sanctuary  and  preserver  of  the  grand 
old  literature  of  the  North.  The  people  took  with  them  their 
Scalds  and  their  traditions,  and  for  a  century  after  the  peopling 
of  the  island,  they  retained  their  Pagan  belief.  Ages  rolled 
away;  the  religion  of  Odin  had  perished  from  the  main  land,  and 
the  very  hymns  and  poems  in  which  its  doctrines  were  recorded 
had  perished  with  it,  when,  in  the  middle  of  the  ITth  century, 
the  Rhythmical  Edda  of  Samund  was  discovered,  followed  by  the 
Prose  Edda  of  Snorre  Sturleson.  These  discoveries  roused  the 
zeal  of  the  Scandinavian  literati,  and  led  to  further  investigations, 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  vast  number  of  chronicles 
and  sagas,  and  much  has  since  been  done  by  the  learned  men  of 
Iceland  and  Denmark,  to  bring  to  fight  the  remote  annals  of 
northern  Europe. 

These  remains  fall  into  the  three  divisions  of  Eddaic,  Scaldic 
and  Saga  literature.  Samund  the  Wise  (1056-1131),  a  Christ- 
ian priest  of  Iceland,  was  the  first  to  collect  and  commit  to 
writing  the  oral  traditions  of  the  mythology  and  poetry  of  the 
Scandinavians.  His  collection  has  been  termed  the  Edda,  a 
word  by  some  supposed  to  signify  grandmother,  and  by  others 
derived,  with  more  probabiUty,  from  the  obsolete  word  ada,  to 
teacli.  The  elder  or  poetic  Edda  consists  of  thirty-eight  poems, 
and  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first,  or  mythological  cycle, 
contains  evervthing  relating  to  the  Scandinavian  ideas  of  the 
creation  of  the  world,  the  origin  of  man,  the  morals  taught  by 
the  priests,  and  stories  of  the  gods  ;  the  second,  or  heroic  cycle, 
contains  the  original  materials  of  the  "Nibelungen  Lied"  of 


383  SCANDIXAYIxVX    LtTERxVTURE. 

Germany.  The  poems  consist  of  strophes  of  six  or  eight  lines 
each,  with  little  of  the  alliteration  by  which  the  Scalds  were 
afterwards  disting-uished.  One  of  the  oldest  and  most  interest- 
ing is  the  "  Yoluspa,"  or  Song  of  the  Prophetess,  a  kind  of 
sibylline  lay,  which  contains  an  account  of  the  creation,  the 
origin  of  man  and  of  evil,  and  concludes  with  a  prediction  of  the 
destruction  and  renovation  of  the  universe,  and  a  description  of 
the  future  abodes  of  happiness  and  misery.  "  Yafthrudnir's 
Son^  "  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  Odin,  disguised  as  a 
mortal,  and  the  giant  Yafthrudnir,  in  which  the  same  subjects 
are  discussed.  "  Grimner's  Song  "  contains  a  description  of  twelve 
habitations  of  the  celestial  deities,  considered  as  symbolical  of 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac.  "  Kig's  Song "  explains,  allegorically, 
the  origin  of  the  three  castes:  the  thrall,  the  churl  and  the 
noble,  which,  at  a  very  early  period,  appear  to  have  formed  the 
framework  of  Scandinavian  societv.  "  The  Havamal  "  or  the 
High  Song  of  Odin,  is  the  complete  code  of  Scandinavian  ethics. 
The  maxims  here  brought  together  more  resemble  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  than  anything  in  human  literature,  but  without  the 
high  religious  views  of  the  Scripture  maxims.  It  shows  a 
worldly  wisdom,  experience  and  sagacity,  to  which  modern  life 
can  add  nothing.  In  the  Havamal  is  included  the  Rune  Song. 
Runes,  the  primitive  rudely-shaped  letters  of  the  Gothic  race, 
appear  never  to  have  been  used  to  record  their  literature,  which 
was  committed  to  the  Scalds  and  Sagamen,  but  they  were  re- 
served for  inscriptions  on  rocks  or  memorial  stones,  or  they  were 
cut  in  staves  of  wood,  as  a  rude  calendar  to  assist  the  memory. 
Odin  was  the  great  master  of  runes,  but  all  the  gods,  many  of 
the  giants,  kings,  queens,  prophetesses  and  poets  possessed  the 
secret  of  tlieir  power.  In  the  ballads  of  the  middle  ages,  long 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  we  find  everywhere  the 
boast  of  Runic  knowledge  and  of  its  power.  (Queens  and 
princesses  cast  the  runic  spell  over  their  enemies;  ladies,  by  the 
use  of  runes,  inspire  warriors  with  love  ;  and  awful  women  by 
their  means  perform  witchcraft  and  sorcery.  Some  of  their 
rune  songs  taught  the  art  of  healing  ;  others  had  power  to  stop 
flying  spears  in  battle,  and  to  excite  or  extinguish  hatred  and 
love.  There  were  runes  of  victory  inscribed  on  swords;  storm 
runes,  which  gave  power  over  sails,  inscribed  on  rudders  of  ships; 
drink  runes,  which  gave  power  over  others,  inscribed  on  drinking 
horns;  and  herb  runes,  cut  in  the  bark  of  trees,  which  cured 
sickness  and  wounds.  I'hese  awful  characters,  which  struck  terror 
into  the  hearts  of  our  heathen  ancestors,  and  which  terrified  and 
subdued  alike  kings,  warriors  and  peasants,  were  simple  letters 


SCANDINAVIAN   LITER ATUEK.  889 

of  the  alphabet ;  but  they  prove  to  what  a  stupendous  extent 
knowledge  was  power  in  the  dark  ages  of  the  earth.  The  poet 
who  sings  the  Kune  Song  in  the  Havamal  does  it  with  every 
combination  of  mystery,  calculated  to  inspire  awe  and  wonder  in 
the  hearer. 

The  two  poems,  "  Odin's  Raven  Song  "  and  the  "  Song  of  the 
Way-Tamer,"  are  among  the  most  deeply  poetical  hymns  of  the 
Edda.  Thev  relate  to  the  same  Q-reat  event — the  death  of  Balder 
— and  are  full  of  mystery  and  fear.  A  strange  trouble  has  fallen 
upon  the  gods,  the  oracles  are  silent,  and  a  dark,  woeful  foreboding 
seizes  on  all  things  living.  Odin  mounts  his  steed,  Sleipner, 
and  descends  to  hell  to  consult  the  Yala  there  in  her  tomb, 
and  to  extort  from  her,  by  runic  incantations,  the  fate  of  his  son. 
Ihis  *'  Descent  of  Odin  "  is  familiar  to  the  English  reader  through 
Gray's  Ode.  In  all  mythologies  we  continually  have  glimpses  of 
the  mere  humanity  of  the  gods,  we  witness  their  limited  powers  and 
their  consciousness  of  a  coming  doom ;  in  this  respect  every  my- 
thology is  kept  in  infinite  subordination  to  the  true  faith  in 
which  all  is  sublime,  infinite  and  worthy  of  the  Deity — in  which 
God  is  represented  as  pure  spirit,  whom  the  heaven  of  heavens 
cannot  contain;  and  all  assumption  of  divinity  by  false  gods  is 
treated  as  a  base  superstition. 

The  remaining  songs  of  the  first  part  of  the  Edda  relate  chiefly 
to  the  exploits,  wanderings  and  love  adventures  of  the  gods. 
The  "  Sun  Song,"  with  which  it  concludes,  is  beheved  to  be  the 
production  of  Samund,  the  collector  of  the  Edda.  In  this  he 
retains  some  of  the  machinery  of  the  old  creed,  but  introduces  the 
Christian  Deity  and  doctrines. 

The  second  part  of  the  elder  Edda  contains  the  heroic  cycle 
of  Icelandic  poems,  the  first  part  of  which  is  the  Song  of 
Voland,  the  renowned  northern  smith.  The  story  of  Yoland,  or 
Wayland,  the  Vulcan  of  the  North,  is  of  unknown  antiquity  ; 
and  his  fame,  which  spread  throughout  Europe,  still  lives  in  the 
traditions  of  all  northern  nations.  The  poems  concerning  Sigurd 
and  the  Niflunga  form  a  grand  epic  of  the  simplest  construction. 
The  versification  consists  of  strophes  of  six  or  eight  lines,  with- 
out rhyme  or  alliteration.  The  sad  and  absorbing  story  here 
narrated  was  wonderfully  popular  throughout  the  ancient  Scan- 
dinavian and  Teutonic  world,  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  for  how 
many  centuries  these  great  tragic  ballads  had  agitated  the  hearts 
of  the  warlike  races  of  the  north.  It  is  clear  that  Sigurd  and 
Byrnhilda,  with  all  their  beauty,  noble  endowment  and  sorrowful 
history,  were  real  personages,  who  had  taken  powerful  hold  on 
the  popular  affections  in  the  most  ancient  times,  and  had  come 


390  SCAXDIXAYIAX   LITER ATITEE. 

down  from  age  to  age,  receiving  fresh  incarnations  and  embellish- 
ments from  the  popular  Scalds.  There  is  a  great  and  powerful 
nature  living  through  these  poems.  They  are  pictures  of  men 
and  women  of  godlike  beauty  and  endowments,  and  full  of  the 
vigor  of  simple  but  impetuous  natures.  Though  fragmentary, 
they  stand  in  all  the  essentials  of  poetry  far  beyond  the  Ger- 
man Lied,  and  in  the  tragic  force  of  passion  which  they  por- 
tray, they  are  superior  to  any  remains  of  ancient  poetry  except 
that  of  Greece.^  Their  greatness  lies  less  in  their  language  than 
their  spirit,  which  is  sublime  and  colossal.  Passion,  tenderness 
and  sorrow  are  here  depicted  with  the  most  vivid  power;  and 
the  noblest  sentiments  and  the  most  heroic  actions  are  crossed 
by  the  foulest  crimes  and  the  most  terrific  tragedies.  They 
contain  materials  for  a  score  of  dramas  of  the  most  absorbing 
character. 

The  Prose  or  Younii'cr  Edda  was  the  work  of  Snorrc  Sturleson 
(1178-1241),  who  was  born  of  a  distinguished  Icelandic  family, 
and,  after  leading  a  turbulent  and  ambitious  life,  and  being  twice 
supreme  magistrate  of  the  republic,  was  at  last  assassinated. 
Tlie  younger  Edda  repeats  in  prose  the  sublime  poetry  of  the 
elder  Edda,  mixed  with  manv  extravagances  and  absurdities  ; 
and  in  point  of  literary  and  philosophical  value,  it  bears  no  com- 
parison with  it.  It  marks  the  transition  from  the  art  of  the 
Scalds  to  the  prose  relation  of  the  Sagaman.  This  work  con- 
cludes with  a  treatise  on  the  poetic  phraseology  of  the  Scalds,  and 
a  system  of  versification  by  Snorre. 

The  Bard  or  Scald  (literally  a  smoother  of  language,  from 
scaldre,  to  polish)  formed  an  important  feature  of  the  courts  of 
the  princes  and  more  powerful  nobles.  They  often  acted  at  the 
same  time  as  bard,  councillor  and  warrior.  Until  the  12th  cen- 
tury, when  the  monks  and  the  art  of  writing  put  an  end  to  the 
Scaldic  art,  this  race  of  poets  continued  to  issue  from  Iceland, 
and  to  travel  from  country  to  country,  received  as  the  honored 
guests  of  kings,  and  receiving  in  return  for  their  songs,  rings  and 
jewels  of  great  value,  but  never  money.  There  is  preserved  a 
list  of  230  scalds,  who  had  distinguished  themselves  from  the  time 
of  Ragnor  Lodbrok  to  that  of  Vladimir  II.,  or  from  the  latter  end 
of  the  8th  to  the  beginning  of  the  loth  century.  Ilagnor  Lod- 
brok was  a  Danish  king,  who,  in  one  of  his  predatory  excursions, 
was  taken  prisoner  in  England  and  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  to  be 
stung  to  death  by  serpents.  His  celebrated  death  song  is  said 
to  have  been  composed  during  his  torments.  The  best  of  the 
scaldic  lays,  however,  are  greatly  inferior  to  the  Eddaic  poems. 
Alliteration  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  versification. 


SCANDINAVIAISr    LITERATURE.  391 

The  word  Saga  means  literally  a  tale  or  narrative,  and  is 
used  in  Iceland  to  denote  every  species  of  tradition,  whether 
fabulous  or  true.  In  amount,  the  Saga  literature  of  ancient 
Scandinavia  is  surprisingly  extensive,  consisting  of  more  than 
two  hundred  volumes.  The  Sagas  are,  for  the  most  part,  un- 
connected biographies  or  narratives  of  greater  or  less  length, 
describing  principally  events  which  took  place  from  the  9th  to 
the  13th  century.  They  are  historical,  mythic,  heroic  and 
romantic. 

The  first  annalist  of  Iceland  of  whom  we  have  any  remains 
was  Ari  the  Wise  (b.  1067),  the  contemporary  of  Samund,  and 
his  annals,  for  the  most  part,  have  been  lost.  Snorre  Sturleson, 
already  spoken  of  as  the  collector  of  the  Prose  Edda,  was  the 
author  of  a  great  original  work,  the  "  Heimskringla,"  or  Home- 
Circle,  so  called  from  the  first  word  of  the  manuscript,  a  most 
admirable  history  of  a  great  portion  of  northern  Europe  from 
the  period  of  the  Christian  Era  to  11  tt,  including  every  species 
of  Saga  composition.  It  traces  Odin  and  his  followers  from  the 
East,  from  Asaland  and  Asgard,  its  chief  city,  to  their  settle- 
ment in  Scandinavia.  It  narrates  the  contests  of  the  kings,  the 
establishment  of  the  kingdoms  of  Norway,  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark, the  Viking  expeditions,  the  discovery  and  settlement  of 
Iceland  and  Greenland,  the  discovery  of  America,  and  the  con- 
quests of  England  and  Normandy.  The  stories  are  told  with  a 
life  and  freshness  that  belong  only  to  true  genius,  and  a  picture 
is  given  of  human  life  in  all  its  reality,  genuine,  vivid  and  true. 
Some  of  the  Sagas  of  the  "  Heimskringla  "  are  grand  romances, 
full  of  brilliant  adventures,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  lie  so 
completely  within  the  range  of  history  that  they  may  be  regarded 
as  authentic.  That  of  Harold  Haardrada  narrates  his  expedi- 
tion to  the  East,  his  brilliant  exploits  in  Constantinople,  Syria 
and  Sicily,  his  scaldic  accomplishments,  and  his  battles  in 
England  against  Harold,  the  son  of  Earl  Godwin,  where  he  fell 
only  a  few  days  before  Godwin's  son  himself  fell  at  the  battle 
of  Hastings.  This  Saga  is  a  splendid  epic  in  prose,  and  is 
particularly  interesting  to  the  English  race.  Tlie  first  part  of 
the  '' Heimskringla"  is  necessarily  derived  from  tradition;  as  it 
advances  fable  and  fact  all  curiously  intermingle,  and  it  termi- 
nates in  authentic  history. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  Sagas  of  the  remaining  divisions 
are  the  "  Sagas  of  Erik  the  Wanderer,"  who  went  in  search  of 
the  Island  of  Immortality;  "  Frithiof's  Saga,"  made  the  subject 
of  Tegner's  great  poem;  the  Saga  of  Ragnor  Lodbrok,  of 
Dietrich  of   Berne,  and  the  Yolsuuga   Saga,  relating  to    the 


392  SCAXDIXAVIAN    LITERATURE. 

ancestors  of  Sigurd  or  Siegfried,  the  hero  of  the  Nibelungen 
Lied.  Tiiere  are,  besides,  Sagas  of  all  imaginable  fictions  of 
heroes,  saints,  magicians,  conquerors  and  fair  women.  Almost 
every  leading  family  of  Iceland  had  its  written  saga.  The 
Sagamen,  like  the  Scalds,  travelled  over  all  Scandinavia,  visited 
the  courts  and  treasured  up  and  transmitted  to  posterity  the  whole 
history  of  the  North.  This  wonderful  activity  of  the  Scandina- 
vian mind  from  the  9th  to  the  13th  century,  both  in  amount 
and  originality,  throws  completely  into  the  shade  the  literary 
achievements  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  during  the  same  period. 

When  Christianity  superseded  the  ancient  religion,  the  spirit 
and  traditions  of  the  old  mythology  remained  in  the  minds  of 
the  people,  and  became  their  fireside  literature  under  the  name 
of  Polk's  Sagas.  Their  legends  and  nursery  tales  are  dilTused 
over  modern  Scandinavia,  and  appear,  with  many  variations, 
through  all  the  literature  of  Europe.  Among  them  are  found 
the  originals  of  "Jack  the  Giant  Killer,"  "Cinderella,"  "Blue 
Beard,"  the  "  Little  Old  Woman  Cut  Shorter,"  "  The  Giant 
who  smelt  the  Blood  of  an  Englishman,"  and  many  others. 

The  Folk's  Sagas  have  only  recently  been  collected,  but  they 
are  the  true  productions  of  ancient  Scandinavians. 

The  art  of  the  Scald  and  Sagaman,  which  was  extinguished 
with  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  revived  after  a  time  in  the 
Komances  of  Chivalry  and  the  popular  ballads.  These  ballads  are 
classified  as  heroic,  supernatural,  historic,  and  ballads  of  love  and 
romance;  they  successively  describe  all  the  changes  in  the  life 
and  opinions  of  society,  and  closely  resemble  those  of  England, 
Scotland  and  Germany.  They  are  the  common  expression  of 
the  life  and  feelings  of  a  common  race,  under  the  prevailing  in- 
fluences of  the  same  period,  and  the  same  stories  often  inspired 
the  nameless  bards  of  both  countries.  They  are  composed  in  the 
same  form  and  possess  the  same  curious  characteristic  of  the 
refrain  or  chorus  which  distinguishes  this  poetry  in  its  transi- 
tion from  the  epic  to  the  lyric  form.  They  express  a  peculiar 
poetic  feeling  which  is  sought  for  in  vain  in  the  epic  age — a 
sentiment  which,  without  art  and  without  name,  wanders  on 
until  it  is  caught  up  by  fresh  lips,  and  becomes  the  regular 
interpreter  of  the  same  feelings.  Thus  this  simple  voice  of  song 
travels  onward  from  mouth  to  mouth,  from  heart  to  heart,  the 
language  of  tlie  general  sorrows,  hopes  and  memories;  strange, 
and  yet  near  to  every  one,  centuries  old,  yet  never  growing 
older,  since  the  human  heart,  whose  history  it  relates  in  so  many 
changing  images  and  notes,  remains  forever  the  same. 
Though  the  great  majority  of  the  popular  ballads  of  Scandinavia 


DAXISII    UTEKATURE.  393 

are  attributed  to  the  12th,  13th  and  14th  centuries,  the  compo- 
sition of  them  by  no  means  ceased  then.  This  voice  of  the 
people  continued  more  or  less  to  find  expression  down  to  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  when  it  became  the  means  of  leading 
back  its  admirers  to  truth  and  genuine  feeling,  and,  more  than 
anything  else,  contributed  to  the  revival  of  a  new  era  in  litera- 
ture. 

5.  Danish  Literature. — In  taking  leave  of  the  splendid 
ancient  literature  of  Scandinavia,  we  find  before  us  a  waste  of 
nearly  four  centuries  from  the  13th,  which  presents  scarcely  a 
trace  of  intellectual  cultivation.  The  ballads  and  tales,  indeed, 
lingered  in  the  popular  memory  and  heart ;  fresh  notes  of  genu- 
ine music  were  from  time  to  time  added  to  them,  and  they  form 
the  connecting  link  betw^een  the  ancient  and  modern  literature. 
Saxo  Grammaticus  and  Theodoric  the  monk,  in  the  13th  century, 
adopted  the  Latin  language  in  their  chronicles  of  Denmark  and 
Norway,  and  from  that  time  it  usurped  the  place  of  the  native 
tongue  among  the  educated.  In  the  16th  century  the  spirit  of 
the  Reformation  began  to  exert  an  influence,  and  the  Bible  was 
translated  into  the  popular  tongue.  New  fields  of  thought  were 
opened,  a  passion  for  literature  was  excited,  and  translations, 
chiefly  from  the  German,  were  multiphed,  a  knowledge  of  the  clas- 
sics was  cultivated,  and,  in  tune,  a  noble  harvest  of  literature 
followed. 

The  first  author  who  marks  the  new  era  is  Arreboe  (158^- 
163t),  who  has  been  called  the  Chaucer  of  Denmark.  His  chief 
work  was  the  "  Hexameron,"  or  "  The  World's  First  Week.'' 
It  abounds  with  learning,  and  displays  great  poetic  beauty. 
The  religious  psalms  and  hymns  of  Kingo  ( 1 634-1 T 03)  are 
characterized  by  a  simple  yet  powerfully  expressed  spirit  of  piety, 
and  are  still  held  in  high  esteem.  His  Morning  and  Evening 
Prayers,  or,  as  he  beautifully  terms  them,  "  Sighs,"  are  admi- 
rable. 

Many  other  names  of  note  are  found  in  the  literature  of  this 
period,  but  the  only  one  who  achieved  a  world-wide  celebrity, 
was  Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601),  who,  for  a  time,  was  the  centre 
of  a  brilliant  w^orld  of  science  and  literature.  The  learned  and 
celebrated,  from  all  countries,  visited  him,  and  he  was  loaded 
with  gifts  and  honors,  in  return  for  the  honor  which  he  conferred 
upon  his  native  land.  But  at  length,  through  the  machinations 
of  his  enemies,  he  lost  the  favor  of  the  king,  and  was  forced  to 
exile  hhnself  forever  from  his  country.  The  services  rendered  to 
astronomy  by  Tycho  Brahe  were  great,  although  his  theory  of 

17* 


394  DANISH   LITERATUKE. 

the  universe,  in  wliich  our  own  planet  constituted  the  centre,  has 
given  way  before  the  more  profound  one  of  Copernicus. 

Holberg  (1684-1754),  a  native  of  Norway,  is  commonly 
styled  the  creator  of  the  modern  literature  of  Denmark,  and 
would  take  a  high  place  in  that  of  any  country.  In  the  held  of 
satire  and  comedy  he  was  a  great  and  unquestionable  master. 
All  his  actors  are  types,  and  are  as  real  and  existent  at  the  pre- 
sent hour  as  they  were  actual  when  he  sketched  them.  Besides 
satires  and  numerous  comedies,  Holberg  was  the  author  of 
various  histories,  several  volumes  of  letters,  and  a  book  of 
fables. 

The  principal  names  which  appear  in  Danish  literature,  from 
Holberg  to   Evald,   are  those  of  Stub,   Sneedorf,  TuUin  and 
Sheersen.     Evald  (1743-1780)  was  the  first  who  perceived  the 
superb  treasury  of  poetic  wealth  v/hich  lay  in  the  far  antiquity 
of  Scandinavia,  among  the  gods  of  the  Odinic  mythology,  and 
who  showed  to  his  nation  the  grandeur  and  beauty  which  the 
national  history  had  reserved  for  the  true  poetic  souls  who  should 
dare  to  appropriate  them.     But  the  sounds  which  he  drew  from 
the  old  heroic  harp,  startled  his  contemporaries,  while  it  did  not 
fascinate  them.     The  august  figures  which  he  brought  before 
them  seemed  monstrous  and  uncouth.     Neglected  in  life,  and 
doomed  to  an  early  death,  the  history  of  this  poet  was  painfully 
interesting  ;  a  strangely  brilliant  web  of  mingled  gold  and  ordi- 
nary thread — a  strangely  blended  fabric  of  glory  and  of  grief. 
Solitary,  poor,  bowed  down  with  physical  and  mental  suffering 
from  his  heart's  wound,  as  out  of  a  dark  cleft  in  a  rock  welled 
the  clear  stream  of  song.     The  poem  of  ''  Adam  and  Eve," 
"  Rolf  Krage,"  the   first   original  Danish  tragedy,   "  Balder's 
Death "  and  "  The  Fishermen,"  are  his  principal  productions. 
*'  Rolf  Krage  "  is  the  outpouring  of  a  noble  heart,  in  which  the 
most  generous  and  exalted  sentiments  revel  in  all  the  inexperi- 
ence of  youth.     '*  Raider's  Death  "  is  a  masterpiece  of  beauty, 
sentiment  and  eloquence  of  diction.     It  is  full  of  the  passion  of 
an  unhappy  love,  and  thus  expresses  the  burning  emotions  of  the 
poet's  own  heart.     The  old  northern  gods  and  mythic  person- 
ages are  introduced,  and  the  lyric  element  is  blended  with  the 
dramatic.     The  lyrical  drama  of  "  The  Fishermen  "  is  perhaps 
the  most  perfect  and  powerful  of  all  Evald's  works.     The  intense 
interest  it  excites  testifies  to  the  power  of  the  writer,  while  the 
music  of  the  versification  delights  the  ear.     His  lyric  of  "  King 
Cln-istian,"  now  the  national  song  of  Denmark,  is  a  masterly 
ju'oduction  of  its  kind. 

During  the  forty  years  which  succeeded  the  death  of  Evald, 


DANISH    LITER ATUKE.  395 

Denmark  produced  a  great  number  of  poets  and  authors  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  who  advanced  the  fame  of  their  country  ;  but  the 
chief  of  those  who  closed  the  18th  century  are  Baggesen  (1764- 
1826)  and  Rahbek  (1760-1830).  Though  they  still  wrote  in 
the  19th  century,  they  belonged  in  spirit  essentially  to  the  18th. 
The  life  of  Baggesen  was  a  genuine  romance,  with  all  its  sun- 
shine and  shade.  lie  was  born  in  poverty  and  obscurity,  and 
when  a  child  of  seven  years  old,  on  one  occasion,  attracted  the 
momentary  attention  of  the  young  and  lovely  Queen  Caroline, 
who  took  him  in  her  arms  and  kissed  him.  "  Still,  after  half  a 
century,"  he  writes,  "glows  the  memory  of  that  kiss;  to  all 
eternity  I  shall  never  forget  it.  From  this  kiss  sprung  the  germ 
of  my  entire  succeeding  fate."  After  a  long  and  severe  struggle 
with  poverty,  he  suddenly  found  himself  the  most  popular  poet 
of  the  country,  and  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  he  was  the  petted 
favorite  of  the  nation.  Supplanted  in  public  favor  by  the  rising 
glory  of  Oehlenschlager,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  see  the  poetic 
crown  of  Denmark  placed  on  the  head  of  his  rival;  and  the  last 
years  of  his  life  were  embittered  by  disappointment  and  care. 
The  works  of  Baggesen  fill  twelve  volumes,  and  consist  of  comic 
stories,  numerous  letters,  satires  and  impassioned  lyrics,  songs 
and  ballads,  besides  dramas  and  operas.  His  "  Poems  to  Nanna," 
who,  in  the  northern  mythology,  is  the  bride  of  Balder,  are 
among  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Danish  language,  and  no  poet 
could  have  written  them  until  he  had  gone  through  the  deep  and 
ennobling  baptism  of  suffering.  In  these,  Nanna  is  the  symbol 
of  the  pure  and  eternal  principle  of  love,  and  Balder  is  the  type 
of  the  human  heart,  perpetually  yearning  after  it  in  sorrow,  yet 
in  hope.  Nanna  appears  lost — departed  into  a  higher  and  invi- 
sible world  ;  and  Balder,  while  forever  seeking  after  her,  bears 
with  him  an  internal  consciousness  that  there  he  shall  overtake 
her,  and  possess  her  eternally.  One  of  Baggesen's  characteris- 
tics was  the  projection  of  great  schemes,  which  were  never 
accomplished.  He  was  too  fond  of  living  in  the  present — in  the 
charmed  circle  of  admirins*  friends — to  achieve  works  otherwise 
within  the  limit  of  his  powers.  But  with  all  his  faults,  his  works 
will  always  remain  brilliant  and  beautiful  amid  the  literary 
wealth  of  his  country. 

Bahbek  was  more  distinguished  as  a  literary  man  than  as  a 
great  writer.  No  original  works  establish  his  name  preeminently 
in  the  temple  of  his  country's  fame,  but  he  left  a  mass  of  able 
and  interesting  compositions,  in  poetry,  criticism  and  almost 
every  ])ranch   of  polite   literature,   so  intermingled   with  thq 


30G  DANISH    LITEIIATUIIE. 

period  in  which  he  Uved,  that  they  must  always  remain  there, 
and  identify  him  with  his  country  and  his  age. 

The  19th  century  opens  with  the  name  of  Oehlenschlager  (1179 
-1856),  the  greatest  poet  of  Denmark,  and  the  representative 
not  only  of  the  north,  but  of  the  broader  and  more  natural  spirit 
of  his  tune.  With  Scott,  Byron,  Goethe  and  Schiller,  he  is  the 
growth  of  a  great  era,  in  which  the  soul  of  mighty  events  looked 
forth  in  new  and  divine  forms,  and  cast  down  all  dead  shapes 
and  the  hollow  surface-work  of  imitation.  Oehlenschliiger's  philo- 
sophy of  poetry,  which  he  was  so  successful  in  carrying  out,  he 
thus  briefly  sums  up  :  "In  all  times  have  splendid  human  facul- 
ties developed  themselves  but  one-sidedly.  It  is  the  vocation  of 
the  poet  to  collect  all  the  flowers  of  the  ages  into  one  ideal  floral 
wreath.  The  events  and  the  great  characters  of  ancient  times 
he  shall  complete  and  ennoble  ;  that  is,  he  shall  give  their, 
something  of  his  own  times,  philosophy  and  enlightenment,  and 
he  shall  prove  his  genius  by  making  this  union  natural  and 
beautiful."  The  most  successful  of  his  early  poems  was  the 
drama  of  "Aladdin."  This  was  followed  by  "  Hakon  Jarl," 
which  describes  the  conflict  of  Christianity  with  Paganism, 
"  Palnatoke,"  the  Tell  of  Scanchnavia,  "  Correggio,"  a  poetical 
reading  drama,  and  many  others  of  greater  or  less  merit.  In 
1819  he  published  the  "  Gods  of  the  North,"  in  which  he  com- 
bines all  the  legends  of  the  Edda  into  one  connected  whole.  He 
entered  fully  into  the  spirit  of  those  grand  old  poems,  and  con- 
densed and  elaborated  them  into  one.  In  the  various  regions  of 
gods,  giants,  dwarfs  and  men,  in  the  striking  variety  of  charac- 
ters, the  great  and  wise  Odin,  the  mighty  Thor,  the  good  Balder, 
the  malicious  Loke,  the  queenly  Frigga,  the  genial  Freya,  the 
lovely  Iduna,  the  gentle  Nanna — in  all  the  magnificent  scenery 
of  Midgard,  Asgard  and  Nifelhem,  with  the  glorious  tree  Ygg- 
drasil  and  the  rainbow  bridge,  the  poet  found  inexhaustible 
scope  for  poetical  embelhshment,  and  he  has  availed  himself  of 
it  with  a  genuine  i)oet's  power.  The  dramas  of  Oehlenschlager 
are  his  master-pieces,  but  they  form  only  a  small  portion  of  his 
works.  His  prose  stories  and  romances  fill  several  volumes,  and 
his  smaller  poems  would  of  themselves  have  established  almost  a 
greater  reputation  than  that  of  any  Danish  poet  who  went 
before  him. 

Grundtvig  {h.  1*783)  is  one  of  the  most  original  and  indepen- 
dent minds  of  the  North.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  fervid  and  elo- 
quent; as  a  writer  on  the  Scandinavian  mythology  and  hero-life, 
he  gave,  perhaps,  the  truest  idea  of  the  spirit  of  the  northern 


DANISH    LITER ATUEE.  397 

mj  ths  ;  he  made  masterly  and  extensive  translations  from  tlie 
Latin,  Icelandic  and  Anglo-Saxon  ;  and  as  a  sacred  poet,  bis 
lyric  productions  are  distinguished  by  strength,  tenderness,  grace 
and  heartfelt  devotion. 

Blicher  (b.  1*182),  a  clergyman  of  Jutland,  who  made  his 
native  province  the  scene  of  his  poetry  and  stories,  has  given  to 
them  a  peculiar  tone  and  aspect,  which  may  be  compared  to  the 
style  of  Crabbe  in  English  literature. 

Ingemann  (b.  1789)  is  one  of  the  most  voluminous  writers 
of  Denmark,  in  almost  every  department  of  literature.  Among 
all  his  works,  however,  his  historic  romances  are  preeminent. 
By  the  winter  fire-sides,  throughout  the  north,  in  the  mountains 
and  snow-barricaded  woods,  in  the  huts  of  the  peasant,  the  hun- 
ter and  the  fisherman,  thousands,  forgetting  the  outvrard  world, 
listen  with  delight  to  his  pages. 

Heiberg  (b.  1T91)  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  writers  of  the 
present  age  in  Denmark.  His  genius  has  manifested  itself  in 
various  directions,  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  dramatic 
works.  He  introduced  the  vaudeville  into  the  Danish  theatre, 
and  gave  it  a  higher  and  more  permanent  character  than  it  pos- 
sesses in  France ;  and  his  writings  have  had  a  decided  effect  in 
elevating  the  public  taste. 

From  the  constellation  of  living  writers,  only  a  few  of  the 
more  prominent  names  can  be  here  mentioned.  Among  them  are 
llauch,  a  distinguished  lyric  poet,  dramatist  and  romance  writer; 
Herz,  a  brilliant  poet  and  dramatist;  Muller,  regarded  as  the 
Byron  of  Scandinavia;  and  Boje,  celebrated  for  his  religious 
poetry.  Hans  Christian  Andersen  (b.  1805)  is  known  to  the 
English  reader  by  his  romances,  his  autobiography  and  his 
stories  and  legends  for  the  young,  translated  by  William  and 
Mary  Howitt.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  and  early 
attracted  the  attention  of  persons  in  power,  who,  with  that  libe- 
rality to  youthful  genius  which  is  a  characteristic  of  Denmark, 
enabled  him  to  enter  the  university,  and  afterwards  to  travel 
over  Europe.  Ilis  "  Picture  Book  without  Pictures  "  and  "  Sto- 
ries for  Children  "  will  always  retain  their  simple  and  fascinating 
charm.     The  "  Improvisatore  "  is  the  l)est  of  his  romances. 

The  departments  of  science,  antiquities  and  jurisprudence  pre- 
sent names  equally  brilliant  and  numerous.  In  geography  there  is 
that  of  Malte  Brun;  in  philology  and  literary  antiquities  are  those 
of  Rask,  Grundtvig,  ]\[olbech,  Warsaae,  Rafn,  Finn  Magnusen 
and  others;  and  in  intellectual  philosophy  and  theology  there  are 
many  distinguished  theorists.  Of  the  two  brothers  Oersted,  one 
became  a  lawyer  and  statesman,  occupied  a  high  post  in  the 


398  SWEDISH  literature. 

government,  and  has  done  much  to  establish  the  principles  of 
state  economy;  the  other,  recently  deceased,  devoted  himself  to 
physics,  and  has  won  a  distinguished  name.  His  discovery,  in 
1820,  of  the  identity  of  electricity  and  magnetism,  placed  him  in 
the  highest  rank  of  physical  philosophers,  and  led  the  way  for 
all  the  wonders  of  the  electric  telegraph. 

6.  Swedish  Literature. — The  first  independent  literature  of 
modern  Scandinavia  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  popular  songs 
and  ballads  which,  during  the  middle  ages,  kept  alive  the  germ 
of  intellectual  life.  The  effect  of  the  Reformation  was  soon  seen 
in  the  literature  of  Sweden,  as  of  other  countries.  The  first 
intellectual  development  displayed  itself  in  the  dramatic  attempt 
of  Messenius  and  his  son,  who  changed  and  substituted  actual 
history  for  legendary  and  scriptural  subjects.  The  genius  of 
Sweden,  however,  is  essentially  lyrical,  rather  than  dramatic  or 
epic.  Stjernhjelm  (1598-1672)  was  a  writer  of  great  merit 
— the  author  of  many  dramas,  lyrics,  and  epic  and  didactic 
poems.  He  so  far  surpassed  his  contemporaries  tliat  he  decided 
the  character  of  his  country's  literature  for  a  century;  but  his 
influence  was  finally  lost  in  the  growing  Italian  and  German 
taste.  The  principal  names  of  this  period  are  those  of  Lucidor, 
a  wild,  erratic  genius  ;  Mrs.  Brenner,  the  first  lady  author  of 
Sweden,  whose  numerous  poems  are  distinguished  for  their  neat 
and  easy  style;  and  Spegel  (d.  Hll),  whose  Psalms,  full  of  the 
simplest  beauty,  give  him  a  lasting  place  in  the  literature  of  the 
country.  The  literary  taste  of  Sweden,  in  the  17th  century, 
made  great  progress;  native  genius  awoke  to  conscious  power, 
and  the  finest  productions  of  Europe  were  quoted  and  com- 
mented on. 

During  the  18th  century,  French  taste  prevailed  all  over 
Earope  ;  not  only  the  manners,  etiquette  and  fashions  of  France 
were  imitated,  the  fashion  of  its  literature  was  also  adopted. 
Corneille,  Racine,  Moliere  and  Boileau  stamped  their  peculiar 
philosophy  of  literature  on  the  greater  portion  of  the  civilized 
world.  Imagination  became  frozen  down  into  cold,  glittering 
models  ;  life  and  originality  became  extinct,  imitator  followed 
upon  imitator,  until  there  was  a  universal  dearth  of  soul ;  and 
men  gravely  asserted  that  everything  had  been  said  and  done  in 
poetry  and  literature  that  could  be  said  and  done.  What  a 
glorious  reply  has  since  been  given  to  this  utterance  of  inanity 
and  formalism  in  a  countless  host  of  great  and  original  names, 
all  the  world  knows.  But  in  no  country  was  this  Gallo-mania 
more  strongly  and  enduringly  prevalent  than  in  Sweden,     The 


SWEDISH    LITEEATUEE.  399 

principal  writers  of  the  early  part  of  the  Gallic  period  are  Dalin, 
Nordenflycht,  Creutz  and  Gyllenborg.  As  a  prose  writer,  rather 
than  a  poet,  Dalin  deserves  remembrance.  He  established  a 
periodical  in  imitation  of  the  "Spectator,"  and  through  this  con- 
ferred the  same  benefits  on  Swedish  literature  that  Addison 
conferred  on  that  of  England — a  great  improvement  in  style,  and 
the  origination  of  a  national  periodical  literature.  Charlotte 
Nordenllycht  (b.  1H8)  is  called  the  Swedish  Sappho.  Her 
poetry  is  all  love  and  sorrow,  as  her  life  was;  in  a  better 
age  she  would  have  been  a  better  poetess,  for  she  possessed 
great  feeling,  passion  and  imagination.  She  exerted  a  wide 
influence  on  the  literary  life  of  her  time,  in  the  capital,  where  the 
coteries  which  sprung  up  about  her  embraced  all  the  poets  of 
the  day.  Gyllenborg  and  Creutz  were  deficient  in  lyric  depth, 
and  were  neither  of  them  poets  of  the  first  order. 

Of  the  midday  of  the  Gallic  era,  the  king,  Gustavus  III. 
(1771-1792),  Kellgren,  Leopold  and  Oxenstjerna  are  the 
chiefs.  Gustavus  was  a  master  of  rhetoric,  and  in  all  his  poeti- 
cal tendencies  fast  bound  to  the  French  system.  He  was,  how- 
ever, the  true  friend  of  Hterature,  and  did  whatever  lay  in  his 
power  to  promote  it,  and  to  honor  and  reward  literary  men.  In 
1786  he  estabUshed  the  Swedish  Academy,  which  for  a  long 
time  continued  to  direct  the  public  taste.  As  an  orator,  Gus- 
tavus has  rarely  found  a  rival  in  the  annals  of  Sweden,  and  his 
dramas  in  prose  possess  much  merit,  and  are  still  read  with 
interest. 

Kellgren  (1751-1795)  was  the  principal  lyric  poet  of  this 
period.  His  works  betray  a  tendency  to  escape  from  the  bond- 
age of  his  age,  and  open  a  new  spring-time  in  Swedish  poetry. 
For  his  own  fame,  and  that  of  his  age,  his  early  death  was  a 
serious  loss.  Leopold  (1756-1829)  continued  to  sway  the  lite- 
rary sceptre,  after  the  death  of  Kellgren,  for  the  remainder  of 
the  century.  He  is  best  known  by  his  dramas  and  miscellaneous 
poems.  His  plays  have  the  faults  that  belong  to  his  school,  but 
many  of  his  poems  abound  with  striking  thoughts,  and  are  elastic 
and  graceful  in  style.  The  great  writer  of  this  period,  however, 
was  Oxenstjerna  (1750-1818),  a  descriptive  poet,  who,  with  all 
the  faults  of  his  age  and  school,  displays  a  deep  feeling  of  nature. 
His  pictures  of  simple  life,  amid  the  fields  and  woods  of  Sweden, 
are  full  of  idyllic  beauty  and  attractive  grace. 

As  the  French  taste  overspread  Europe  at  very  nearly  the 
same  time,  so  its  influence  decayed  and  died  out  almost  simulta- 
neously. In  France  itself,  long  before  the  close  of  the  18th 
century,  elements  were  at  work  destined  to  produce  the  most  ex- 


400  SWEDISH    LITEEATUEE. 

traordinary  changes  in  the  political,  social  and  literary  condition 
of  the  "vvorld.  Even  those  authors  who  were  most  French  were 
most  concerned  in  preparing  this  astounding  revolution.  In  many 
countries  it  was  not  the  French  doctrines  but  the  French  events 
that  startled,  dazzled  and  excited  the  human  heart  and  imagina- 
tion, and  produced  the  greatest  effects  on  literature.  Those  who 
sympathized  least  with  French  views  were  often  most  influenced 
by  the  magnificence  of  the  scenes  which  swept  over  the  face  of 
the  civilized  world,  and  antagonism  was  not  less  potent  than 
sympathy  to  arouse  the  energies  of  mind.  But  even  before  these 
movements  had  produced  any  marked  effect,  Gallic  influence  be- 
gan to  give  way,  and  genius  began  freely  to  range  the  earth  and 
choose  its  materials  wherever  God  and  man  were  to  be  found. 

The  heralds  of  the  new  era  in  Sweden  were  Bellman,  Hall- 
man,  Kexel,  Wallenberg,  Lidner,  Thorild  and  Lengren.  Bell- 
man (1140-n95)  is  regarded  by  the  Swedes  with  great  en- 
thusiasm. There  is  something  so  perfectly  national  in  his  spirit 
that  he  finds  an  echo  of  infinite  delight  in  all  Swedish  hearts. 
Everything  patriotic,  connected  with  home  life  and  feelings,  home 
memories,  the  loves  and  pleasures  of  the  past,  all  seem  to  be 
associated  with  the  songs  of  Bellman.  Hallman,  his  friend, 
wrote  comedies  and  farces.  His  characters  are  drawn  from  the 
bacchanalian  class  described  in  Bellman's  Ivrics,  but  thev  are  not 
sufficiently  varied  in  their  scope  and  sphere  to  create  an  actual 
Swedish  drama.  Kexel,  the  friend  of  the  two  last  named,  lived 
a  gay  and  vagabond  life,  and  is  celebrated  for  his  comedies. 
Wallenberg  was  a  clergyman,  full  of  the  enjoyment  of  hfe,  and 
disposed  to  see  the  most  amusing  side  of  everything.  Lidner 
and  Thorild,  unlike  the  writers  just  named,  were  grave,  passion- 
ate and  sorrowful.  Lidner  was  a  nerve-sick,  over-excited  genius ; 
but  many  of  his  inspired  thoughts  struck  deep  into  the  heart  of 
the  time,  and  Swedish  literature  is  highly  indebted  to  Thorild 
for  the  spirit  of  manly  freedom  and  the  principles  of  sound 
reasoning  and  taste  which  he  introduced  into  it. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  names  of  the  transition  period  is 
that  of  Anna  Maria  Lengren  (1154-1811).  She  has  depicted 
the  scenes  of  domestic  and  social  life  with  a  skill  and  firmness, 
and  yet  delicacy  of  touch  that  is  perhaps  more  difficult  of  attain- 
ment than  the  broad  lines  of  a  much  more  ambitious  style.  Her 
scenes  and  personages  are  all  types,  and  her  heroes  and  heroines 
continually  present  themselves  in  Swedish  life  in  perpetual  and 
amusing  reproduction.  These  poems  will  secure  her  a  place 
am.ong  the  classical  writers  of  her  country. 

The  political  revolution  of  1809  secured  the  freedom  of  the 


SWEDISH    LITEKATUKE.  401 

press,  near  men  arose  for  the  new  times,  and  a  deadly  war  was 
waged  between  the  old  school  and  the  new,  until  the  latter 
triumphed.  The  first  distinguished  names  of  the  new  school  are 
those  of  Franzen  and  Wallin.  Franzeu  (1172-1841),  a  bishop, 
was  celebrated  for  his  lyrics  of  social  life,  and  in  many  points 
resembles  Wordsworth.  The  qualities  of  heart,  the  home 
affections  and  the  gladsome  and  felicitous  appreciation  of  the 
beauty  of  life  and  nature  found  in  his  poems,  give  him  his  great 
charm.  Archbishop  Wallin  (1719-1839)  is  the  great  religious 
poet  of  Sweden.  In  his  hymns  there  is  a  strength  and  majesty,  a 
solemn  splendor  and  harmony  of  intonation,  that  have  no  parallel 
in  the  Swedish  languao-e. 

Among  other  writers  of  the  time  are  Atterbom,  Ham- 
marskold  and  Palmblad.  The  works  of  Atterbom  (b.  1790) 
indicate  great  lyrical  talent,  but  they  have  an  airy  unreality, 
which  disappoints  the  healthy  appetite  of  modern  readers. 
Hammarskold  (1785-1827)  was  an  able  critic  and  literary 
historian,  though  his  poems  are  of  little  value.  Palmblad, 
besides  being  a  critic,  is  the  author  of  several  novels  and  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek.  These  three  writers  belonged  to  the 
Phosphoric  School,  so  called  from  a  periodical  called  "  The 
Phosphorus,"  which  advocated  their  opinions. 

The  most  distinguished  school  in  Swedish  literature  is  the 
Gothic,  which  took  its  rise  in  1811,  and  which,  aiming  at  a  na- 
tional spirit  and  character,  embraced  in  that  nationality  all  the 
Gothic  race  as  one  original  family,  possessing  the  same  ancestry, 
original  religion,  traditions,  and  even  still  the  same  spirit,  predilec- 
tions and  language,  although  broken  into  different  dialects.  This 
new  school  had  truth,  nature  and  the  spirit  of  the  nation  and  the 
times  with  it,  and  it  speedily  triumphed.  First  in  the  rank  of 
its  originators  may  be  placed  Geijer  (1783-1847),  who  was  at 
once  a  poet,  musician  and  historian ;  his  poems  are  among  the 
most  precious  treasures  of  Swedish  literature.  In  his  "  Chroni- 
cles of  Sweden  "  he  penetrates  far  up  amid  the  darkness  and  mist 
of  antiquity,  and  brings  thence  magnificent  traces  of  men  and 
ages  that  point  still  onward  to  the  times  and  haunts  of  the 
world's  youth.  The  work  presents  all  that  belongs  to  the  North, 
its  gods,  its  mythic  doctrines,  its  grand  traditions,  its  heroes, 
vikings,  runes  and  poets  carrying  whole  ages  of  history  in  their 
trains.  In  his  hands  the  dry  bones  of  history  and  chronology 
live  like  the  actual  flesh  and  blood  of  the  present  time.  As 
Geijer  is  the  first  historian  of  Sweden,  so  is  Teguer  (1782-1846) 
the  first  poet;  and  in  his"  Frithiof's  Saga"  he  has  made  the 
nearest  approach  to  a   successful  epic  writer.     Although  this 


402  SWEDISH    LITERATURE. 

poem  lias  rather  the  character  of  a  series  of  lyrical  poems  woven 
into  ail  epic  cycle,  it  is  still  a  complete  and  great  poem.  It  is 
characterized  by  tender,  sensitive  and  delicate  feeling  rather  than 
by  deep  and  overwhelming  passion.  In  the  story  he  has  for  the 
most  part  adhered  to  the  ancient  Saga.  Tegner  is  as  yet  only 
the  most  popular  poet  of  Sweden ;  but  the  bold  advance  which 
he  has  made  beyond  the  established  models  of  the  country  shows 
what  Swedish  poets  may  yet  accomplish  by  following  on  in  the 
track  of  a  higher  and  freer  enterprise.  The  other  most  promi- 
nent poets  of  the  new  school  are  Stagnelius  (1793-1828),  who 
bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  Shelley  in  his  tendency  to  the 
mythic  and  speculative,  and  in  his  wonderful  power  of  language 
and  affluence  of  inspired  phrase;  Alniquist,  an  able  and  varied 
writer,  who  has  written  with  great  wit,  brilliancy  and  power  in 
almost  every  department;  Vitalis  (d.  1828),  the  author  of 
some  religious  poetry;  Dahlgrcn,  an  amusing  author,  and  Fahl- 
crantz,  who  wrote  "  ^Noah's  Ark,"  a  celebrated  humorous  poem. 
Runeberg,  one  of  the  truest  and  greatest  poets  of  the  North,  is 
a  Finn  by  birth,  though  he  writes  in  Swedish ;  with  all  the  wild 
melancholy  character  of  his  country,  he  mingles  a  deep  feeling  of 
its  sufferings  and  its  wrongs.  His  verse  is  solemn  and  strong, 
like  the  spirit  of  its  subject.  He  brings  before  you  the  wild 
wastes  and  the  dark  woods  of  his  native  land,  and  its  brave, 
simple,  enduring  people.  You  feel  the  wind  blow  fresh  from  the 
vast,  dark  woodlands;  you  follow  the  elk-hunters  through  the 
pine  forests  or  along  the  shores  of  remote  lakes ;  you  lie  in  desert 
huts  and  hear  the  narratives  of  the  struggles  of  the  inhabitants 
with  the  ungenial  elements,  or  then*  contentions  with  more  un- 
genial  men.  Runeberg  seizes  on  life  wherever  it  presents  itself 
in  strong  and  touching  forms — in  the  beggar,  the  gypsy,  or  the 
malefactor — it  is  enough  for  him  that  it  is  human  nature,  doing 
and  suffering,  and  in  these  respects  he  stands  preeminently  above 
all  the  poets  of  Sweden. 

Besides  the  poets  already  spoken  of,  there  are  many  others 
who  cannot  here  be  even  named. 

If  the  literature  of  Sweden  is  almost  wholly  modern,  its  ro- 
mance literature  is  especially  so.  Cederborg  was  not  unlike 
Dickens  in  his  peculiar  walk  and  character,  and  in  all  his 
l)urlesque  there  is  something  kind,  amiable  and  excellent.  He 
was  followed  by  many  others,  who  displayed  much  talent,  correct 
sketching  of  costumes  and  manners,  and  touches  of  true  descrii> 
tive  nature. 

But  an  authoress  now  appeared  who  was  to  create  a  new  era 
in  Swedish  novel-writing,  and  to  connect  the  literary  name  and 


SWEDISH    LITEKATURE.  403 

interests  of  Sweden  more  intimately  with  the  whole  civilized 
world.  In  1828,  Fredrika  Bremer  published  her  first  works, 
which  were  soon  followed  bv  others,  all  of  which  attracted  imme- 
diate  attention.  Later  they  were  made  known  to  the  English 
and  American  public  through  the  admirable  translations  of  Mrs. 
Howitt,  and  now  they  are  as  familiar  as  "  Robinson  Crusoe,"  or 
the  "  Yicar  of  Wakefield,"  wherever  the  English  language  is 
spoken.  Wherever  these  works  have  been  known  they  have 
awakened  a  more  genial  feeling  of  life,  a  better  view  of  the  world 
and  its  destinies,  a  deeper  trust  in  Providence,  and  a  persuasion 
that  to  enjoy  existence  truly  ourselves  is  to  spread  that  enjoy- 
ment around  us  to  our  fellow-men,  and  especially  by  the  daily 
evidences  of  good-will,  affection,  cheerfulness  and  graceful  atten- 
tion to  the  feelings  of  others,  which  in  the  social  and  domestic 
circle  are  so  small  in  their  appearance,  but  immense  in  their  con- 
sequences. As  a  teacher  of  this  quiet,  smiling,  but  deeply  pene- 
trating philosophy  of  life,  no  writer  has  yet  arisen  superior  to 
Fredrika  Bremer,  while  she  has  all  the  time  not  even  professed 
to  teach,  but  onlv  to  entertain. 

The  success  of  Miss  Bremer's  writings  produced  two  contem- 
poraneous female  novelists  of  no  ordinary  merit — the  Baroness 
Knorring  and  Emily  Carlen.  The  works  of  the  former  are 
distinguished  by  a  brilliant  wit  and  an  extraordinary  power  of 
painting  life  and  passion,  while  a  kind  and  amiable  feeling  per- 
vades those  of  the  latter.  Among  the  later  novelists  of  Sweden 
are  many  names  distinguished  in  other  departments  of  literature. 

In  conclusion,  there  are  in  Sweden  hosts  of  able  authors  in  whose 
hands  all  sciences,  history,  philology,  antiquities,  theology,  every 
branch  of  natural  and  moral  pliilosophy  and  miscellaneous  litera- 
ture have  been  elaborated  with  a  talent  and  industry  of  which 
any  nation  might  be  proud.  Among  the  names  of  a  world-wide 
fame  are  those  of  Swedenborg  (1688-1772),  not  more  remarka- 
ble for  his  peculiar  religious  ideas  than  for  his  profound  and 
varied  acquirements  in  science  ;  Linnieus  (1707-1778),  the 
founder  of  the  established  system  of  botany;  and  Scheele  (1742- 
1786),  eminent  in  chemistry. 

If  the  literature  of  Scandinavia  continues  to  develop  during 
the  present  century  with  the  strength  and  rapidity  it  has  mani- 
fested during  the  last,  it  will  present  to  the  mind  of  the  English 
race  rich  sources  of  enjoyment  of  a  more  congenial  spirit  than 
that  of  any  other  part  of  the  European  continent;  and  the  more 
this  hterature  is  cultivated  the  more  it  will  be  perceived  that  we 
are  less  an  Anglo-Saxon  than  a  Scandinavian  race. 


GEEMAN  LITERATUEE. 

IntrOddction. — 1.  German  Literature  and  Us  Divisions. — 2.  The  Slytliology.— 3.  The 
Languagi;. 

Period  First.— 1.  Early  Literature;  Translation  of  the  Bible  by  Ulphilas  ;  the 
Hlldebrand  Lied. — 2.  The  Age  of  Charlemagne ;  his  Successors  ;  the  Ludwigs  Lied  • 
Koswitha ;  the  Lombard  Cycle,— 3.  The  Suabian  Age ;  the  Crusades ;  the  Minne- 
singers ;  the  Romances  of  Chivah-y  ;  the  Heldenbuch  ;  the  Nibelungen  Lied.— 4.  The 
Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  ;  the  Master  Singers ;  Satires  and  Fables ;  Mys- 
teries and  Dramatic  Representations  ;  the  Mystics  ;  the  Universities  ;  the  Invention  o. 
Printing. 

Period  Second— From  1517  to  ITOO.— 1.  The  Lutheran  Period  ;  Luther,  Melanchthon.— 
2.  Manuel,  Zwingle,  Fischart,  Franck,  Arnd,  Boehm. — 3.  Poetry,  Satire  and  Demono 
logy  ;  Paracelsus  and  Agrippa;  the  Thirty  Years'  War. — 4.  The  Seventeenth  Century 
Opitz,  Leibnitz,  Pufendorf,  Kepler,  AVolf,  Thomasius,  Gerhard;  Silesian  Schools  ;  lIolT- 
mannswaldau,  Lohenstein. 

Pkkiod  Third.— 1.  The  Swiss  and  Saxon  Schools ;  Gottsched,  Bodmer,  Rabener, 
Gellert,  Kastner,  and  others. — 2.  Klopstock,  Lessing,  Wieland  and  Herder.— 3. 
Goethe  and  Schiller.— 4.  The  Gottingen  School;  Voss,  Stolberg,  Claudius,  Burger  and 
others. — .\  The  Romantic  School ;  the  Schlegels,  Novalis  ;  Tieck,  Korner,  Arndt, 
Uhland,  and  others. — 6.  The  Drama;  Goethe  and  Schiller  ;  the  Power  Men  ;  Milliner, 
Werner,  Ilowald  and  Grillparzer. — 7.  Novels,  Romances  and  Legends ;  Goethe, 
Richter,  Tieck,  Novalis,  and  others. — 8.  Literary  History  and  Criticism ;  Winckel- 
mann  ;  the  Schlegels,  Grimm,  and  others. — 9.  History  and  Theology, — 10,  Philosophy  ; 
Kant,  Fich^e,  Schelling  and  Hegel. — 11.  Miscellaneous  Writings. 

IXTRODUCTIOX. 

1.  German  Literature  and  its  Divisions, — Central  Europe, 
from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Baltic,  is  occupied  by  a  people  who,  how- 
ever politically  divided  as  respects  language  and  race,  form  but 
one  nation.  Tiie  name  Germans  is  that,given  to  them  by  the  Eo 
mans  ;  the  appellation  which  they  apply  to  themselves  is  Deutsche 
a  term  derived  from  Teutones,  by  which  they  were  generally 
known,  as  also  by  the  term  Goths,  in  the  early  history  of  Europe. 

In  glancing  at  the  various  phases  of  German  literature,  we 
see  the  bards  at  first  uttering  in  primitive  strains  their  war 
songs  and  traditions.  The  introduction  of  Christianity  brought 
with  it  the  cultivation  of  the  classic  languages,  although  the  peo- 
j)le  had  no  part  in  this  learned  literature,  which  was  confined  to 
the  monasteries  and  schools.  In  the  12th  and  13th  centuries, 
letters,  so  long  monopolized  by  the  clergy,  passed  from  their 
hands  to  those  of  the  princes  and  nobles  ;  and  in  the  next  ccn- 

404 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  405 

tury  the  songs  of  the  minnesingers  gave  way  to  the  pedantic 
craft  of  the  mastersingers. 

A  great  intellectual  regeneration  followed  the  Reformation, 
but  it  was  of  brief  duration.  With  the  death  of  Luther  and 
Melanchthou  the  lofty  spirit  of  reform  degenerated  into  scholas- 
ticism, and  the  scholars  were  as  exclusive  in  their  dispensation 
of  intellectual  light  as  the  clergy  had  been  at  an  earUer  period. 
While  the  priests,  the  minstrels  and  the  bookmen  had  each  en- 
larged the  avenues  to  knowledge,  they  were  still  closed  and 
locked  to  the  masses  of  the  people  ;  and  so  they  remained,  until 
philosophy  arose  to  break  down  all  barriers  and  to  throw  open 
to  humanity  at  large  the  whole  domain  of  knowledge  and  litera- 
ture. 

In  the  midst  of  the  convulsions  which  marked  the  close  of  the 
18th  century,  the  leading  minds  of  Germany  sought  a  solution 
of  the  great  problems  of  civilization  in  the  abysses  of  philosophy. 
Kant  and  his  compeers  gave  an  electric  impulse  to  the  German 
mind,  the  effects  of  which  were  manifest  in  the  men  who  soon 
arose  to  apply  the  new  discoveries  of  philosophy  to  literature. 
In  Lessing,  Herder,  Goethe  and  Schiller,  the  clergy,  the  minstrels 
and  the  bookmen  were  each  represented,  but  philosophy  had 
breathed  into  them  an  all-embracing,  cosmical  spirit  of  humanity, 
and  under  their  influence  German  literature  soon  lost  its  exclu- 
sive and  sectional  character,  and  became  cosmopolitan  and  uni- 
versal. 

The  long  cycle  of  literary  experiments,  however,  is  not  yet 
completed.  Since  the  philosophers  have  accomplished  their  mis- 
sion by  establishing  principles,  and  the  poets  have  made  them- 
selves intelligible  to  the  masses,  the  German  mind  has  entered 
upon  the  exploration  of  all  spheres  of  learning,  and  is  making 
new  and  great  advances  in  the  solution  of  the  problems  of 
humanity.  The  most  eminent  scholars,  no  longer  pursuing  their 
studies  as  a  matter  of  art  or  taste,  are  inspired  by  the  noble  de- 
sire of  diffusing  knowledge  and  benefiting  their  fellow  beings  ; 
and  to  grapple  with  the  laws  of  nature,  and  to  secure  those  con- 
ditions best  adapted  to  the  highest  human  welfare,  is  their  lead- 
ing aim.  The  German  explorers  of  the  universe  have  created  a 
new  school  of  natural  philosophers ;  German  historians  are  sifting 
the  records  of  the  past  and  bringing  forth  great  political,  social 
and  scientific  revelations.  In  geography,  ethnology,  philology  and 
in  all  branches  of  science  men  of  powerful  minds  are  at  woik 
carrying  the  same  enthusiasm  into  the  world  of  fact  that  the 
poets  have  shown  in  the  fairy-land  of  the  imagination.  To  thcvse 
earnest  questioners,  these  untiring  explorers,  nature  is  reluctantly 


406  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

unveiling  her  mysteries,  and  history  is  giving  up  the  buried 
secrets  of  the  ages.  The  lyre  of  the  bard  may  be  silent  for  a 
time,  but  this  mighty  struggle  with  the  forces  of  nature  and  with 
the  obscurities  of  the  past,  will  at  last  inspire  a  new  race  of 
poets  and  open  a  new  vein  of  poetry,  far  more  rich  than  the  world 
of  fiincy  has  ever  afforded.  Science,  regarded  from  this  lofty 
point  of  view,  will  gradually  assume  epic  proportions,  and  other 
and  more  powerful  Schillers  and  Goethes  will  arise  to  illustrate 
its  achievements. 

The  history  of  German  literature  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods  : 

The^;'5^,  extending  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Reformation,  1517,  embraces  the  early  literature  ;  that 
of  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  and  his  successors  ;  that  of  the 
Suabian  age,  (1138-1272,)  and  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  reign 
of  the  House  of  Hapsburg, 

The  second  period,  extending  from  1517  to  1700,  includes  the 
literature  of  the  age  of  the  Reformation,  and  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

The  third  period,  from  1700  to  the  present  time,  contains  the 
development  of  German  literature  in  the  18th  and  19th  centuries. 

2.  The  Mythology. — The  German  mythology  is  almost  iden- 
tical with  the  Scandinavian,  and  in  it,  as  in  all  the  legends  of  the 
Jsorth,  w^omen  play  an  important  part.  Indeed  they  occupied  a 
far  higher  position  among  these  ancient  barbarians  than  in  the 
polished  nations  of  Greece  and  Rome.  *'  It  is  believed,"  says 
Tacitus,  *'  that  there  is  something  holy  and  prophetic  about  them, 
and  therefore  the  warriors  neither  despise  their  counsels  nor  dis- 
regard then*  responses." 

The  Paganism  of  the  North,  less  graceful  and  beautiful  than 
that  of  Greece,  had  still  the  same  tendency  to  people  earth, 
air  and  water  with  beings  of  its  own  creation.  The  rivers  had 
their  Undines,  the  ocean  its  Kixes,  the  caverns  their  Gnomes, 
and  the  woods  their  Sprites.  Christianity  did  not  deny  the  ex- 
istence of  these  supernatural  races,  but  it  invested  them  with  a 
demoniac  character.  They  were  not  regarded  as  immortal, 
although  permitted  to  attain  an  age  far  beyond  that  granted  to 
mankind,  and  they  were  denied  the  hope  of  salvation,  unless 
purchased  by  a  union  with  creatures  of  an  earthly  mould. 

According  to  the  Edda,  the  Dwarfs  were  formed  by  Odin  from 
the  dust.  They  were  either  Coholds — house  spirits  who  attach 
themselves  to  the  fortunes  of  the  family,  and  if  well  fed  and 
treated, nestle  beside  the  domestic  hearth — or  Gnomes,  who  haunt 


GERMAX   LITERATURE.  407 

deserted  mansions  and  deep  caverns.  The  mountain  ecliocs  are 
the  mingled  sounds  of  their  voices  as  they  mock  the  cries  of  the 
wanderer,  and  the  fissures  of  the  rocks  are  the  entrances  to 
their  subterranean  abodes.  Here  they  have  heaped  up  count- 
less treasures  of  gold,  silver  and  precious  stones,  and  here  they 
pass  their  time  in  fabricating  costly  armor.  The  German  Elves, 
like  those  of  other  climes,  have  an  irresistible  propensity  to  dance 
and  song  ;  especially  the  Nixes,  who,  rising  from  their  river 
or  ocean  home,  will  seat  themselves  on  the  shore  and  pour  forth 
such  sweet  music  as  to  enchant  all  who  hear  them,  and  are  ever 
ready  to  impart  their  wondrous  skill  for  the  hope  or  promise  of 
salvation.  To  secure  this  they  also  lure  young  maidens  to  their 
watery  domains,  and  force  or  persuade  them  to  become  their 
brides.  If  they  submit  they  are  allowed  to  sit  on  the  rocks  and 
wreathe  their  tresses  with  corals,  sea-weeds  and  shells  ;  but  if 
they  manifest  any  desire  to  return  to  their  homes,  a  streak  of 
blood  on  the  surface  of  the  waters  tells  the  dark  story  of  their 
doom. 

The  Walkyres  are  the  youthful  maidens  who  have  died  upon 
their  bridal  eve,  and  who,  unable  to  rest  in  their  graves,  return 
to  earth  and  dance  in  the  silver  rays  of  the  moon  ;  but  if  a  mor- 
tal chances  to  meet  them,  they  surround  and  draw  him  within 
their  magic  ring  till,  faint  and  exhausted,  he  falls  lifeless  to  the 
earth.  Not  less  dangerous  are  the  river-maids,  who  rising  to 
the  surface  of  the  stream,  lure  the  unwary  traveller  into  the 
depths  below.  There  are  also  the  white  women,  who  often 
appear  at  dawn  or  evening  with  their  pale  faces  and  shadowy 
forms  ;  these  are  the  Goddesses  of  ancient  Paganism,  con- 
demned to  wander  through  ages  to  expiate  the  guilt  of  having 
received  divine  worship,  and  to  suffer  eternal  punishment  if  not 
redeemed  by  mortal  aid.  Among  the  Goddesses,  who,  in  the 
form  of  white  women,  were  long  believed  to  exercise  an  influ- 
ence for  good  or  ill  on  human  affairs,  Hertha  and  Frigga  play 
the  m/Dst  conspicuous  parts  and  figure  in  many  wild  legends  ; 
proving  how  strong  was  the  hold  which  the  creed  of  their  ances- 
tors had  on  the  minds  of  the  Germans  long  after  its  idols  had 
been  broken  and  its  shrines  destroved.  Hertha  still  cherished 
the  same  beneficent  disposition  ascribed  to  her  in  the  old 
mythology,  and  continued  to  watch  over  and  aid  mankind  until 
driven  away  by  the  calumnies  of  which  she  was  the  victim, 
while  Frigga  appears  as  a  fearful  ogress  and  sorceress. 

These  popular  superstitions,  which  retained  their  power  over 

the  minds  of  the  people  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  which  even 

'now  are  not  wholly  eradicated,  have  furnished  a  rich  mine  from 


408  GERMAN   LITEKATUKE. 

which  the  poets  and  tale  writers  of  Germany  have  derived 
that  element  of  the  supernatural  by  which  they  are  so  often 
characterized. 

3.  The  Language. — The  Teutonic  languages,  which  belong  to 
the  Indo-European  stock,  consist  of  two  branches,  the  IS^orthern 
or  Scandinavian,  and  the  Southern  or  German  of  the  continent. 
The  latter  has  three  subdivisions,  the  Eastern  or  Gothic,  with 
its  kindred  idioms,  the  high  German  or  German  proper — the 
literary  idiom  of  Germany — and  the  low  German,  which  in- 
cludes the  Frisian,  old  Saxon,  Anglo-Saxon,  Dutch  and  Flemish. 
The  high  German,  or  German  proper,  comprehends  the  lan- 
guage of  three  periods  :  the  old  high  German,  which  prevailed 
from  the  1th  to  the  11th  century  ;  the  middle  high  German, 
from  the  11th  century  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  and  the 
new  high  German,  which  dates  from  the  time  of  Luther,  and  is 
the  present  literary  language  of  the  country. 

No  modern  language  equals  the  German  in  its  productiveness 
and  its  capacity  of  constant  and  homogeneous  growth,  in  its 
esthetical  and  philosophical  character,  and  in  its  originality  and 
independence.  Instead  of  borrowing  from  the  Greek,  Latin  and 
other  languages,  to  find  expressions  for  new  combinations  of 
ideas,  it  develops  its  own  resources  by  manifold  compositions  of 
its  own  roots,  words,  and  particles.  To  express  one  idea  in  its 
various  modifications,  the  English  requires  Teutonic,  Greek  and 
Latin  elements,  while  the  German  tongue  unfolds  all  the  varie- 
ties of  the  same  idea  by  a  series  of  compositive  words  founded 
upon  one  Gothic  root.  The  German  language,  therefore,  while 
it  is  far  superior  in  originality,  flexibility,  richness  and  univer- 
sality, does  not  admit  the  varieties  which  distinguish  the  English. 

TERIOD  FIRST. 

From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Reformation  (3G0-1517). 

1.  Early  Ltterature. — Previous  to  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  the  Germans  had  nothing  worthy  of  the  name  of 
literature.  The  first  monument  that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Moeso-Gothic,  by  Ulphilas,  bisliop 
of  the  Goths  (360-388),  who  thus  anticipated  the  work  of 
Luther  by  a  thousand  years. 

As  the  art  of  writing  was  unknown  to  the  Gotlis,  Ulphilas 
formed  an  alphabet  by  combining  Runic,  Greek  and  Roman 
letters,  and  down  to  the  9th  century  this  version  was  held  in' 


GERMAN   LITEEATUKE.  409 

high  esteem,  and  seems  to  have  been  in  general  use.  For  nearly 
400  years  after  Ulpbilas,  no  trace  of  literatm"e  is  discovered 
among  the  Teutonic  tribes.  They,  however,  had  their  war 
songs,  and  minstrel  skill  seems  to  have  been  highly  prized  by 
them.  These  lays  were  collected  by  Charlemagne,  and  are  de- 
scribed by  Eginhardt  as  "  ancient  barbarous  poems,  celebrating 
the  deeds  and  wars  of  the  men  of  old  ;"  but  they  have  nearly  all 
disappeared,  owing,  probably,  to  the  refusal  of  the  monks,  then 
the  only  scribes,  to  transmit  to  paper  aught  w^hich  tended  to 
recall  the  rites  and  myths  of  Paganism.  Only  two  relics  of  this 
age,  in  their  primitive  form,  remain  ;  they  are  rhymeless,  but 
alliterated — a  kind  of  versification  common  to  the  German,  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Scandinavian  poetry,  and  which  early  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury gave  place 'to  rhyme.  Of  these  two  poems,  the  Hildebrand 
Lied  is  probably  a  fragment  of  the  traditions  which  had  circu- 
lated orally  for  centuries,  and  which,  with  many  modifications, 
w^re  transcribed  by  the  Scandinavians  in  their  sagas,  and  by 
Charlemagne  in  his  collection.  None  of  the  other  poems  which 
have  come  down  to  us  from  this  period  bear  an  earlier  date  than 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  when  they  were  remodelled,  and 
^ppeared  in  the  form  of  the  Heldenbuch  and  Kibelungen  Lied. 
The  Hildebrand  Lied  belongs  to  the  cycle  of  Theodoric  the 
Great,  or  Dietrich  of  Bern  or  Yerona,  as  he  is  called  in  poetry, 
from  that  town  being  the  seat  of  his  government  after  he  had 
subdued  the  Empire  of  the  West.  This  poem,  though  rude  and 
wild,  is  not  without  grandeur  and  dramatic  effect. 

2.  Charlemagne  and  his  Successors. — The  era  of  Charle- 
magne, in  all  respects  so  memorable,  could  not  be  without  influ- 
ence on  the  literature  of  Germany,  then  in  a  condition  of  almost 
primitive  rudeness.  The  German  language  "was  taught  by  his 
command  in  the  schools  and  academies  which  he  established  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire  ;  he  caused  the  monks  to  preach  in  the 
vernacular  tongue,  and  he  himself  composed  the  elements  of  a 
grammar  for  the  use  of  his  subjects.  He  recompensed  with 
imperial  munificence  the  learned  men  who  resorted  to  his  court  ; 
Alcuin,  Theodophilus,  Paul  Winifred  and  Eginhardt  were  hon- 
ored with  his  peculiar  confidence.  Under  his  influence  the 
monasteries  became  literary  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  seminaries, 
which  produced  such  men  as  Otfried  (fl.  840),  the  author  of  the 
rhymed  Gospel-])Ook,  and  Notker  Tcutonicus,  the  translator  of 
the  Psalms. 

After  the  death  of  Charlemagne  the  intellectual  prospects  of 
Germany  darkened.     The  empire  was  threatened  by  the  Xor- 

18 


410  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

mans  from  the  west,  and  the  Hungarians  from  the  cast,  and 
there  were  few  places  where  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  the  monas- 
teries and  schools  could  be  carried  on  without  interruption. 

The  most  important  relic  of  the  last  part  of  the  9th  century  is 
the  **  Ludwio;s  Lied,"  a  hymn  celebratinsr  the  victory  of  Louis 
over  the  Normans,  composed  by  a  monk  with  whom  that 
monarch  was  on  terms  of  great  intimacy.  The  style  is  coarse 
and  energetic,  and  blends  tlie  triumphant  emotions  of  the  warrior 
with  the  pious  devotion  of  the  recluse.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
10th  century,  Roswitha,  a  nun,  composed  several  dramas  in  Latin, 
characterized  by  true  Christian  feeling  and  feminine  tenderness. 

The  11th  century  presents  almost  an  entire  blank  in  the  his- 
tory of  German  literature.  The  country  was  invaded  by  the 
Hungarian  and  Slavonic  armies  from  abroad,  o?  was  the  scene 
of  contest  between  the  emperors  and  their  vassals  at  home,  and 
in  the  struggle  between  Henry  IV.  and  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  the 
clergy,  who  had  hitherto  been  the  chief  supporters  of  their  litera- 
ture, became  estranged  from  the  German  people. 

A  series  of  lays  or  poems,  however,  known  as  the  Lombard 
Cycle,  belongs  to  this  age,  among  which  are  "  Duke  Ernest," 
"  Count  Rudolph,"  and  others,  which  combine  the  wild  legends 
of  Paganism  with  the  more  courtly  style  of  the  next  period. 

3.  The  Suabian  Age. — A  splendid  epoch  of  belles-lettres 
dates  from  the  year  1138,  when  Conrad  III.,  of  the  Hohen- 
stauffen  dynasty,  ascended  the  throne  of  the  German  Empire. 
The  Crusades,  which  followed,  filled  Germany  with  religious  and 
martial  excitement,  and  chivalry  was  soon  in  the  height  of  its 
splendor.  The  grand  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  produced 
during  tliis  period,  the  cathedrals  of  Ulm,  Strasbourg  and 
Cologne,  in  which  ponderous  piles  of  matter  were  reduced  to 
forms  of  beauty,  speak  of  the  great  ideas  and  the  great  powers 
called  into  exercise  to  fulfill  them.  The  commercial  wealth  of 
Germany  was  rapidly  developed  ;  thousands  of  serfs  became 
freemen  ;  large  cities  arose,  mines  were  discovered,  and  a  taste 
for  luxury  began  to  prevail. 

In  1149,  when  the  emperor  undertook  a  crusade  in  concert 
with  Louis  VII.  of  France,  the  nobility  of  Germany  were 
brought  into  habitual  acquaintance  with  the  nobility  of  France, 
who  at  that  time  cultivated  Provencal  poetry,  and  the  result 
^vas  quickly  apparent  in  German  literature.  The  poets  began 
to  take  tlieir  inspiration  from  real  life,  and  though  fiir  from  being 
imitators,  tlicy  borrowed  their  models  from  the  romantic  cycles 
of  Brittany  and  Provence. 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  411 

The  emperors  of  the  Siiabian  or  HohenstaufFen  dynasty 
formed  a  new  rallying-point  for  the  national  sympathies,  and  their 
courts  and  the  castles  of  their  vassals  formed  a  more  genial 
home  for  the  JVIuses  than  the  monasteries  of  Fulda  and  St.  Gall. 
In  the  Crusades,  the  various  divisions  of  the  German  race,  sepa- 
rated after  their  inroad  into  the  seats  of  Roman  civilization, 
again  met;  no  longer  with  tlie  impetuosity  of  Franks  and  Goths, 
but  with  the  polished  reserve  of  a  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  the 
chivalrous  bearing  of  a  Frederic  Barbarossa.  The  German  em- 
perors and  nobles  opened  their  courts  and  received  their  guests 
with  brilliant  hospitaUty  ;  the  splendor  of  their  tournaments  and 
festivals  attracted  crowds  from  great  distances,  and  foremost 
among  them  poets  and  singers  ;  thus  French  and  German  poetry 
were  brought  face  to  face.  While  the  Hohenstauffen  dynasty  re- 
mained on  the  imperial  throne  (1138-1272)  the  Suabian  dialect 
prevailed,  the  literature  of  chivalry  was  patronized  at  the  court, 
and  the  Suabian  minstrels  were  everywhere  heard.  These  poets, 
who  sang  their  love-songs,  or  minne  songs,  (so  called  from  an  old 
German  word  signifying  love,)  have  received  the  name  of  minne 
singers.  During  a  century  and  a  half,  from  1150  to  1300,  em- 
perors, princes,  barons,  priests,  and  minstrels,  vied  with  each 
other  m  translating  and  producing  lays  of  love,  satiric  fables, 
sacred  legends,  fabliaux  and  metrical  romances.  Some  of 
the  bards  were  poor,  and  recited  their  songs  from  court  to 
court ;  but  many  of  them  sang  merely  for  pleasure  when  their 
swords  were  unemployed.  This  poetry  was  essentially  chi- 
valric  ;  ideal  love  for  a  chosen  lady,  the  laments  of  disap- 
pointed affection,  or  the  charms  of  spring,  formed  the  constant 
subjects  of  their  verse.  They  generally  sang  their  own  compo- 
sitions, and  accompanied  themselves  on  the  harp  ;  yet  some  even 
among  the  titled  minstrels  could  neither  read  nor  write,  and  it  is 
related  of  one  that  he  was  forced  to  keep  a  letter  from  his  lady-love 
in  his  bosom  for  ten  days  until  he  could  find  some  one  to  decipher  it. 

Among  the  names  of  nearly  two  hundred  minne-singers  that 
have  come  down  to  us,  the  most  celebrated  are  Wolfram  of 
Eschenbach  (fl.  1210),  Henry  of  Ofterdingen  (fl.  1250),  and 
Walter  of  the  Vogel  Weide  (11*10-1227). 

The  numerous  romances  of  chivalry  which  were  translated 
into  German  rhyme  during  the  Suabian  period  have  been 
divided  into  classes,  or  cycles.  The  first  and  earliest  cycle  relates 
to  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table  ;  they  are  of 
Anglo-Norman  origin,  and  were  probably  derived  from  Welsii 
chronicles  extant  in  Britain  and  Brittany  before  the  poets  on 
either  side  of  the  Channel  began  to  rhyme  in  the  Langue  d^oui. 


412  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

Of  all  the  Round  Table  traditions,  none  became  so  popular  in 
Germany  as  that  of  the  "  San  Graal,"  or  ^'Samg  ReaV^  (the  real 
blood).  By  this  was  understood  a  cup  or  charger,  supposed  to 
have  served  at  the  Last  Supper,  and  to  have  been  employed  in 
receiving  the  precious  blood  of  Christ  from  the  side-wound  given 
on  the  cross.  This  reh'c  is  stated  to  have  been  brought  by  Jo- 
seph of  Arimathea  into  northern  Europe,  and  to  have  been 
intrusted  by  him  to  the  custody  of  Sir  Parcival.  Wolfram  of 
Eschenbach,  in  his  "  Parcival,'^  relates  the  adventures  of  the 
hero  who  passed  many  years  of  pilgrimage  in  search  of  the  sanc- 
tuary of  the  Graal.  The  second  cycle  of  romance,  respecting 
Charlemagne  and  his  twelve  peers,  was  mostly  translated  from 
the  literature  of  France.  The  third  cycle  relates  to  the  heroes 
of  classical  antiquity,  and  exhibits  them  in  the  costume  of  chi- 
valry. Among  them  are  the  stories  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
the  "  Eneid,"  and  the  "  Trojan  War." 

But  the  age  of  German  chivalry  and  chivalric  poetry  soon 
passed  away.  Toward  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  the  Crusades 
languished,  and  the  contest  between  the  imperial  and  papal 
powers  raged  fiercely  ;  with  the  death  of  Frederic  I.  the  star  of 
the  Suabian  dynasty  set,  and  the  sweet  sounds  of  the  Suabian 
lyre  died  away  with  the  last  breath  of  Com'adin  on  the  scaffold 
at  Naples,  in  1268. 

During  this  period,  there  was  a  wide  difference  between  the 
minstrelsy  patronized  by  the  nobility  and  the  old  ballads  pre- 
served by  the  popular  memory.  These,  however,  were  seized 
upon  by  some  of  the  poets  of  the  time,  probably  Henry  of 
Ofterdingen,  Wolfram  of  Eschenbach,  and  others,  and  reduced 
to  the  epic  form,  in  which  they  have  come  down  to  us  under  the 
titles  of  the  Heldenbuch  and  the  Nibelungen  Lied.  They  con- 
tain many  singular  traits  of  a^  warlike  age,  and  we  have  proof 
of  their  great  antiquity  in  the  morals  and  manners  which  they 
describe. 

The  Heldenbuch,  or  Book  of  Heroes,  which,  in  its  present 
form,  belongs  to  the  close  of  the  12th  century,  is  a  collection  of 
poems,  containing  traditions  of  events  which  happened  in  the 
time  of  Attila,  and  the  irruptions  of  the  German  nations  into 
the  Boman  Empire.  The  principal  personages  who  figure  in 
these  tales  of  love  and  war  are  Etzel  or  Attila,  Dietrich  or 
Theodoric  the  Great,  Siegfried  the  Achilles  of  the  North,  Gud- 
rune,  Hagan,  and  others,  who  reappear  in  the  Nibelungen  Lied, 
and  who  have  Ijcen  already  alluded  to  in  the  heroic  legends  of 
the  Scandinavian  Edda.  Tlie  Kibelungen  Lied  (from  Nibclun- 
gen,  the  name  of  an  ancient  powerful  Burgundian  race,  and  Lied, 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  413 

a  lay  or  song)  occupies  an  important  place  in  German  litera- 
ture, and  in  grandeur  of  design  and  beauty  of  execution,  it  far 
surpasses  any  other  poetical  production  of  this  period.  The 
"  Horny  Siegfried,"  one  of  the  poems  of  the  Heldenbuch,  serves 
as  a  sort  of  prelude  to  the  Nibelungen.  In  that  Siegfried  ap- 
pears as  the  personification  of  manly  beauty,  virtue  and  prow- 
ess; invulnerable,  from  having  bathed  in  the  blood  of  some 
dragons  which  he  had  slain,  save  in  one  spot  betweeen  his  shoul- 
ders, upon  which  a  leaf  happened  to  fall.  Having  rescued  the 
beautiful  Chriemhild  from  the  power  of  a  giant  or  dragon,  and 
possessed  himself  of  the  treasures  of  the  dwarfs,  he  restores  her 
to  her  father,  the  King  of  the  ancient  city  of  Worms,  where  he 
is  received  with  regal  honors,  and  his  marriage  with  Chriemhild 
celebrated  with  unparalleled  splendor. 

In  the  jSTibelungen,  Chriemhild  is  represented  as  the  sister  of 
Giinther  the  King  of  Burgundy  ;  the  gallant  Siegfried  having 
heard  of  her  surpassing  beauty,  resolves  to  woo  her  for  his  bride, 
but  all  his  splendid  achievements  fail  to  secure  her  favors.  In  the 
meantime  tidings  reach  the  court,  of  the  fame  of  the  beautiful 
Brunhild,  queen  of  Isenland,  of  her  matchless  courage  and 
strength;  every  suitor  for  her  hand  being  forced  to  abide  three 
combats  with  her,  and  if  vanquished  to  suffer  a  cruel  death, 
Giinther  resolves  to  try  his  fortune,  and  to  win  her  or  perish, 
and  Siegfried  accompanies  him  on  condition  that  the  hand  of 
Chriemhild  shall  be  his  reward  if  they  succeed. 

At  the  court  of  Brunhild,  Siegfried  presents  himself  as  the 
vassal  of  Giinther,  to  increase  her  sense  of  his  friend's  power, 
and  this  falsehood  is  one  cause  of  the  subsequent  calamities.  In 
the  combats,  Siegfried,  becoming  invisible  by  means  of  a  magic 
cap  he  had  obtained  from  the  dwarfs,  seizes  the  arm  of  Gunther 
and  enables  him  to  overcome  the  martial  maid  in  every  feat  of 
arms,  and  the  vanquished  Brunhild  bids  her  vassals  do  homage 
to  him  as  their  lord.  A  double  union  is  now  celebrated  with 
the  utmost  pomp  and  rejoicing.  The  proud  Brunhild,  however, 
is  indignant  at  her  sister-in-law  wedding  a  vassal.  In  vain  Giin- 
ther assures  her  that  Siegfried  is  a  mighty  prince  in  his  own 
country;  the  offended  queen  determines  to  punish  his  deception, 
and  ties  him  hand  and  foot  with  her  magic  girdle,  and  hangs 
him  upon  a  nail ;  Siegfried  pitying  the  condition  of  the 
king,  promises  his  aid  in  depriving  the  haughty  queen  of  the  gir- 
dle, the  source  of  all  her  magic  strength.  He  successfully  ac- 
complishes the  feat,  and  in  a  luckless  hour  presents  the  trophy 
to  Chriemhild,  and  confides  the  tale  to  her  ear.  A  dispute  hav- 
ing afterwards  arisen  between  the  two  queens,  Chriemhild,  car- 


414  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

ried  away  by  pride  aud  passion,  produces  the  fatal  girdle,  a 
token  which,  if  found  in  the  possession  of  any  save  the  husband, 
was  regarded  as  an  almost  irrefutable  proof  of  guilt,  among  the 
nations  of  the  North.  At  this  Brunhild  vows  revenge,  and  is 
aided  by  the  fierce  Hagan,  G  iinther's  most  devoted  follower,  who, 
having  induced  Chriemhild  to  confide  to  him  the  secret  of  the 
spot  where  Siegfried  is  mortal,  seizes  the  first  occasion  to  plunge 
a  lance  between  his  shoulders,  and  afterwards  bears  the  body  to 
the  chamber  door  of  Chriemhild,  who  is  overwhelmed  with  grief 
and  burning  with  resentment.  To  secure  her  revenge  she  at 
length  marries  Etzel,  or  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  who  invites 
the  Burgundians  to  his  court,  and  at  a  grand  festival  Chriem- 
hild involves  them  in  a  bloody  battle,  in  which  thousands  are 
slain  on  both  sides.  Giinther  and  Hagan  are  taken  prisoners 
by  Dietrich  of  Berne,  and  put  to  death  by  Chriemhild,  who  in 
turn  suffers  death  at  the  hands  of  one  of  the  followers  of 
Dietrich. 

Such  is  an  imperfect  outline  of  this  ancient  poem,  which,  des- 
pite all  its  horrors  and  improbabilities,  has  many  passages 
of  touching  beauty,  and  wonderful  power.  Siegfried,  the  hero, 
is  one  of  the  most  charming  characters  of  romance  or  poetry. 
Chriemhild,  at  first  all  that  the  poet  could  fancy  of  loveliness, 
becomes  at  last  an  avenging  fury.  Brunhild  is  proud,  haughty, 
stern  and  vindictive,  though  not  incapable  of  softer  emotions. 

In  the  Scandinavian  legend,  we  find  the  same  personages  in 
grander  outlines  and  more  gigantic  proportions.  The  mytholo- 
gical portion  of  the  story  occupies  the  most  prominent  place,  and 
Brunhild  is  there  represented  as  a  Valkyrior. 

The  time  in  which  the  scene  of  this  historical  tragedy  is  laid 
is  about  430  a.  d.  From  the  13th  to  the  16th  century  it  was 
widely  read,  and  highly  appreciated.  But  in  the  succeeding  age 
it  was  almost  entirely  forgotten.  It  was  brought  again  to  light 
in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  since  that  time  it 
has  been  the  subject  of  many  learned  commentaries  and  re- 
searches. 

4.  The  Fourteenth  axd  Fifteenth  Centuries. — The  period 
from  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  to  the  beginning  of 
the  Reformation,  was  crowded  with  events  of  great  social  im- 
portance, but  its  literature  was  remarkably  poor.  The  palmy  days 
of  the  minstrels  and  romancists  had  passed  away.  Rudolph  was  an 
economical  prince,  who  mended  his  own  doublet  to  spare  money, 
and  as  he  had  no  taste  for  minstrelsy,  the  composers  of  songs 
who  went  to  his  court  found  no  rewards  there.      The  rank  and 


GEEMAN   LITERATUKE.  415 

influence  of  the  metropolis  were  transferred  from  Frankfort  to 
Yienna,  and  the  communication  witli  the  southern  and  soutli- 
western  parts  of  Europe  was  greatly  impeded.  The  Germans 
were  occupied  in  crusades  against  the  Huns;  the  court  language 
was  changed  from  west  Gothic  to  an  east  Gothic  dialect,  which 
was  less  national,  and  much  of  the  southern  culture  and  the 
European  sympathies  which  had  characterized  the  reign  of  the 
Suabian  emperors  disappeared. 

Some  inferior  princes,  however,  encouraged  versification,  but 
the  prizes  were  so  reduced  in  value  that  the  knights  and  noble- 
men left  the  field  in  favor  of  inferior  competitors.  A  versifying 
mania  now  began  to  pervade  all  classes  of  society,  chaplains, 
doctors,  schoolmasters,  weavers,  blacksmiths,  shoemakers — all 
endeavored  to  mend  their  fortunes  by  rhyming.  Poetry  sank 
rapidly  into  dullness  and  mediocrity,  while  the  so-called  poets 
rose  in  conceit  and  arrogance.  The  spirit  of  the  age  soon  em- 
bodied these  votaries  of  the  muse  in  corporations,  and  the  Em- 
peror Charles  lY.  ( 1346-13 T 8  )  gave  them  a  charter.  They 
generally  called  twelve  poets  among  the  minnesingers  their  mas- 
ters, and  hence  their  name  master-singers.  They  met  on  certain 
days  and  criticised  each  otlier's  productions.  Correctness  was 
their  chief  object,  and  they  seemed  to  have  little  idea  of  the  dif- 
ference between  poetical  and  prosaic  expressions.  Every  fault 
was  marked,  and  he  who  had  fewest  received  the  prize,  and  was 
allowed  to  take  apprentices  in  the  art.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
poetical  apprenticeship  the  young  poet  was  admitted  to  the  cor- 
poration and  declared  a  master. 

Though  the  institution  of  the  master-singers  was  established 
at  the  close  of  the  13th  century,  it  was  not  until  the  15th  and 
16th  that  it  really  flourished,  particularly  through  the  ge- 
nius of  Hans  Sachs.  The  institution  remained,  however, 
though  languishing,  through  the  17  th  century,  and  the  cala- 
mities of  the  Thu'ty  Years'  War.  At  Ulm,  it  survived  even 
the  changes  which  the  French  Revolution  effected  in  Europe,  and 
as  late  as  1830  twelve  old  master-singers  yet  remained,  who, 
after  being  driven  from  one  asylum  to  another,  sang  their  an- 
cient melodies  from  memory  in  the  little  hostelry  where  the 
workmen  used  to  meet  in  the  evening  to  drink  together.  In 
1839  four  only  were  living,  and  in  that  year  these  veterans  as- 
sembled with  great  solemnity,  and  declaring  the  society  of  mas- 
ter-singers forever  closed,  presented  their  songs,  hymns,  books 
and  pictures  to  a  modern  musical  institution  at  Ulm. 

While  the  early  master-singers  were  pouring  forth  their  strains 
with  undiminished  confidence  in  then-  own  powers,  a  new  species 


416  GERM  AX   LITERATtTRE. 

of  poetic  literature  was  f^rowing  up  beside  them  in  the  form  of 
simple  and  humorous  fables,  or  dariug  satires,  often  directed 
against  the  clergy  and  nobility,  which  were  among  the  most  po- 
pular productions  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Such  were  "  Friar  Amis,' 
and  the  "  Ship  of  Fools."  Indeed,  from  the  year  1300  to  the 
era  of  the  Reformation,  we  may  clearly  trace  the  progress  of  a 
school  of  lay  doctrine  which  was  opposed  to  a  great  part  of  the 
teaching  of  the  church,  and  which  was  yet  allowed  to  prevail 
among  the  people. 

Among  the  fables,  "  Reynard  the  Fox  "  had  a  very  early  ori- 
gin, and  has  remained  a  favorite  of  the  German  people  for  seve- 
ral centuries.  After  many  transformations  it  reappeared  as  a 
popular  work  at  the  era  of  the  Reformation,  and  it  was  at  last 
immortalized  by  the  version  of  Goethe 

5.  The  Drama. — We  find  the  first  symptoms  of  a  German 
drama  as  early  as  the  13th  century,  in  rude  attempts  to  perform 
religious  pieces  like  the  old  Mysteries  once  so  popular  throughout 
Europe.  At  first  these  dramatic  readings  were  conducted  in 
the  churches  and  by  the  priests,  but  when  the  people  introduced 
burlesque  digressions,  they  were  banished  to  the  open  fields, 
where  they  assumed  still  greater  license.  Students  in  the  Uni- 
versities delighted  to  take  parts  in  them,  and  these  exhibitions 
were  continued  after  the  Reformation.  There  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  early  Christians  objected  to  these  sacred  dra- 
mas or  mysteries  when  they  were  compatible  with  their  religion. 
They  were  imported  into  Europe  from  Constantinople,  by  cru- 
saders and  pilgrims,  and  became  favorite  shows  to  an  illiterate 
populaee.  Indeed,  Christianity  was  first  taught  throughout  the 
north  of  Europe  by  means  of  these  Mysteries  and  miracle  plaj^s, 
and  the  first  missionaries  had  familiarized  their  rude  audiences 
with  the  prominent  incidents  of  Biblical  history,  long  before  the 
art  of  reading  could  have  been  called  in  to  communicate  the 
chronicles  themselves. 

The  most  important  writings  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries, 
are  the  works  of  the  monks  of  the  mystic  school,  which  form  the 
connecting  link  between  the  great  era  of  the  Crusades,  and  the 
greater  era  of  the  Reformation.  They  kindled  and  kept  ahve  a 
new  religious  fervor  among  the  inferior  clergy  and  the  middle 
and  lower  classes,  and  without  the  labors  of  these  reformers  of 
the  Faith,  the  reformers  of  the  Cliurch  would  never  have  found 
a  whole  nation  waiting  to  receive  them,  and  ready  to  support 
them.  While  the  scholastic  divines  who  wrote  in  Latin  intro- 
duced abstruse   metaphysics   into   their  theology,  the   mystics 


GERMAN   LITERATUKE.  417 

represented  religion  as  consisting  in  the  sentiments  of  the  heart, 
rather  than  in  doctrines.  Their  main  principle  was,  that  piety 
depended  not  on  ecclesiastical  forms  and  ceremonies,  but  that  it 
consisted  in  the  abandonment  of  all  selfish  passions.  The  senti- 
ments of  the  mystic  writers  were  collected  and  arranged  by 
Tauler  (1361),  in  a  well-known  work,  entitled  "  German  The- 
ology." Luther,  in  a  preface  to  this  book,  expresses  his  ad- 
miration of  its  contents,  and  asserts  that  he  had  found  in  it  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation. 

Another  celebrated  work  of  this  school  is  "  The  Imitation  of 
Christ,"  written  in  Latin,  and  generally  attributed  to  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  a  monk  who  died  14T1.  It  has  passed  through  num- 
berless editions,  and  stOl  maintains  its  place  among  the  standard 
devotional  works  of  Germany  and  other  countries. 

Two  other  events  prepared  the  way  for  the  German  Reform- 
ers of  the  16th  century — the  foundation  of  the  Universities 
(1350),  and  the  invention  of  printing.  The  Universities  were 
national  institutions,  open  alike  to  the  rich  and  poor,  the  knight, 
the  clerk,  and  the  citizen.  The  nation  itself  called  these  schools 
into  life,  and  in  them  the  great  men  who  inaugurate  the  next 
period  of  literature  were  fostered  and  formed. 

The  invention  of  printing  admitted  the  middle  classes,  who  had 
been  debarred  from  the  use  of  books,  to  the  privileges  hitherto 
enjoyed  almost  exclusively  by  the  clergy  and  the  nobility,  and 
placed  in  their  hands  weapons  more  powerful  than  the  swords  of 
the  knights,  or  the  thunderbolts  of  the  clergy.  The  years  from 
1450  to  1500  form  a  period  of  preparation  for  the  great  strug- 
gle that  was  to  signalize  the  coming  age. 

PERIOD  SECOND. 

From  the  Reformatiox  to  the  Beginning  of  the  18th  Cen- 
tury   (1517-nOO). 

1.  The  Lutheran  Period. — ^With  the  16th  century  we  enter 
upon  the  modern  history  and  modern  literature  of  Germany. 
The  language  now  becomes  settled,  and  the  literature  for  a  time 
becomes  national.  Luther  and  the  Reformers  belonged  to  the 
l^eople,  who,  through  them,  now  for  the  first  time  claimed  an 
equality  with  the  old  estates  of  the  realm,  the  two  representa- 
tives of  which,  the  emperor  and  the  pope,  were  never  more 
powerful  than  at  this  period.  The  armies  of  the  emperor  were 
recruited  from  Spain,  Austria,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Burgundy, 
while  the  pope,  armed  with  the  weapons  of  the  Inquisition,  and 

18* 


418  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

the  thunderbolts  of  excommunication,  levied  his  armies  of  priests 
and  monks  from  all  parts  of  the  Christian  world.  Airainst  these 
formidable  powers  a  poor  Aup:ustine  monk  came  forth  from  his 
.study  in  the  small  University  of  Wittenberg,  with  no  armies  and 
no  treasures,  with  no  weapon  in  his  hand  but  the  Bible,  and  in 
his  clear  manly  voice  defied  both  emperor  and  pope,  clergy  and 
nobility.     History  affords  no  more  memorable  spectacle. 

After  the  Reformation  nearly  all  eminent  men  in  Germany, 
poets,  philosophers,  and  historians,  belonged  to  the  Protestant 
party,  and  resided  chiefly  in  the  universities,  which  were  what  the 
monasteries  had  been  under  Charlemagne,  and  the  castles  nnder 
Frederic  Barbarossa — the  centres  of  gravitation  for  the  intel- 
lectual and  political  life  of  the  country.  A  new  aristocracy 
now  arose,  founded  on  intellectual  preeminence,  which  counted 
among  its  members  prmces,  nobles,  divines,  soldiers,  lawyers, 
and  artists.  But  the  danger  which  threatens  all  aristocracies 
was  not  averted  from  the  intellectual  nobility  of  Germany  ;  the 
spirit  of  caste  which  soon  pervaded  all  their  institutions,  deprived 
the  second  generation  of  that  power  which  men  like  Luther  had 
gained  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation.  The  moral  in- 
fluence of  the  universities  was  great,  but  it  would  have  been  far 
greater  if  the  intellectual  leaders  of  the  realm  had  not  separated 
themselves  from  the  ranks  whence  they  themselves  had  risen, 
and  to  which  alone  they  owed  their  influence.  This  intellectual 
aristocracy  manifested  a  disregard  of  the  real  wants  of  the  people, 
a  contempt  of  all  knowledge  which  did  not  wear  the  academic 
garb,  and  the  same  exclusive  spirit  of  caste  that  characterizes 
all  aristocracies.  Latin  continued  to  be  the  literary  medium 
of  scholars,  and  at  the  close  of  the  1*1  th  century,  German  was 
only  beginning  to  assert  its  capabilities  as  a  vehicle  of  elegant 
and  refined  literature. 

The  IGth  century  may  be  called  the  Lutheran  period,  for 
Martin  Luther  (1483-1546)  was  the  most  prominent  character 
in  the  general  literature  as  well  as  in  the  theology  of  Germany, 
lie  was  the  exponent  of  the  national  feeling,  he  gave  shape  and 
utterance  to  thoughts  and  sentiments  which  had  been  before  only 
obscurely  expressed,  and  his  influence  was  felt  in  almost  every 
department  of  life  and  literature.  The  remodelling  of  the 
German  tongue  may  be  said  to  have  gone  hand  in  hand  with 
the  Reformation,  and  it  is  to  Luther  more  tlian  any  other  that 
it  owes  its  rapid  progress.  His  translation  of  the  Bible  was  the 
great  work  of  the  period,  and  gives  to  him  the  deserved  title 
of  creator  of  German  prose.  The  Scriptures  were  now  familiarly 
read  by  all  classes,  and  never  has  their  beautiful  simplicity  been 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  419 

more  admirably  rendered.  The  hymns  of  Luther  are  no  less 
remarkable  for  their  vigor  of  style  than  for  their  high  devotional 
feeling.  His  prose  works  consist  chiefly  of  twenty  volumes  of 
sermons,  and  eight  volumes  of  polemical  writings,  besides  his 
''Letters"  and  '' Table  Talk,"  which  give  us  a  view  of  the 
singular  mixture  of  qualities  which  formed  the  cliaracter  of  the 
great  Reformer. 

The  hterature  of  that  period  also  owes  much  to  Melanchthon 
(149T-1560),  the  author  of  the  ''Confession  of  Augsburg," 
who  by  his  classical  learning,  natural  sagacity,  simplicity  and 
clearness  of  style,  and  above  all  by  his  moderation  and  mild- 
ness, greatly  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the  Reformation. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement  of  schools,  and  the  dif- 
fusion of  learning,  and  through  his  influence,  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany  patronized  native  hterature,  established  pub- 
lic hbraries,  and  promoted  the  general  education  of  the  people. 

The  earnest  polemical  writings  of  the  age  must  be  passed  over 
as  they  belong  rather  to  ecclesiastical  and  pohtical  than  to 
literary  history.  Yet  these  are  the  most  characteristic  pro- 
ductions of  the  times,  and  display  the  effects  of  controversy  in  a 
very  unfavorable  light.  The  license,  personality,  acrimony,  and 
grossness  of  the  invectives  published  by  the  controversial  writers, 
particularly  of  the  r6th  century,  can  hardly  be  imagined  by  a 
modern  reader  who  has  not  read  the  originals.  The  better  speci- 
mens of  this  style  of  writing  are  found  in  the  remains  of  Manuel 
and  Zwingle.  Manuel  (1484-1530),  a  native  of  Switzerland,  is 
an  instance  of  the  versatility  of  talent,  which  was  not  uncom- 
mon at  this  time;  he  was  a  soldier,  a  poet,  a  painter,  a  sculptor, 
and  a  wood  engraver.  The  boldness  and  license  of  his  satires 
are  far  beyond  modern  toleration.  Zwingle  (1484-1531),  the 
leading  reformer  of  Switzerland,  was  a  statesman,  a  theologian, 
a  musician,  and  a  soldier.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Christian  Faith."  A  celebrated  writer  of  prose 
satire  was  Fischart  (1530-1590),  whose  numerous  works,  under 
the  most  extravagant  titles,  are  distinguished  by  wit  and  exten- 
sive learning.  His  "  Prophetic  Almanac  "  was  the  selling  book 
at  all  the  fairs  and  markets  of  the  day,  and  was  read  with  an 
excitement  far  exceeding  that  produced  by  any  modern  novels. 
In  his  "  Garagantua,"  he  borrowed  some  of  his  descriptions  from 
Rabelais;  and  this  extravagant,  satirical  and  humorous  book, 
though  full  of  the  uncouth  and  far-fetched  combinations  of  words 
found  in  his  other  writings,  contains  many  ludicrous  caricatures 
of  the  follies  of  society  in  his  age. 

Franck  (fl.  1533),  one  of  the  best  writers  of  German  prose 


420  GEUXIAX   LITEliATURE. 

on  history  and  theology  during  the  16th  century,  was  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  mystic  school,  and  opposed  Luther,  whom 
he  called  the  new  pope.  His  religious  views  in  many  respects 
correspond  with  those  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Hejectiug  all 
ecclesiastical  authority,  he  maintained  that  there  is  an  internal 
light  in  man  which  is  better  fitted  than  even  the  Scriptures  to 
guide  him  aright  in  religious  matters.  He  wrote  with  bitterness 
and  severity,  though  he  seldom  used  the  coarse  style  of  invective 
common  to  his  age. 

Arnd  (1555-1621)  maybe  classed  among  the  best  theolo- 
gical writers  of  the  period.  His  treatise  *'  On  true  Christ- 
ianity "  is  still  read  and  esteemed.  He  belonged  to  the  mystic 
school,  and  the  pious  and  practical  character  of  his  work  made 
it  a  favorite  amono*  religious  men  of  various  sects. 

Jacob  Boehm  (1575-1624)  was  a  poor  shoemaker,  who,  with- 
out the  advantages  of  education,  devoted  his  mind  to  the  most 
abstruse  studies,  and  professed  that  his  doctrines  were  derived 
from  immediate  revelation;  his  works  contain  many  profound 
and  lofty  ideas,  mingled  with  many  confused  notions. 

2.  Poetry,  Satire,  and  Demonology. — In  the  16th  century 
the  old  poetry  of  Germany  was  in  a  great  measure  forgotten;  tlie 
Nibelungen  Lied  and  the  Heldenbuch  were  despised  by  the 
learned  as  relics  of  barbarian  life;  classical  studies  engaged  the 
attention  of  all  who  loved  elegant  literature,  and  while  Horace 
was  admired,  the  title  of  German  poet  was  generally  applied  as 
a  badge  of  ridicule.  A  propensity  to  satire  of  the  most  violent 
and  personal  description  seems  to  have  been  almost  universal  in 
these  excited  times.  Hutten  (1488-1523)  shared  the  general 
excitement  of  the  age,  and  warmly  defended  the  views  of  Luther. 
He  addressed  many  satirical  pami)hlets  in  prose  and  verse  to  the 
people,  and  was  compelled  to  flee  from  one  city  to  another,  his 
life  being  always  in  danger  from  the  numerous  enemies  excited 
by  his  severity.  Next  to  invectives  and  satires,  comic  stories 
and  fables  were  the  characteristic  productions  of  these  times. 
Hans  Sachs  (1494-1596),  the  most  distinguished  of  the  master- 
singers  of  the  16th  century,  excelled  in  that  kind  of  poetry  as 
well  as  in  all  other  styles  of  composition,  and  following  his  busi- 
ness as  shoemaker,  he  made  verses  with  equal  assiduity.  He 
employed  his  pen  chiefly  in  writing  innumerable  tales  and  fables 
containing  common  morality  for  common  people.  In  one  of 
these  he  represents  the  apostle  St.  Peter  as  being  greatly  per 
plexed  by  the  disorder  and  injustice  prevailing  in  the  world. 
Peter  longs  to  have  the  reins  of  government  in  his  own  hand, 


GERMAN   LITEllATUKE.  421 

and  believes  that  he  could  soon  reduce  the  world  to  order. 
While  he  is  thinking  thus,  a  peasant  girl  comes  to  him  and  com- 
plains that  she  has  to  do  a  day's  work  in  the  field,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  keep  within  bounds  a  frolicsome  young  goat.  Peter 
kindly  takes  the  goat  into  custody,  but  it  escapes  into  a  wood, 
and  the  apostle  is  so  much  fatigued  by  his  efforts  to  recover  the 
animal  that  he  is  led  to  this  conclusion.  "  If  I  am  not  com- 
petent to  keep  even  one  young  goat  in  ray  care,  it  cannot  be  my 
proper  business  to  perplex  myself  about  the  management  of  the 
whole  world." 

The  best  lyrical  poetry  was  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 
Church.  Its  merit  consists  in  its  simple,  energetic  language. 
Hymns  were  the  favorite  literature  of  the  people;  they  were  the 
cradle  songs  which  lulled  the  children  to  sleep,  they  were  sung 
by  mechanics  and  maid-servants  engaged  in  their  work;  and 
they  were  heard  in  the  streets  and  market-places  instead  of 
ballads.  Luther,  who  loved  music  and  psalmody,  encouraged 
the  people  to  take  a  more  prominent  part  in  public  worship,  and 
wrote  for  them  several  German  hymns  and  psalms. 

The  belief  in  demonology  and  witchcraft  which  was  universally 
diffused  through  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  raged  in  Germany 
with  fearful  intensity  and  fury.  While  in  other  countries  per- 
secution was  limited  to  the  old,  the  ugly  and  the  poor,  here 
neither  rank  nor  age  offered  any  exemption  from  suspicion  and 
torture.  While  this  persecution  was  at  its  height,  from  1580  to 
1680,  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  individuals,  mostly 
women,  were  consigned  to  the  flames,  or  otherwise  sacrificed  to 
this  bloodthirsty  insanity.  Luther  himself  was  a  devout  be- 
liever in  witchcraft,  and  in  the  bodily  presence  of  the  Spirit  of 
Evil  upon  the  earth  ;  all  his  harassing  doubts  and  mental 
struggles  he  ascribes  to  his  visible  agency.  Germany  indeed 
seemed  to  live  and  breathe  in  an  atmosphere  of  mysticism. 

Among  the  mystic  philosophers  and  speculators  on  natural 
history  and  the  occult  sciences  who  flourished  in  this  period  are 
Paracelsus  (1493-1546),  and  Cornelius  Agrippa  (1486-1539). 
Camerarius  was  distinguished  in  the  classics  and  philosophy; 
Gesner  in  botany,  zoology  and  the  classics  ;  Fuchs  in  botany  and 
medicine  ;  and  Agricola  in  mineralogy. 

Among  the  legends  of  the  period,  that  of  Faust,  or  Dr. 
Faustus,  has  obtained  the  most  lasting  popularity.  There  are 
good  reasons  for  believing  that  the  hero  of  this  tale  was  a  real 
personage,  who  lived  in  Suabia  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
century.  He  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  well-known  character 
who  gained  his  celebrity  by  the  profession  of  magic.     In  tlie 


422  GERMAN   LITER ATUUE. 

"  History  of  Dr.  Faustus,*'  first  published  1587,  he  is  represcuted 
as  a  magician,  who  gained  by  unlawful  arts  a  mastery  over 
nature.  The  legend  rapidly  spread;  it  was  versified  by  the 
English  dramatist  Marlowe,  it  became  the  foundation  of  innu- 
merable tales  and  dramas,  until  transformed  by  the  genius  of 
Goethe,  it  has  acquired  a  prominent  place  in  German  litera- 
ture. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  16th  century,  owing  to  the  disturbed 
state  of  religious,  social,  and  political  life,  and  to  the  fact  that 
the  best  minds  of  the  age  were  occupied  in  Latin  writings  on 
theology,  while  a  few  devoted  to  quiet  study  cultivated  only  the 
classics,  the  hopes  which  had  been  raised  of  a  national  poetry 
and  literature  were  blighted,  and  a  scholastic  and  polemical 
theology  continued  to  prevail.  The  native  tongue  was  again 
neglected  for  the  Latin;  the  national  poems  were  translated  into 
Latin  to  induce  the  learned  to  read  them;  native  poets  com- 
posed their  verses  in  Latin,  and  all  lectures  at  the  universities 
were  delivered  in  that  tongue.  The  work  of  Luther  was  un- 
done: ambitious  princes  and  quarrelsome  divines  continued  the 
rulers  of  Germany,  and  everything  seemed  drifting  back  into  the 
Middle  Ages.  Then  came  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648), 
with  all  its  disastrous  consequences..  At  the  close  of  that 
war  the  public  mind  was  somewhat  awakened,  literary  socie- 
ties were  organized,  and  literature  was  fostered ;  but  the 
nation  was  so  completely  demoralized  that  it  hardly  cared 
for  the  liberty  sanctioned  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  or 
for  the  efl*orts  of  a  few  princes  and  scholars  to  better  its  in- 
tellectual condition.  The  population  of  Germany  was  reduced 
by  one  half ;  thousands  of  villages  and  towns  had  been  burnt 
to  the  ground  ;  the  schools,  the  churches,  the  universities 
were  deserted ;  and  a  whole  generation  had  grown  up  during 
the  war,  particularly  among  the  lower  classes,  with  no  education 
at  all.  The  once  wealthy  merchants  were  reduced  to  small 
traders.  The  Hanse  League  was  broken  up;  commerce  was 
suspended,  and  intellectual  activity  paralyzed.  Where  any  na- 
tional fiieling  was  left,  it  was  a  feeling  of  shame  and  despair. 

3.  The  SEVENXEENin  Century. — During  the  17th  century 
the  German  language  was  regarded  by  comparatively  few  writ- 
ers as  a  fit  vehicle  for  polite  literature,  and  was  reserved  almost 
exclusively  for  satires,  novels,  and  religious  discourses. 

Opitz  (1597-1639)  attempted  to  introduce  the  use  of  his 
native  tongue,  and,  in  a  work  on  German  poetry  explained  the 
laws  of  poetic  composition  and  the  mechanism  of  versification. 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  423 

Several  scholars  at  length  directed  their  attention  to  the 
grammar  of  the  language,  which  through  their  influence  now 
began  to  be  used  in  the  treatment  of  scientific  subjects.  Mean- 
time great  mathematical  and  physical  discoveries  were  made 
through  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  which  was  founded  under  the 
auspices  of  Leibnitz,  and  scientific  and  literary  associations  were 
everywhere  established.  Books  became  a  vast  branch  of  com- 
merce and  great  philologists  and  archceologists  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  study  of  classical  antiquity.  Pufendorf  expounded 
his  theories  on  political  history,  Kepler  on  astronomy,  Arnold  on 
ecclesiastical  history ;  and  Leibnitz  laid  a  basis  for  the  scientific 
study  of  philosophy  in  Germany.  Wolf  shaped  tlie  views  of 
Leibnitz  into  a  comprehensive  system,  and  popularized  tliem  by 
publishing  his  works  in  the  German  language.  Thomasius,  the 
able  jurist  and  pietistic  philosopher,  was  the  first,  in  1688,  to 
substitute  in  the  universities  the  German  for  the  Latin  language 
as  the  medium  of  instruction. 

Satirical  novels  form  a  prominent  feature  in  the  jirose  lite- 
rature of  the  time,  and  took  the  place  of  the  invectives  and 
satires  of  the  16th  century.  No  work  of  fiction,  however,  pro- 
duced such  an  excitement  as  the  translation  of  Defoe's  "Robinson 
Crusoe."  Soon  after  its  publication  more  than  forty  imitations 
appeared. 

During  this  century  the  master-singers  went  on  composing 
according  to  the  rules  of  their  guilds,  but  we  look  in  vain  for 
the  raciness  and  simphcity  of  Hans  Sachs.  Some  poets  wrote 
plays  in  the  style  of  Terence,  or  after  English  models  ;  and  fables 
in  the  style  of  Phsedrus  became  fashionable.  But  there  was  no 
trace  anywhere  of  originality,  truth,  taste  or  feeling,  except  in 
sacred  poetry — Paul  Gerhard  (1606-1696)  is  yet  without  an 
equal  in  his  sacred  songs  ;  many  of  the  best  hymns  which  are 
still  heard  in  the  churches  of  Germany  date  from  the  age  of  this 
poet.  Soon,  however,  even  this  class  of  poetry  degenerated  on 
one  side  into  dry  theological  phraseology,  on  the  other  into 
sentimental  aflfectation. 

This  century  saw  the  rise  and  the  fall  of  the  first  and  the 
second  Silesian schools.  The  first  is  represented  by  Opitz  (1597- 
1639),  Paul  Flemming,  a  writer  of  hymns  (1609-1640),  and  a 
number  of  less  gifted  poets.  Its  character  is  pseudo-classical. 
All  these  poets  endeavored  to  write  correctly,  sedately,  and 
eloquently.  Some  of  them  aimed  at  a  certain  simplicity  and 
sincerity,  particularly  Flemming.  But  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  in  all  their  writings  one  single  thought  or  expres 
siou   that  had  not  been  used  before  ;    although  the  works  of 


424  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

Opitz  and  of  his  followers  were  marked  by  a  servile  imitation 
of  French  and  Dutch  poets,  they  exerted  an  influence  on  the 
literary  taste  of  their  country,  enriched  the  German  language 
with  new  words  and  phrases,  and  established  the  rules  of 
prosody. 

The  second  Silesian  school  is  represented  by  Hoffmanswaldau 
(1C18-1679)  and  Lohenstein  (1635-1683),  who  undertook  to 
introduce  into  the  German  poetry  the  bad  taste  of  Marini  which 
at  that  time  so  corrupted  the  literature  of  Italy.  Their  composi- 
tions are  bombastic  and  full  of  metaphors, — the  poetry  of  adjec- 
tives, without  substance,  truth  or  taste. 

Dramatic  writing  rose  little  above  the  level  of  the  first  period. 
The  Mysteries  and  Moralities  still  continued  popular,  and  some 
of  them  were  altered  to  suit  the  new  doctrines.  Opitz  wrote 
some  operas  in  imitation  of  the  Italian,  and  Gryphius  acquired 
popularity  by  his  translations  from  Marini  and  his  introduc- 
tion of  the  pastoral  drama.  The  theatrical  productions  of 
Lohenstein,  characterized  by  pedantry  and  bad  taste,  together 
with  the  multitude  of  others  belonging  to  this  age,  are  curious 
instances  of  the  folly  and  degradation  to  which  the  stage  may 
be  reduced. 

PERIOD  THIRD. 

From  the  Beginning  of  the   18th  Century  to  the  Present 

Time  (1700-1860). 

1.  The  Saxonic  and  Swiss  Schools. — In  contrast  to  the  bar- 
renness of  the  last  period,  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  present  us 
with  a  brilliant  constellation  of  writers  in  every  dei)artment  of 
letters,  whose  works  form  an  era  in  the  intellectual  development 
of  Germany  unsurpassed  in  many  respects  by  any  other  in  the 
history  of  literature.  Gottsched  and  Bodmer  each  succeeded 
in  establishing  schools  of  poetry  which  exerted  great  influ- 
ence on  the  literary  taste  of  the  country.  Gottsclied  (ItOO- 
1766),  the  founder  of  the  Saxonic  school,  exercised  the  same 
dictatorship  as  a  poet  and  critic,  which  Opitz  had  exercised 
at  the  beginning  of  the  l7th  century.  He  was  the  advo- 
cate and  copyist  of  French  models  in  art  and  poetry,  and 
he  used  his  widespread  influence  in  favor  of  the  correct,  and 
so-called  classical  st^-le.  After  having  rendered  good  service 
in  putting  down  the  senseless  extravagance  of  the  school 
of  Lohenstein,  he  became  himself  a  pedantic  and  arrogant 
critic  J  then  followed  a  long  literary  warfare  between  him  and 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  425 

Bodmer  (1698-lt83);  the  fouuder  of  the  Swiss  school.  Gott- 
sched  and  his  followers  at  Leipsic  defended  the  French  and 
insisted  on  classical  forms  and  traditional  rules  ;  Bodmer  and  his 
friends  in  Switzerland  defended  the  English  style,  and  insisted  on 
natural  sentiment  and  si^ontaneous  expression.  A  paper  war 
was  carried  on  in  their  respective  journals,  which  at  length  ended 
favorably  to  the  Swiss  or  Bodmer's  school,  which,  although 
the  smaller  party,  obtained  a  splendid  victory  over  its  antago- 
nist. 

Many  of  the  followers  of  Gottsched,  disgusted  with  his  pe- 
dantry, finally  separated  themselves  from  him,  and  formed  a 
new  poetical  union,  called  the  Second  Saxonic  School.  They 
established  at  the  same  time  a  periodical,  which  was  at  once 
the  channel  of  their  communications,  and  the  point  around 
which  they  centred.  The  princijDal  representatives  of  this  school 
were  Rabener  (1714-1771),  very  popular  for  the  cheerful  strain 
of  wit  that  runs  through  his  satires,  and  for  the  correctness  of 
his  language  and  style  ;  Gellert  (1715-1769),  whose  "  Fables" 
contain  great  moral  truth  enlivened  by  vivid  pictures  of  life,  full 
of  sprightliness  and  humor,  and  expressed  in  a  style  of  extraor- 
dinary ease  and  clearness  ;  Kiistner  (1719-1800),  a  celebrated 
and  acute  mathematician  and  the  author  of  many  epigrams, 
elegies,  odes,  and  songs  ;  John  Ehas  Schlegel  (1718-1749), 
distinguished  for  his  dramatic  compositions  ;  and  Zachariae 
(1726-1777),  endowed  with  a  poetical  and  witty  invention, 
which  he  displayed  in  his  comic  epopees  and  descriptive  poems. 

The  following  two  poets  were  the  most  celebrated  of  them 
all:  Hagedorn  (1708-1754),  whose  fables  and  poems  are 
remarkable  for  their  fancy  and  wit ;  and  Haller  (1708-1777), 
who  acquh'ed  an  enduring  fame  as  a  poet,  anatomist,  phy- 
siologist, botanist  and  scholar.  Of  inferior  powers,  but  yet  of 
great  popularity,  were  :  Gleim  (1719-1803),  upon  whom 
the  Germans  bestowed  the  title  of  "  father,"  which  shows 
at  once  how  high  he  ranked  among  the  poets  of  his  time  ;  Kleist 
(1715-1759),  whose  poems  are  characterized  by  pleasant  por- 
traitui'es,  harmonious  numbers,  great  ease,  and  richness  of 
thought,  conciseness  of  expression  and  a  noble  morahty  ;  Ram- 
ler  (1725-1798),  who  has  been  styled  the  German  Horace, 
from  his  odes  in  praise  of  Frederic  the  Great ;  Nicolai  (1733- 
1811),  who  acquired  considerable  fame  both  for  the  promotion 
of  literature  and  for  the  correction  of  German  taste  particularly, 
through  his  critical  reviews  ;  and  Gessner  (1730-1787),  who 
gained  a  great  reputation  for  his  "  Idyls,"  which  are  distinguished 
by  freshness  of  thought  and  grace  and  eloquence  of  style. 


426  GERMAN   LITER ATD RE. 

2.  Klopstock,  Lessixg,  Wielaxd  and  Herder. — Klopstock 
(172-4-1803),  inspired  by  the  purest  enthusiasm  for  Christianity, 
and  by  an  exalted  love  for  his  fatherland,  expressed  his  thoughts 
and  feelings  in  eloquent  but  somewhat  mystic  strains.  He  was 
hailed  as  the  herald  of  a  new  school  of  sacred  and  national 
literature,  and  his  *'  Messiah  "  announced  him  in  some  respects 
as  the  rival  of  Milton.  In  comparing  the  Messiah  with  the 
Paradise  Lost,  Herder  says :  "  Milton's  poem  is  a  building 
resting  on  mighty  pillars  ;  Klopstock's,  a  magic  picture  hover-, 
ins:  between  heaven  and  earth,  amid  the  teuderest  emotions  and 
the  most  moving  scenes  of  human  nature." 

Lessing  (1729-1781)  produced  a  reformation  in  German  lite- 
rature second  only  to  that  effected  by  Luther  in  theology.  He 
was  equally  eminent  as  a  dramatist,  critic  and  philosopher.  His 
principal  dramatic  jiroductions  are  "  Emilie  Galotti,"  and  "  iS^a- 
than  the  Wise."  As  a  critic  he  demanded  creative  imagination 
from  all  who  would  claim  the  title  of  poet,  and  spared  neither 
friends  nor  foes  in  his  efforts  to  maintain  a  high  standard  of 
literary  excellence.  The  writings  of  Lessing  exerted  a  com- 
manding influence  on  the  best  minds  of  Germany  in  almost 
all  departments  of  thought.  They  mark,  and  in  a  great  mea- 
sure produced,  the  important  change  in  the  tone  of  German 
literature,  from  the  national  and  Christian  character  of  Klop- 
stock to  the  cosmopolitan  character  which  prevails  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Goethe  and  Schiller. 

Wieland  (1733-1813)  was  in  his  youth  the  friend  of  Klop- 
stock, and  would  tolerate  nothing  but  religious  poetry  ;  but  he 
suddenly  turned  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  began  to  write 
epicurean  romances  as  vehicles  of  his  new  views  of  human  life 
and  happiness.  Among  his  tales  are  ''  Agathon,"  ''  Musarion," 
and  "  Aristippus,"  which  last  is  considered  his  best  work.  In 
all  these  writings  his  purpose  was  to  represent  pleasure  or 
utility  as  the  only  criterion  of  truth.  Although  there  is  much 
in  his  prose  writings  to  subject  him  to  severe  censure,  he  main- 
tains his  place  in  the  literature  of  his  native  country  as  one  of 
its  most  gay,  witty,  and  graceful  poets.  His  "  Oberon"  is  one 
of  the  most  charming  and  attractive  poems  of  modern  times. 

Herder  (1741-1803)  was  deeply  versed  in  almost  all  branches 
of  study,  and  exercised  great  influence,  not  only  as  a  poet, 
but  as  a  theologian,  philosopher,  critic,  and  philologist.  He 
studied  philosophy  under  Kant,  and  after  filling  the  offices  of 
teacher  and  clergyman,  he  was  invited  to  join  the  circle  of 
poets  and  other  literary  men  at  Weimar  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Grand  Duke  Karl  August.     Here  he  produced  a  series  of 


GEKMAN   LITERATURE.  427 

works  on  various  subjects,  all  marked  by  a  kindly  and  noble 
spirit  of  humajiity.  Among  them  are  a  treatise  "  On  the  Origin 
of  Language,"  an  essay  on  "  Hebrew  poetry,"  and  a  work  enti- 
tled "  Ideas  for  the  Philosophy  of  Humanity,"  besides  poetical 
and  critical  writings.  In  his  collection  of  popular  ballads  from 
various  nations  he  showed  his  power  of  appreciating  the  various 
national  tones  of  poetry. 

The  most  noble  feature  in  Herder's  character  was  his  constant 
striving  for  the  highest  interests  of  mankind.  He  did  not 
employ  literature  as  the  means  of  satisfying  personal  ambition, 
and  the  melancholy  of  his  last  days  arose  from  his  lofty  and 
unfulfilled  aspirations. 

His  friend  Richter  said  of  him  :  "  Herder  was  no  poet — he 
was  something  far  more  sublime  and  better  than  a  poet, — he 
was  himself  a  poem, — an  Indian  Greek  Epic  composed  by  one 
of  the  purest  of  the  gods." 

3.  Goethe  and  Schiller. — The  close  of  the  18th  and  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century,  the  age  of  Herder,  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  was  one  of  remarkable  intellectual  excitement,  and  it  has 
produced  a  literature  richer,  more  voluminous  and  more  im- 
portant than  that  of  all  preceding  periods  taken  collectively. 

The  tune  extending  between  1150  and  1300  has  been  styled 
the  First  Classic  Period,  and  that  we  are  now  entering  upon 
is  regarded  as  the  second.  These  two  epochs  resemble  each  other 
not  only  in  their  productiveness,  but  in  the  failure  of  both  to 
maintain  a  distinct  national  school  of  poetry.  In  the  13th 
century  the  national  epic  appeared,  but  was  soon  neglected  for 
the  foreign  legends  and  sentimental  verses  of  the  romancists  and 
minnesingers.  In  the  18th  century,  when  Lessing  had  made 
a  path  for  original  genius  by  clearing  away  French  pedantry 
and  affectation,  there  appeared  some  hope  of  a  revival  of  true 
national  literature.  But  Herder  directed  the  literary  enthusi- 
asm of  his  time  towards  foreign  poetry  and  universal  studies, 
and  a  cosmopolitan  rather  than  a  national  style  has  been  the 
result ;  although  for  thoughtfulness  and  sincerity,  and  for  the 
number  of  important  ideas  which  it  has  brought  into  circula- 
tion, modern  German  literature  may  justly  claim  the  highest 
honor. 

Goethe  (1749-1832)  was  a  man  of  universal  genius  ;  he 
was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  and  of  his  boyhood  he 
gives  a  pleasant  account  in  his  work  entitled  "  Poetry  and  Truth." 
In  1773  the  appearance  of 'his  "  Gotz  of  Berlichingen"  a  drama 
founded  upon  the  autobiography  of  that  national  and  popular 


428  GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

hero — was  regarded  as  the  commencement  of  an  enth'ely  new 
period  in  German  dramatic  Hterature.  It  was  followed,  in  ltt4, 
by  the  sentimental  novel,  "  The  Sorrows  of  Werther,"  in  which 
Goethe  gave  expression  to  the  morbid  sentiments  of  many  of 
his  contemporaries.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Weimar  invited  him 
to  his  court,  where  he  was  elevated  to  an  honorable  position. 
Here  he  produced  his  dramatic  poems,  "  Iphigenia,"  "  Egmont," 
"  Tasso,"  and  "  Faust,"  besides  many  occasional  poems  and  other 
works,  and  continued  writing  until  his  82d  year,  while  he  varied 
his  literary  life  with  the  pleasures  of  society. 

As  a  poet  Goethe  is  chiefly  known  by  his  dramas,  Faust, 
Tasso,  and  Egmont  ;  his  lyrical  and  occasional  poems,  and  his 
domestic  epic,  entitled  "  Herman  and  Dorothea."  The  first  part 
of  Faust  is  the  poem  by  which  the  fame  of  this  author  has  been 
most  widely  extended.  Though  incomplete,  it  is  remarkably 
original,  and  suggests  important  reflections  on  human  character 
and  destiny.  The  narrative  is  partly  founded  on  the  old  legend 
of  Faust,  the  magician.  We  are  introduced  to  the  hero  at  the 
moment  when  he  despairs  of  arriving  at  any  valuable  result,  after 
years  of  abstruse  study,  and  is  about  to  put  the  cup  of  poison 
to  his  lips.  The  church  bells  of  Easter  Sunday  recall  to  his  mind 
the  scenes  of  his  innocent  childhood,  and  he  puts  aside  the  cup, 
and  resolves  to  commence  a  new  career  of  life.  At  this  moment, 
his  evil  genius,  Mephistopheles,  appears  and  persuades  him  to 
abandon  philosophy,  and  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the  world. 
Faust  yields  to  his  advice,  and  after  many  adventures,  ends  his 
career  in  crime  and  in  misery.  Many  parts  of  the  poem  are 
written  in  a  mystical  vein,  and  intimate  rather  than  express  the 
various  reflections  to  be  deduced  from  it.  The  second  part  of 
Faust  is  remarkable  for  its  varied  and  harmonious  versiftcation. 

Goethe  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  much  devoted  to  the  fine 
arts  and  the  natural  sciences,  as  is  attested  by  his  remarkable 
work  on  the  theory  of  colors,  and  he  extended  his  sympathies 
over  almost  every  department  of  literature. 

The  great  merit  of  Goethe  lies  not  so  much  in  his  individual 
productions,  as  in  the  philosophy  of  life  and  individual  charac- 
ter which  pervades  his  works,  and  which  from  Faust,  his  greatest 
production,  to  his  songs,  elegies,  and  shorter  poems,  have  all  the 
same  peculiar  character,  and  are  tinged  with  the  same  profound 
reflections  of  his  philosophical  mind.  The  service  he  rendered 
to  the  German  language  was  immense.  The  clearness  and  sim- 
plicity of  his  prose  style  make  it  the  best  model  for  the  imitation 
of  his  countrymen.  During  his  lifetime,  professors  of  various 
universities  lectured  on  his  works,  and  other  authors  wrote  com- 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  429 

mentaries  on  his  productions,  while  his  genius  has  been  amply 
recognized  in  foreign  countries,  especially  within  the  last  30  years. 

Schiller  (1759-1805)  was  born  at  Marbach,  a  town  of 
Wurtemberor.  At  the  aore  of  fourteen  he  was  admitted  to  the 
military  academy  at  Stuttgart,  where,  in  spite  of  its  dull  routine, 
he  secretly  educated  himself  as  a  poet.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
two,  he  gave  to  the  world  his  tragedy  of  the  "  Robbers,"  (com- 
posed when  he  was  only  seventeen,)  in  which  his  own  wild  longings 
for  intellectual  liberty  found  a  turbulent  and  exaggerated  expres- 
sion. The  public  received  it  with  great  enthusiasm,  as  the  pro- 
duction of  a  vigorous  and  revolutionary  genius,  and  Schiller 
soon  after  escaped  from  the  academy  to  try  his  fortune  as  a 
theatrical  author.  Accompanied  by  a  young  musician,  with  only 
twenty-three  florins  in  his  pocket,  he  set  out  for  Manheim,  on 
the  night  when  the  Grand  Duke  Paul  of  Russia  paid  a  visit  to 
Stuttgart,  and  all  the  people  were  too  full  of  the  excitement  of 
the  royal  preparations  and  illuminations  to  observe  the  departure 
of  the  young  poet.  The  good  citizens  did  not  dream  that 
an  obscure  youth  was  leaving  the  city  gate,  of  whom  they 
would  one  day  be  far  more  proud  than  of  the  glittering  visit  of 
the  Grand  Duke.  Yet  the  royal  entrance  is  only  now  remem- 
bered, because  on  that  night  young  Schiller  ran  away;  and  the 
people  of  Stuttgart,  when  they  would  show  a  stranger  their  ob- 
jects of  interest,  point  first  of  all  to  the  statue  of  Friedrich 
Schiller. 

After  many  adventures  Schiller  was  appointed  poet  to  the 
theatre  at  Manheim.  At  a  later  period  he  was  made  Pro- 
fessor of  History  at  the  University  of  Jena,  a  position  for 
which  his  genius  eminently  fitted  him,  and  every  prospect  of 
happiness  opened  before  him.  But  his  health  soon  failed,  and 
after  a  short  illness,  he  expired  at  the  early  age  of  45. 

The  principal  works  of  Schiller  are  the  dramas  of  "Wal- 
lenstein,"  "Marie  Stuart,"  "The  Maid  of  Orleans,"  "The 
Bride  of  Messina,"  and  the  celebrated  ode  called  the  "Song 
of  the  Bell."  Besides  these,  he  wrote  many  ballads,  didactic 
poems,  and  lyrical  pieces.  The  "Song  of  the  Bell"  stands 
alone  as  a  successful  attempt  to  unite  poetry  with  the  inter- 
ests of  daily  life  and  industry.  In  his  lyrical  ballads  and 
romances,  Schiller  rises  above  the  didactic  and  descriptive 
style,  and  is  inspired  with  noble  purposes.  The  "  Cranes  of 
Ibycus,"  and  the  "  Fight  with  the  Dragon,"  may  be  men- 
tioned as  instances.  Schiller  was  so  interesting  as  a  man,  a  phi- 
losopher, a  historian  and  critic,  as  well  as  poet,  that,  as  Car- 
lyle  observes,  in  the  general  praise  of  this  poet,  his  particular 


430  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

merits  have  been  overlooked.  His  aspirations  in  literatnre 
were  noble  and  benevolent.  He  regarded  poetry  especially  as 
something  other  than  a  trivial  amusement — as  the  companion 
and  cherisher  of  the  best  hopes  and  affections  that  can  be 
developed  hi  human  life. 

While  Goethe  excels  Schiller  in  completeness  of  esthetical 
and  philosophical  perception,  and  in  the  versatility  of  his 
world-embracing  and  brilliant  attainments,  as  a  lover  of  his  race 
and  as  a  poet  who  knew  how  to  embody  that  love  in  the  most 
exquisite  conceptions,  Schiller  far  surpassed  him,  and  stands  pre- 
eminent among  all  other  poets.  While  Goethe  represented  the 
actual  thoughts  and  feelings  of  his  age,  Schiller  reflected  its 
ideal  yearnings  ;  while  the  practical  result  of  Goethe's  influence 
was  to  develop  the  capabilities  of  each  individual  to  its  utmost 
extent,  Schiller's  aim  was  to  lead  men  to  consecrate  their 
gifts  to  the  good,  the  beautiful,  and  the  true,  the  ethical  trinity  of 
the  ages.  The  one  poet  represents  the  majesty,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  tyranny  of  the  intellect  ;  the  other,  the  power 
and  the  loveliness  of  the  affections  ;  and  although  Goethe  will 
always  receive  the  respect  and  admiration  of  the  world,  Schiller 
will  command  its  love. 

4.  The  Gottingen  School. — This  association  was  formed  at 
the  epoch  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  when  poets  such  as  no  other 
times  had  produced  started  up  in  quick  succession.  The  follow- 
ing are  among  the  principal  members  of  this  school.  Yoss 
(1750-1826)  is  distinguished  by  a  classical  taste  and  great 
fluency  of  style.  His  "Louise"  is  a  masterpiece  of  bucohc 
poetry.     His  " Idyls"  are  the  best  of  his  minor  poems. 

Christian  Stolberg  (1748-1821)  was  the  author  of  two 
dramas,  many  elegiac  poems  and  translations  from  the  Greek. 
Leopold  Stolberg  (1750-1817),  his  brother,  was  still  more  suc- 
cessful as  a  poet,  and  distinguished  for  his  acute  observation  of 
the  beautiful  in  nature.  Hoelty  (1748-1776)  was  a  poet  of 
the  gentler  affections,  the  eloquent  advocate  of  love,  friend- 
ship, and  benevolence.  Claudius  (1743-1815)  in  his  poetical 
productions  ranges  through  song,  elegy,  romance  and  fable. 
Burger  (1748-1794)  was  remarkable  as  the  author  of  wild, 
picturesque  ballads  and  songs.  His  most  celebrated  poem  is 
''  Leonore,"  which  was  at  one  time  known  by  heart  all  over 
Germany.  Schubart  (1739-1791),  though  not  belonging  to 
the  Guttingen  association,  may  be  here  referred  to.  His  songs 
and  poems  evince  a  warm  imagination,  and  his  descriptions  are 
true  and  beautiful.     One  of  the  most  powerful  writers  of  this 


GERMAN    LITERATURE.  431 

period  was  Klini^er  (1T53-1831),  whose  liigblj  wrought  pro- 
ductions reflected  most  vividly  the  vehemence  of  thought  and 
feehng  of  his  time,  and  whose  drama,  "  Storm  and  Stress," 
gave  the  name  to  that  pecuUar  school  known  as  the  Storm  and 
Stress  literature. 

5.  The  Rojiaxtic  School. — The  founders  of  the  Romantic 
School,  Xovalis,  the  two  Schlegels,  and  Tieck,  opposed  the  sys- 
tem which  held  up  the  great  masters  of  antiquity  as  exclusive 
models  of  excellence  ;  they  condemned  this  theory  as  cold  and 
narrow,  and  opposed  alike  to  the  true  interests  of  literature  and 
progress.  They  pointed  out  the  vast  changes  in  religion,  mo- 
rality, thought,  habits  and  manners  which  separated  the  ancient 
from  the  modern  world,  and  declared  that  to  follow  blindly  the 
works  of  Yirgil  and  Cicero,  was  to  repress  all  originality  and 
creative  power.  From  the  times  of  Pericles  or  Augustus  they 
turned  to  the  Middle  Ages,  and,  forgetting  their  crimes  and 
miseries,  threw  around  them  a  halo  of  illusive  romance.  It  was 
not  only  in  poetry  that  this  reaction  was  visible — in  art  and 
architecture  the  same  tendency  appeared.  The  stiff  and  quaint, 
but  vigorous  productions  of  the  old  German  painters  were  drawn 
forth  from  the  obscurity  where  they  had  long  mouldered  ;  the 
glorious  old  cathedrals  were  repaired  and  embellished  ;  the  lays 
of  the  minnesingers,  collected  by  Tieck,  were  on  every  lip,  and 
the  records  of  the  olden  times  were  ransacked  for  historic 
and  traditionary  lore.  The  extravagances  into  which  the 
Romantic  School  soon  fell,  have  done  much  to  diminish  the 
influence  of  its  founders,  who  have  been  unjustly  held  responsible 
for  the  absurdities  of  its  disciples. 

The  brothers  Schlegel  are  more  celebrated  as  philologists  and 
critics  than  as  poets  ;  although  their  metrical  compositions  are 
numerous,  they  are  wholly  deficient  in  warmth,  passion  and  im- 
agination. Tieck  is  more  distinguished  as  a  novehst  than  a 
poet,  but  even  his  prose  tales  are  so  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of 
poetry  that  they  may  be  said  to  belong  to  this  department. 

Among  other  poets,  Korner  and  Arndt  are  best  remembered 
by  their  patriotic  songs,  which  once  thrilled  every  German  heart. 

Seldom  in  romance  or  history  is  there  found  a  more  noble  or 
heroic  character  than  Theodore  Korner  (1791-1813).  Short 
as  was  his  existence,  he  had  already  struck,  with  more  or  less 
success,  almost  every  chord  of  the  poetic  lyre.  His  dramas, 
with  many  faults,  abound  in  scenes  glowing  with  power  and  pas- 
sion, and  prove  what  he  might  have  achieved  had  life  been 
spared  to  him.    But  it  is  his  patriotic  poems,  his  *' Lyre  and 


432  GEiniAX    LITERATURE. 

Sword/'  which  have  invested  the  name  of  Korner  with  the  halo 
of  fame  and  rendered  his  memory  sacred  to  his  countrymen. 

The  name  of  Arudt  (1769-18G0)  is  also  associated  in  every 
German  mind  with  the  cause  of  national  liberty  ;  and  his  poems 
have  incited  many  German  hearts  to  the  achievement  of  heroic 
deeds.  His  patriotic  song,  "Where  is  the  German's  fatherland," 
is  a  universal  favorite.  Arndt  is  not  less  celebrated  for  his  his- 
torical and  scientific  works  than  for  his  poems. 

The  Suabian  School  is  represented  by  Uhland,  Schwab,  Ker- 
ner,  and  others  who  have  enriched  German  poetry  with  many 
orignal  lyrics.  TJhlaud  (b.  1787)  is  the  most  distinguished  bal- 
lad writer  of  the  present  age  in  Germany.  The  conceptions 
embodied  in  his  poetry  refer  chiefly  to  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
his  stories  are  many  of  them  founded  on  well-known  legends. 

Kerner  (b.  1786)  is  more  intrinsically  romantic  tlian  Uhland, 
but  he  is  equally  at  home  in  other  species  of  composition, 
Schwab  (1792-1850)  is  the  most  distinguished  of  the  present 
generation  of  lyric  poets.  An  epic  tendency,  combined  with 
great  facility  in  depicting  scenery  and  describing  events,  are  the 
main  features  of  his  metrical  romances. 

Kiickert  (b.  1789),  one  of  the  most  original  lyric  poets  of 
Germany,  is  distinguished  for  the  versatility  of  his  descriptive 
powers,  the  richness  of  his  imagination,  and  his  bold,  fiery 
spirit.  Freiligrath  (b.  1810),  among  the  later  poets  of  Ger- 
many, possesses  the  highest  claim  to  admiration.  He  has  a 
rich  imagination,  great  power  of  language  and  musical  ver- 
sification. His  writings  are  filled  with  the  most  vivid  pictures, 
sketched  with  a  bold  hand  and  a  brilliant  coloring. 

The  most  remarkable  poet,  however,  whom  Germany  has  pro- 
duced in  the  present  century,  is,  undoubtedly,  Heinrich  Heine 
(1800-1856).  He  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  so- 
called  young  Germany  school  of  writers  and  politicians,  who  by 
their  opposition  to  ilhberal  systems  of  government,  have  not  a  lit- 
tle contributed  to  kindle  a  fresh  enthusiasm  for  liberty  in  Ger- 
many. Heine's  works  in  spite  of  many  objectionable  features, 
have  won  for  him  a  wide  reputation.  His  poems  abound  with 
gems  of  rare  beauty ;  his  prose  writings  are  profoundly  philo- 
sophical and  suggestive,  and  his  sketches  of  life  and  travel  are 
unmatched  for  their  racy  freshness  and  graphic  power.  Ludwig 
Borne  (1786-1837),  the  rival  of  Heine  in  the  leadership  of  the 
Young  Germany  party,  was  inferior  to  him  in  poetical  power, 
but  his  superior  in  earnestness,  moral  beauty  and  elevation. 
Both  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  Germany.  Borne  was  the 
nightmare  of  the  German  princes,  at  whom  he  darted,  from  Ms 


GERMAN    LITERATUKE.  433 

place  of  exile  in  Paris,  the  arrows  of  his  bitter  satire.  Some  of  his 
writings  are  among  the  most  eloquent  of  modern  German  com- 
positions. Prominent  among  the  followers  of  Heine  and  Borne, 
are  Gutzkow  (b.  1811),  a  novelist,  essayist  and  dramatist ; 
Laube  (b.  1806);  and  Mundt  (b.  1808). 

Other  eminent  poets  of  the  present  day,  devoted  to  the 
expression  of  liberal  political  sentiments,  are  Hoffmann  von  Fal- 
lersleben,  Herwegh  and  Dingelstedt. 

Anastasius  Griin  (Count  Auersperg)  is  an  amateur  liberal 
politician,  whose  poems  are  full  of  fine  touches  of  wit  and  humor. 
Among  his  most  distinguished  followers  are  Lenau  and  Karl 
Beck. 

6.  The  Drama. — At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Gottsched  and  his  followers  had  rendered  good  service  to  the 
stage,  not  so  much  by  their  own  productions  as  by  driving  from 
it  the  bombast  of  Lohenstein.  Lessing  followed  this  movement 
by  attacking  the  French  dramas,  which  had  hitherto  been 
esteemed  the  highest  productions  of  human  genius,  and  by  bring- 
ing forward  Shakspeare  as  the  true  model  of  dramatic  style. 
This  attack  was  so  successful  that  the  influence  of  the  French 
drama  soon  decUned,  and  in  the  reaction,  Greeks,  Romans,  kings 
and  princesses  were  replaced  by  honest,  tiresome  burghers,  with 
their  common-place  wives  and  daughters,  and  the  toga  and  tunic 
gave  way  to  woollen  petticoats  and  dress-coats.  Everything  like 
poetry,  either  in  language  or  sentiment,  was  banished  from  the 
stage.  Such  was  the  state  of  things  when  Goethe  appeared. 
His  rapid  glance  at  once  discerned  the  poverty  of  dramatic  art, 
and  his  flexible  and  many-sided  genius  set  itself  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  His  "  Gotz  of  BerUchingen  "  illustrated  the  possi- 
bility of  a  dramatic  literature  founded  upon  national  history 
and  national  character.  His  "  Egmont"  is  a  highly  poetic  and 
eloquent  dramatization  of  that  popular  hero,  and  of  the  strug- 
gles of  the  IS^etherlands  against  the  tyranny  of  Spain.  His 
"Tasso"  is  a  poem  of  psychological  interest,  illustrating  a 
favorite  maxim  of  the  author  that  a  poet,  like  every  other  artist, 
for  his  true  development,  needs  education.  "  A  hundred  times," 
says  Goethe,  "  have  I  heard  artists  boast  that  they  owed  every- 
thing to  themselves,  and  I  am  often  provoked  to  add,  *  Yes,  and 
the  result  is  just  what  might  be  expected.'  What,  let  me  ask, 
is  a  man  in  and  of  himself  ?" 

The  lesson  of  the  drama  of  ''Tasso"  is  this — that  the  poet 
cannot  fulfill  his  duty  by  cultivating  merely  his  imagmation, 
however  splendid  and  powerful  it  may  be.      Like  all  other  men 

19 


434  GERMAN"   LITERATURE. 

who  would  bo  good  and  great,  he  must  exercise  patience  and 
moderation  ;  must  learn  the  value  of  self-denial  ;  must  endure 
the  hardships  and  contradictions  of  the  real  world  ;  contentedly 
occupy  his  place,  with  its  panis  and  pleasures,  as  a  part  of  the 
great  whole,  and  patiently  wait  to  see  the  beauty  and  bright- 
ness which  flow  from  his  soul,  win  their  way  through  the  obsta- 
cles presented  by  human  society.  The  singular  merit  of  this 
dramatic  poem  is  this  :  that  it  is  the  fruit  of  genuine  experience, 
adorned  with  the  hues  of  a  beautiful  imaQ:ination,  and  clothed  in 
classical  language  ;  but  it  is  a  work  written  for  the  few. 

"  Iphigenia "  is  a  fine  imitation  of  the  ancient  Greek  style, 
but  not  well  suited  to  the  stage. 

In  his  dramatic,  as  in  all  his  other  works,  the  only  end  and  aim 
of  Goethe  was  to  carry  to  perfection  the  art  in  which  he  was  so 
great  a  master.  Virtue  and  vice,  truth  and  falsehood,  are  each 
portrayed  with  the  same  graceful  complacency  and  the  same  ex- 
quisite skill.  His  immense  and  wide-spreading  influence  ren- 
ders this  singular  indilTerence,  which  seems  to  confound  the  very 
sense  of  right  and  wrong,  doubly  lamentable. 

In  plastic  skill  and  variety,  the  dramatic  creations  of  Schiller  are 
regarded,  in  some  respects,  inferior  to  those  of  Goethe,  but  they  all 
glow  with  the  love  of  true  goodness  and  greatness,  and  with  au 
enthusiasm  for  virtue  and  liberty,  which  communicates  itself,  as 
by  an  electric  spark,  to  liis  readers.  The  violent  tone  of  Schiller's 
first  tragedy,  the  *'  Robbers,"  was  suggested  by  other  theatrical 
writers  of  the  period,  who  esteemed  wildness  and  absurdity  the 
chief  characteristics  of  poetical  genius.  Schiller  gave  to  his  dra- 
matic works  more  movement  and  popular  interest  than  can  be 
found  in  Goethe's  dramas,  but  yielded  in  some  instances  to  the 
sentimental  tone  so  prevalent  in  German  poetry.  "  Fiesco"  was 
written  in  a  better  style  than  the  ''  Robbers,"  though  less  suited 
to  please  the  low  theatrical  taste  of  the  time.  "Don  Carlos'^ 
showed  more  maturity  of  thought,  and  is  pervaded  by  a  coloring  of 
poetic  sentiment  ;  "  Wallenstein  "  won  for  the  poet  a  universal 
reputation  in  his  native  land,  and  was  translated  into  English 
by  Coleridge.  "Marie  Stuart,"  the  "Maid  of  Orleans,"  and 
the  "  Bride  of  Messina,"  contributed  still  more  to  increase  the 
poet's  fame.  "  Wilhelm  Tell "  was  the  most  popular  of  Schiller's 
plays,  and  is  still  esteemed  by  some  as  his  best  production. 
Here  the  love  of  liberty,  so  wildly  expressed  in  the  "  Robbers," 
appears  in  its  true  and  refined  character. 

Kotzebue  (1760-1819)  was  one  of  the  most  successful  play« 
Wrights  of  Germany.  He  composed  an  almost  countless  number 
of  plays,  and  his  plots  were  equally  versatile  and  amusing  ;  but 


GERMANS"    LITERATURE.  435 

he  was  entirely  destitute  of  poetic  and  moral  beauty.  Ilis  op- 
position to  liberal  principles  caused  him  to  be  regarded  as  the 
enemy  of  liberty,  and  to  be  assassinated  by  an  enthusiastic 
student  named  George  Sand,  who,  on  obtaining  admittance  to 
him  under  the  pretence  of  business,  stabbed  him  to  the  heart. 

While  the  influence  of  the  Romantic  School  tended  to  invest 
all  poetry  with  a  dreamy  and  transcendental  character,  in  the 
drama  it  was  mingled  with  stormy  and  exciting  incidents,  often 
carried  to  the  extreme  of  exaggeration  and  absurdity.  The  R,o- 
mancists  dealt  almost  exclusiyely  with  the  perturbed  elements 
of  the  human  mind  and  the  fearful  secrets  of  the  heart.  They 
called  to  their  aid  the  mysteries  of  the  dark  side  of  nature,  and 
ransacked  the  supernatural  world  for  its  marvels  and  its  horrors. 
The  principal  of  these  "  power-men,"  as  they  were  called,  are 
Miilhier,  Werner,  Howald  and  Grillparzer. 

Miillner  (1774-1829)  displayed  no  common  order  of  poetic 
genius;  but  the  elements  of  crime,  horror  and  remorse  often  supply 
the  place  of  originality  of  thought  and  delineation  of  character. 
Werner  (1768-1823),  after  a  youth  of  alternate  profligacy  and 
remorse,  embraced  the  Catholic  faith  and  became  a  preacher. 
His  dramas  of  "  Martin  Luther,"  "  Attila,"  and  the  "  Twenty- 
ninth  of  February,"  have  rendered  him  one  of  the  most  popular 
authors  in  Germaiay.  Grillparzer  (b.  1790)  is  the  author  of  a 
drama  entitled  the  "  Ancestress."  The  wildest  dreams  of 
Miillner  and  Werner  sink  into  insignificance  before  the  extra- 
vagance of  this  production,  both  in  language  and  sentiment. 
The  ''Sappho"  of  this  author  displays  much  lyric  beauty. 
Iffiand  (1759-1814)  was  a  fertile  but  dull  dramatist.  One  of 
the  best  national  tragedies  was  wi'itten  by  Miinch  Belling- 
hausen.  Charlotte  Birchpfeifer  has  dramatized  a  great  num- 
ber of  stories.  Raupach  (1784-1852)  was  one  of  the  most 
able  of  recent  German  writers  of  plays.  Gutzkow  is  distin- 
guished among  contemporary  dramatists  ;  and  Freytag  and 
Bauernfeld  are  excellent  writers  of  comedy. 

7.  Novels,  Romances  and  Popular  Legends. — Poetry  and 
prose  fiction  form  the  general  Uterature  of  a  nation,  and  are 
distinguished  from  the  literature  of  the  study  or  from  special 
literature,  which  consists  chiefly  of  books  for  the  use  of  distinct 
classes  or  parties.  Fiction  borders  closely  on  the  province  of 
history,  which,  in  its  broad  and  comprehensive  outUnes,  must 
necessarily  leave  unnoticed  many  of  the  finer  lights  and  shades 
of  human  hfe,  descriptions  of  motives,  private  characters  and 
domestic  scenes.     To  supply  these  in  the  picture  of  humanity  is 


436  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

the  distinct  office  of  fiction,  which,  while  free  in  many  respects, 
should  still  be  essentially  true.  The  poetry  and  fiction  of 
a  country  should  be  the  worthy  companion  to  its  history. 
The  true  poet  should  be  the  interpreter  and  illustrator  of  life. 
While  the  historian  describes  events  and  the  outward  lives  of 
men,  the  poet  penetrates  into  the  inner  life,  and  portrays  the 
spirit  that  moves  them.  The  historian  records  facts  ;  the  poet 
records  feelings,  thoughts,  hopes  and  desires  ;  the  historian 
keeps  in  view  the  actual  man,  the  poet  the  ideal  man  ;  the  his- 
torian tells  us  what  man  has  been  ;  the  poet  reminds  us  either  in 
his  dreams  of  the  past,  or  in  his  visions  of  the  future,  what  man 
can  be  ;  and  the  true  poet  who  fulfills  such  a  duty  is  as  necessary 
to  the  development  and  education  of  mankind  as  the  historian. 

The  numerous  fictitious  works  of  Germany  may  be  arranged 
in  four  diflferent  classes.  The  first,  comprehending  historical 
romances,  affords  few  writers  who  bear  comparison  with 
Scott.  In  the  second  class,  containing  novels  which  describe 
characters  and  scenes  in  real  life,  German  literature  is  also  com- 
paratively poor.  The  third  class  comprises  all  the  fictions 
marked  by  particular  tendencies  respecting  art,  literature,  or 
society.  In  the  fourth  class,  which  includes  imaginative  tales, 
German  literature  is  especially  rich.  To  this  department  of  fic- 
tion in  which  the  imagination  is  allowed  to  wander  far  beyond  the 
bounds  of  real  life  and  probability,  the  Germans  apply  distinct- 
tively  the  term  poetical.  In  these  imaginative  and  mystical 
fictions  there  is  an  important  distinction  between  such  tales  as 
convey  moral  truth  and  interest  under  an  array  of  visionary 
adventures,  and  those  which  are  merely  fantastic  and  almost 
destitute  of  meaning. 

Goethe's  novel,  "  Wilhelm  Meister's  Apprenticeship,"  may  be 
classed  with  fictions  intended  to  convey  certain  views  of  life; 
but  its  chief  defect  is,  that  the  object  of  the  writer  remains  in 
a  mist,  even  at  the  end  of  the  story.  The  "  Elective  Affinities," 
while  it  contains  many  beauties  as  a  work  of  art,  is  objectionable 
in  a  moral  point  of  view. 

Jean  Paul  Richter  (1Y63-1825)  describes  human  life  in  all 
its  aspects  of  light  and  shade,  and  his  voluminous  works  embrace 
all  subjects,  from  the  highest  problems  of  transcendental  philoso- 
phy and  the  most  passionate  poetical  delineations  to  "  Instruc- 
tions in  the  Art  of  Falling  Asleep  ;"  but  his  essential  character, 
however  disguised,  is  that  of  a  philosopher  and  moral  poet, 
whose  study  has  been  human  nature,  and  whose  delight  is  in  all 
that  is  beautiful,  tender,  and  mysteriously  sublime  in  the  fate  or 
history  of  man.     Humor  is  the  ruling  quality  of  his  mind,  the 


GERMAN  LITERATURE.  437 

central  fire  that  pervades  and  vivifies  his  whole  being.  The 
chief  productions  of  Jean  Paul  (the  title  under  which  he  wrote) 
are  novels,  of  which  **  Hesperus"  and  ''Titan"  are  considered 
his  masterpieces. 

Tieck  (1173-1853)  was  at  once  a  novelist,  poet,  and  critic  ; 
but  his  fairy  tales  have  perhaps  rendered  him  most  popular. 
His  fancy  was  brilliant  and  sportive,  and  his  imagination  varied 
and  fantastic.  The  world  of  his  creation  was  peopled  by  demons 
who  shed  their  malignant  influence  on  mankind,  or  by  spirits  such 
as  the  Kosicrucians  had  conjured  up,  nymphs  of  the  air,  the 
woods,  or  waters.  These  airy  visions  he  wove  into  form  and 
shape  with  a  master  hand,  and  he  invested  even  the  common 
objects  of  life  with  a  supernatural  hue.  At  times  he  seems 
almost  to  have  acquired  a  closer  intimacy  with  nature  than  that 
granted  to  common  men,  and  to  have  dived  into  the  secret  of 
her  operations  and  the  working  of  her  laws.  But  while  Tieck  is 
unrivalled  in  the  world  of  phantasy,  he  becomes  an  ordinary 
writer  when  he  descends  to  that  of  daily  hfe. 

Hardenberg,  known  by  the  assumed  name  of  Novalis  (nt2- 
1801),  by  his  unsullied  character,  his  early  death,  and  the 
mystic  tone  of  his  productions,  was  long  regarded  with  an 
enthusiasm  which  has  now  greatly  declined.  His  romance, 
"  Henry  of  Ofterdingen,"  contains  elements  of  beauty,  but  it 
deals  too  exclusively  with  the  shadowy,  the  distant,  and  the 
unreal.  His  "  Aphorisms  "  are  some  tunes  deep  and  original,  but 
often  paradoxical  and  unintelligible. 

La  Motte  Fou;?|ue  (1777-1843)  is  best  known  by  his  charming 
story  of  "  Undine,"  founded  on  one  of  those  traditions  in  which 
the  ancient  fairy  mythology  of  Germany  abounded.  Undine,  a 
beautiful  water-spirit,  wins  the  heart  of  a  noble  knight,  and  con- 
sents to  be  his  bride.  We  have  seen  that  it  was  only  through 
the  union  with  a  being  of  mortal  mould  that  the  spirits  of 
air  or  water  could  obtain  the  gift  of  a  soul.  But  before  giving 
her  hand  to  her  lover.  Undine  reminds  him  that  the  relent- 
less laws  of  her  race  condemn  her  to  become  herself  the  instru- 
ment of  his  destruction  if  he  should  break  his  plighted  vow. 
The  knight  accepts  the  conditions,  and  for  a  time  remains  true 
to  his  beautiful  wife.  But  at  length,  weary  of  her  charms,  he 
seeks  the  daughter  of  a  neighboring  baron  for  his  bride,  and  in 
the  midst  of  the  wedding  festivities,  the  faithless  knight  is 
suffocated  by  an  embrace  from  Undine,  who  is  forced  by  the 
race  of  spirits  thus  to  destroy  him. 

Chamisso  (1781-1836),  one  of  the  most  popular  poets  of 
Germany,  was  the  author  of  "Peter  Schlemihl,"  a  well-knowa 


438  GERMAN   LITERATURE. 

tale  describing  the  adventures  of  a  man  who  sold  liis  shadow 
for  a  hirge  sum  of  money,  and  found  afterward  that  he  had 
made  a  very  bad  bargain.  The  moral  it  seems  to  indicaie  is, 
that  gold  is  dearly  obtained  at  the  sacrilice  of  any  part,  even 
of  the  shadow  of  our  humanity. 

Hoffmann  (17T6-1822)  surpassed  all  other  imaginative  writers 
in  inventina:  marvellous  incidents,  while  he  was  inferior  to  mauv 
of  them  in  poetical  genius.  His  stories  mingle  the  circumstances 
of  real  life  with  grotesque  and  visionary  adventures. 

Zschokke  (1*171-1847)  was  remarkable  as  a  man  and  an 
author.  His  literary  activity  extended  over  more  than  half  a 
century,  and  his  tales  and  miscellaneous  writings  have  had  exten- 
sive popularity.  His  studies  were  generally  directed  toward 
human  improvement,  as  in  *'  Goldmaker's  Village,"  where  he 
describes  the  progress  of  industry  and  civilization  among  a 
degraded  population. 

Of  the  other  numerous  writers  of  fiction  the  names  of  a  few 
only  can  be  here  mentioned. 

Theresa  Huber  (1764-1829)  was  the  authoress  of  several 
popular  novels.  Beuedicte  Naubert  wrote  several  historical 
romances  mentioned  by  Scott  as  having  afforded  him  some  sug- 
gestions. Caroline  Pichler's  ''  Tales  "  were  accounted  among  tiie 
best  fictions  of  her  times.  Henriette  Hanke  produced  eighty- 
eiorht  volumes  of  domestic  narratives  and  other  writino-s  of  a 
moral  character;  the  Countess'  Hahn-Hahu  follows  the  tendencies 
of  Madame  Dudevant  (George  Sand),  though  with  less  genius. 

Brentano,  the  author  of  "  (iodiva,"  and  Arnim,  author  of  the 
"  Countess  Dolores,"  may  also  be  mentioned  among  the  remark- 
able writers  of  fantastic  romances. 

Bettina  (1785-1859),  the  sister  of  Brentano,  and  the  wife  of 
Arnim,  who  resembles  these  authors  in  her  imaginative  char- 
acter, wrote  a  singularly  enthusiastic  book,  entitled,  ''  Goethe's 
Correspondence  with  a  Child."  Imaginative  pictures  in  words, 
interspersed  with  sentiments,  characterize  the  writings  of  Bettina 
and  many  other  romancists,  while  they  show  little  power  in  the 
construction  of  plots  and  the  development  of  character. 

Among  the  more  renowed  female  writers  are  Auguste  von 
Paalzow,  Fanny  Lewald,  Amalie  Schoppe,  Johanna  Schoppen- 
hauer,  Friederike  Brun,  Talvi  (Mrs.  Robinson).  Henriette 
Herz  (17G4-1841)  and  Rahel  (1771-1844)  also  occupied  a  bril- 
liant position  in  the  literary  and  social  world.  The  latter  was  the 
wife  of  Varnhagen  von  Ense  (d.  1859),  the  most  able  and 
attractive  biographical  writer  of  Germany.  Wilhelm  Haring 
(Wilibald  Alexis)  is  particularly  eminent  as  a  romance  writer. 


GERMAN   LITERATURE.  430 

The  historical  novelists  of  the  early  part  of  this  century, 
as  Yan  cler  Yelde,  Spindler,  Rellstab,  Storch  and  Ran,  have 
been  succeeded  by  Kouig-,  Heller  and  several  others.  Good 
French  and  English  novels  are  translated  into  German,  almost 
immediately  after  their  appearance,  and  the  comparative  scarcity 
of  interesting  German  novels  is  accounted  for  by  the  taste  for 
this  foreign  literature,  and  also  by  the  increasing  absorption  of 
literary  talent  in  the  periodical  press.  Among  the  novelists 
who  have  recently  gained  a  great  popularity  by  their  faithful 
delineation  of  middle-class  life  is  Gustav  Freytag,  whose  book, 
*'  Debit  and  Credit"  (1857),  has  been  translated  into  EngUsh. 

The  popular  legends  of  Germany  are  numerous  and  charac- 
teristic of  the  country.  These  narratives  are  either  legends  of 
local  interest,  associated  with  old  castles,  or  other  antiquities, 
or  they  are  purely  fabulous.  Though  they  are  sometimes 
fantastic  and  in  their  incidents  show  little  respect  to  the  laws 
of  probability,  they  are  genuine  and  fairly  represent  the  play  of 
the  popular  imagination  ;  while  under  their  wild  imagery  they 
often,  convey  symbolically  a  deep  and  true  meaning. 

8.  Literary  History  and  Criticism. — Modern  German  litera- 
ture is  singularly  rich  in  this  department.  In  the  Republic  of 
Letters,  German  students  have  found  the  liberty  they  could  not 
enjoy  in  actual  life,  and  this  cause  has  promoted  investigation 
in  ancient  and  modern  literature.  Poets,  historians,  philosophers, 
and  other  writers  have  been  studied  and  criticised,  not  merely  as 
authors,  but  with  especial  reference  to  their  respective  contribu- 
tions to  the  progress  of  ideas  and  the  movements  of  society. 
Some  of  the  most  eminent  German  critical  writers  have  already 
been  mentioned  under  various  preceding  heads.  Winckelmann 
(lTlT-1768)  devoted  himself  with  enthusiasm  to  the  study  of 
antique  sculpture,  and  wrote  elegant  dissertations  on  the  grace 
and  beauty  of  the  works  of  ancient  art.  His  writings  display 
true  enthusiasm  and  refined  taste.  It  may  be  said  that  the 
school  of  art-criticism  in  Germany  owes  its  origin  to  the  studies 
of  Winckelmann,  The  critical  writings  of  Herder  were  more 
remarkable  for  the  impulse  which  they  gave  to  the  studies  of 
other  authors  than  for  their  intrinsic  merits.  Goethe  in  his  prose 
writings  showed  with  what  grace  and  precision  the  German  lan- 
guage might  be  written.  The  letters  of  Scliiller  are  pervaded 
by  a  lofty  and  ideal  tone.  William  von  Humboldt  (1762-1882), 
was  the  founder  of  the  science  of  comparative  philology,  a  scholar 
of  remarkable  comprehensiveness  and  scientific  knowledge,  and 
the  author  of  several  highly  important  works  on  lansiuage  and 


440  GERMAN    LITERATURE. 

literature.  The  brothers  Schlegel  developed  that  taste  for 
universal  literature  which  had  been  introduced  by  Herder. 
The  mind  of  Augustus  Schlegel  (17G7-1845)  was  rather  compre- 
hensive than  endowed  with  original  and  creative  genius.  His 
poems  are  elegant,  but  not  remarkable.  Friedrich  Schlegel 
(1172-1829),  like  his  brother,  was  opposed  to  the  skeptical 
character  of  some  of  the  philosophical  theories  of  his  day,  and 
after  entering  the  Catholic  church  he  expressed  his  religious  and 
polemical  opinions  in  his  v/orks  on  literature.  His  lectures  on 
"  The  Philosophy  of  History  "  were  evidently  written  with  political 
and  religious  purposes.  He  participated  with  his  brother  in  the 
study  of  oriental  literature  and  language,  but  his  lectures  on  "  The 
Literature  of  all  Nations  "  have  chiefly  extended  his  fame  for  great 
capacity,  critical  acumen  and  extensive  learning.  The  main 
purpose  of  the  author  is  to  describe  the  development  of  litera- 
ture in  its  connection  with  the  social  and  religious  institutions  of 
various  nations  and  periods.  He  thus  elevates  literature,  and 
especially  poetry,  far  above  the  views  of  trivial  and  commonplace 
criticism,  and  regards  it  in  its  highest  aspect,  as  the  product  of 
human  life  and  genius  in  various  stages  of  cultivation.  The  his- 
tory of  the  world  of  books  is  thus  represented  as  no  dry  and 
pedantic  study,  but  as  one  intimately  connected  with  the  best 
interests  of  humanity.  In  the  establishment  of  this  humani- 
tarian style  of  literature,  the  services  of  this  author  were  of  great 
value,  although  ma,ny  of  his  works,  as  well  as  those  of  others  in 
this  department,  have  been  written  rather  for  the  use  of  scholars 
than  for  the  public.  There  still  remains  in  Germany  that  distinction 
between  a  popular  and  scholastic  style  which  characterized  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  the  literati  excluded  their  thoughts  from  the 
people  by  writing  in  Latin.  The  literature  of  the  past,  which  is 
in  itself  too  diffuse  to  be  comprehended  by  men  of  scanty  leisure 
in  modern  times,  is  with  most  writers  too  often  rather  com- 
plicated and  extended  than  simplified  and  compressed  into  a 
readable  form.  If  the  labors  of  learned  historians  and  critics  had 
been  directed  to  popularize  tlie  results  of  their  extensive  scholar- 
shi}3 — readers  without  much  time  for  study  might  have  acquired 
a  fair  general  acquaintance  with  universal  literature.  But  while 
concise  and  masterly  summaries  are  required,  many  scholars  love 
to  wander  in  never-ending  disquisitions,  and  the  consequence  is 
that  the  greater  number  of  readers  acquire  only  a  fragmentary 
and  accidental  knowledge  of  books. 

While  the  brothers  Schlegel,  and  many  other  writers,  followed 
the  tendencies  of  Herder  in  universal  literature,  a  national  school 
of  criticism  was  founded  and  supported  by  the  brothers  Grimm 


GERMAX   LITERATURE.  441 

with  many  able  associates.  Jacob,  the  eldest  (b.  1*185),  devoted 
his  researches  to  the  German  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
collected  the  scattered  remnants  of  old  popular  legends.  In  con- 
junction with  his  brother  William  (d.  1860),  he  published  his 
"  Children's  Fables,"  or  ''Household  Tales,"  which  are  marked  by 
great  simplicity,  and  often  convey  pleasing  sentiments  and  good 
morals  mingled  with  fantastic  and  supernatural  adventures.  Later 
works  on  the  "  German  Language,"  "  Legal  Antiquities,"  and 
"  German  Mythology"  have  secured  for  this  author  the  highest 
position  among  national  philologists  and  antiquaries.  The  exam- 
ple of  these  brothers  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  the  study  of  German 
archaeology,  and  the  results  have  been  received  with  great  enthu- 
siasm. Many  relics  of  old  literature  have  been  recovered,  and 
these  remains  form  a  considerable  library  of  literary  antiquities. 

Menzel  (1*198),  well  known  as  a  critical  and  polemical  writer 
of  the  national  school,  has  written  the  "  History  of  German  Litera- 
ture," "  The  Spirit  of  History,"  and  other  works,  in  which  he  has 
warmly  opposed  the  extreme  revolutionary  tendencies  of  recent 
political  and  social  theorists. 

Gervinus  (b.  1805)  may  be  considered  as  a  historian,  politician, 
and  critic.  In  his  "  History  of  the  Poetical  National  Literature 
of  the  Germans,"  he  traces  the  development  of  poetry  in  its  rela- 
tions to  civilization  and  society.  He  has  also  written  a  w^ork 
on  Shakspeare,  and  a  history  of  the  19th  century,  which  is 
characterized  by  its  liberal  tendencies.  His  views  of  literature 
are  dh'ectly  opposed  to  those  of  Frederic  Schlegel. 

As  historians  of  ancient  classical  literature,  German  scholars 
have  maintained  the  highest  position,  and  to  them  the  world  is 
prodigiously  indebted.  Their  works,  however,  are  too  comprehen- 
sive to  be  described  here,  and  too  numerous  even  to  be  mentioned. 
The  idea  of  classical  erudition,  as  maintained  by  them,  is  extended 
far  beyond  its  common  limitation,  and  is  connected  with  re- 
searches respecting  not  the  language  only,  but  also  the  religion, 
philosophy,  social  economy,  arts  and  sciences  of  ancient  nations. 

Karl  Ottfried  Mtiller  (17917-1840)  must  be  mentioned  as  an 
accomplished  scholar  and  the  author  of  a  standard  work,  the 
"  History  of  Greek  Literature."  Among  the  other  great  writ- 
ers on  ancient  history,  are  Bockh,  Duncker,  Droysen,  Mommsen, 
and  Korttim. 

Several  works  on  the  modern  literature  of  European  nations 
have  recently  been  published  in  Germany  ;  and  much  industry 
and  research  have  been  displayed  in  numerous  criticisms  on  the 
fine  arts.  The  principles  of  Winckelmann  and  Lessing  have 
been  developed  by  later  authors  who  have  written  excellent  criti- 

19* 


442  GERMAN"   LITERATURE. 

cal  and  historical  works  on  the  phistic  arts,  sculpture,  painting, 
and  architecture.  In  general,  the  literary  criticism  of  Germany 
deserves  the  highest  commendation  for  its  candor,  •carefulness 
and  philosophical  consistency. 

9.  History  axd  Theology. — The  extensive  historical  works 
of  the  modern  writers  of  Germany  form  an  important  feature  in 
the  literature.  The  political  circumstances  of  the  country  have 
been  in  many  respects  favorable  to  the  progress  of  these  studies. 
Professors  and  students,  excluded  in  a  great  measure  from  poli- 
tical life,  have  explored  the  histories  of  ancient  nations,  and 
have  given  opinions  in  the  form  of  historical  essays,  which 
they  could  not  venture  to  apply  to  the  institutions  of  Germany. 
While  Prussia  and  Austria  were  perilous  topics  for  discussion, 
liberal  and  innovating  doctrines  might  be  promulgated  in  lec- 
tures on  the  progress  and  decline  of  liberty  in  the  ancient  world. 
Accordingly,  the  study  of  universal  history,  to  which  the  philo- 
sophical views  of  Herder  gave  the  impulse,  has  been  industriously 
prosecuted  during  the  last  fifty  years,  and  learned  and  diligent 
collectors  of  historical  material  are  more  numerous  in  Germany 
than  in  any  other  country. 

ISIuller  (1752-1804),  a  native  of  Switzerland,  displayed  true 
historical  genius  and  extended  erudition  in  his  "  Lectures  on 
Universal  History."  Among  other  writers  on  the  same  subject 
are  Rotteck,  Becker,  Bottiger,  Dittmar  and  Yehse.  Of  the 
two  last  authors,  the  one  wrote  on  this  vast  subject  especially 
in  reference  to  Christianity,  and  the  other  describes  the  progress 
of  civilization  and  intellectual  culture. 

Schlosser's  (b.  1786)  ''History  of  the  Ancient  World  and 
its  Culture  "  holds  a  prominent  place  among  historical  works. 
His  writings  are  the  result  of  lal^orious  and  conscientious 
researches  to  which  he  has  devoted  his  life. 

Heeren  (17 00-1842)  opened  a  new  vein  of  ancient  history 
in  his  learned  work  on  the  ''  Commercial  Relations  of  Anti- 
quity." While  other  historians  have  been  attracted  by  the 
sword  of  the  conqueror,  Heeren  followed  the  merchant's  cara- 
van laden  with  corn,  wine,  oils,  silks  and  spices.  His  work  is  a 
valuable  contribution  to  the  true  history  of  humanity. 

Carl  Ritter  (1779-1859)  has  united  the  studies  of  geogra- 
phy and  history  in  his  "  Geography  viewed  in  its  Relations  to 
Nature  and  History."  This  great  work,  the  result  of  a  life 
devoted  to  industrious  research,  has  established  the  science  of 
comparative  geography. 

Lepsius  and  Brugsch   have  rendered  important  services  to 


GERMAN    LITERATUEE.  443 

Egyptology,  and  Laclimann,  K.  0.  Miiller,  Yon  der  Hagen, 
Bockh,  the  brothers  Grimm,  Moritz  Ilanpt  and  others,  to  an- 
cient and  German  philology. 

In  Roman  history,  Niebuhr  (1116-1831),  stands  alone  as 
the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  research,  by  which  the  fictions 
so  long  mingled  with  the  early  history  of  Rome,  and  copied 
from  book  to  book,  and  from  century  to  century,  have  been 
fully  exploded.  Through  the  labors  of  this  historian,  modern 
readers  know  the  ancient  Romans  far  better  than  they  were 
known  by  nations  who  were  in  close  contact  with  them. 
Niebuhr  made  great  preparations  for  his  work,  and  took 
care  not  to  dissipate  his  powers  by  appearing  too  soon  as  an 
author. 

Besides  many  other  histories  relating  to  the  Roman  Empire, 
German  literature  is  especially  rich  in  those  relating  to  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  historical  writings  of  Ranke  (1795)  con- 
nect the  events  of  that  period  with  modern  times,  and  give  valu- 
able notices  of  the  age  of  the  Reformation.  "  The  History  of 
Papacy  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries  "  is  highly 
esteemed,  though  Catholic  critics  have  objected  to  some  of  its 
statements.  Histories  of  the  German  people,  of  the  Hohen- 
stauffen  Dynasty,  of  the  Crusades  ;  histories  of  nations,  of  cities, 
Qf  events,  and  of  individuals,  all  have  found  their  interpreters  in 
German  genius.  Schlosser  (b.  1*IT6),  the  rigorous  and  truthful 
historian  of  the  18th  century  ;  Dahlmann  (b.  1785),  the  Ger- 
man Guizot,  and  Raumer  (b.  1781),  the  historian  of  the  Hohen- 
stauflfens,  deserve  particular  mention.  Nor  is  the  department  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  theology  less  distinguished  by  its  research. 

Xo  writer  of  his  time  contributed  more  towards  the  formation 
of  an  improved  prose  style  than  Mosheim  (1694-1755)  ;  although 
his  "  Ecclesiastical  History  "  is  now  superseded  by  works  of 
deeper  research.  His  contemporary,  Reimarus,  wrote  in  favor  of 
natural  theology,  and  may  be  considered  the  founder  of  the  Ra- 
tionaiistic  School.  Xeander  (1789-1850)  wrote  a  history  of  the 
church,  in  ten  volumes,  distinguished  for  its  liberal  views.  The 
sermons  of  Reinhard  (d.  1812),  in  39  volumes,  display  earnest- 
ness and  unaffected  solemnity  of  style.  Schleiermacher  (1768- 
1834),  celebrated  as  a  preacher  at  Berhn,  was  the  author  of 
many  works,  in  which  he  attempted  to  reconcile  the  doctrines  of 
Protestantism  with  certain  philosophical  speculations.  De 
Wette,  the  friend  of  Schleiermacher,  is  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  able  representatives  of  the  Rationalistic  School.  Tholuck 
(b.  1799)   is  celebrated  as  a  learned  exegetical  writer. 

No  modern  work  has  excited  so  much  controversy  in  Ger- 


44  t  GEKMAX    LITEIIATUKE. 

many  as  the  "  Life  of  Jesus,"  by  Strauss  (b.  1808),  iu  which  h<* 
denies  the  historical  vaUdity  of  all  statements  of  miraculous 
events,  and  regards  them  as  mythical  representations  of  the 
ideas  which  constitute  the  basis  of  Christianity  ;  while  his 
numerous  opponents  regard  him  as  having  attacked  the  foun- 
dations of  the  Christian  faith. 

10.  Philosophy. — The  appearance  of  Kant  (1724-1804) 
created  a  new  era  in  German  philosophy.  Previous  to  his  time, 
the  two  systems  most  in  vogue  were  the  sensualism  of  Locke 
and  his  followers  and  the  idealism  of  Leibnitz,  Wolf,  and  others. 
Kant,  in  his  endeavors  to  ascertain  what  we  can  know  and  what 
we  originally  do  know,  was  led  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
mind,  and  to  investigate  original  or  transcendental  ideas,  those 
necessary  and  unchangeable  forms  of  thought,  without  which 
we  can  perceive  nothing.  For  instance,  our  perceptions  are 
submitted  to  the  two  forms  of  time  and  space.  Hence  these  two 
ideas  must  be  within  us,  not  in  the  objects  and  not  derived  from 
experience,  but  the  necessary  and  pure  intuitions  of  the  in- 
ternal sense.  The  work  in  which  Kant  endeavored  to  ascertain 
these  ideas,  and  the  province  of  certain  human  knowledge,  is 
entitled  the  "  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,"  and  the  doctrines  there 
expounded  have  been  called  the  Critical  Philosophy.  In  the 
"  Critique  of  Practical  Reason "  the  subject  of  morals  is 
treated,  and  that  of  esthetics  in  the  "  Observations  on  the  Sub- 
lime and  Beautiful." 

The  advent  of  Kant  created  a  host  of  philosophical  writers 
and  critics,  and  besides  Lessing  and  Herder  there  were  IMoses 
Mendelssohn,  Hamann  (the  Magus  of  the  North),  Reinhold, 
Jacobi  and  many  others  who  speculated  in  various  directions 
upon  the  most  momentous  problems  of  humanity  and  of  the 
human  soul, 

Fichte  (1762-1814)  carried  tlie  doctrine  of  Kant  to  its  ex- 
treme point,  and  represented  all  that  the  individual  perceives 
without  himself,  or  all  that  is  distinguished  from  the  individual, 
as  the  creation  of  this  /  or  ego  ;  that  the  life  of  the  mind  is  the 
only  real  life,  and  that  everything  else  is  a  delusion. 

ScheUing  (1775-1854),  in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Identity,"  argues 
that  the  same  laws  prevail  throughout  the  material  and  the  in- 
tellectual world.  His  later  writings  contain  theories  in  which 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  united  with  philosophical  specu- 
lations. The  leading  principle  of  Schelling  is  found  in  a  suj> 
posed  intuition,  which  he  describes  as  superior  to  all  reasoning, 
and  admitting  neither  doubt  nor  explanation.    Coleridge  adopt- 


GEKMAN    LITERATUKE.  445 

ed  many  views  of  this  philosopher,  and  some  of  his  ideas  may  be 
found  in  the  contemplative  poems  of  Wordsworth. 

Hegel  (1710-1831),  in  his  numerous,  profound  and  abstruse 
writings,  has  attempted  to  reduce  all  the  departments  of  know- 
ledge to  one  science,  founded  on  a  method  which  is  expounded 
in  his  work  on  Logic.        The  "  Identity  System  "  of  Schelling 
and  the  "  Absolute  Logic"  of  Hegel  have  already  produced  an 
extensive  library  of  philosophical  controversy,  and  the  indirect 
influence  of  the  German  schools  of  philosophy  has  affected  the 
tone  of  the  literature  in  France,  England,  America,  Denmark 
and  Sweden.     The  effect  of  German  philosophy  has  been  to  de-' 
velop  intense  intellectual  activity.     The  habit  of  searching  into 
the  hidden  mysteries  of  being  has  inclined  the  German  mind  to 
what  is  deepest,  and  sometimes  to  what  is  most  obscure  in 
thought;  and  the  tendency  to  rise  to  the  absolute,  which  is  cha- 
racteristic of  this  philosophy,  manifests  its  influence  not  only  in 
the  blending  of  poetry  and  metaphysics,  but  in  every  department 
of  science,  literature  and  art.     The  literary  theory  thus  deve- 
loped, that  ideal  beauty  and  not  the  imitation  of  nature  is  the 
highest  principle  of  art,  is  everywhere  applied  even  to  the  study 
of  the  great  monuments  of  the  past,  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
German  archaeologists  new  youth  seems  to  spring  from  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  world.     The  physical  sciences  are  also  introduced 
into  that  universal  sphere  of  ideas  where  the  most  minute  obser- 
vations, as  well  as  the  most  important  results,  pertain  to  general 
interests.     Werner  has  drawn  from  mineralogy  his  knowledge 
of  the  formation  of  the  globe,  and  of  the  epochs  of  its  history. 
Herschel  and  Schroeder  have  made  important  discoveries  in  the 
heavenly  regions  ;  Zach  and  Boler  have  apphed  mathematics  to 
astronomy  ;  Klaproth,  Bucholz  and  Liebig  have  brought  phi- 
losophy into  chemical  researches ;  and  above  all,  Alexander  von 
Humboldt,  the  greatest  and  most  illustrious  name  of  German 
science,  has  given  an  impulse  to  almost  every  branch  of  scientific 
inquiry,  and  in  his  writings  has  shown  himself  not  only  a  natu- 
ralist and  a  philosopher,  but  also  a  poet. 

11.  Miscellaneous  Writings. — Since  the  death  of  Schiller 
and  Goethe,  belles  lettres  have  been  languishing  in  Germany. 
The  best  German  minds  of  the  19th  century  have  been  absorbed 
by  severe  labor  in  all  branches  of  learning  and  the  sciences. 
Many  memoirs  of  eminent  persons  have  appeared,  and  many 
books  of  travel,  since  the  days  of  George  Forster  (1754-1794), 
the  teacher  of  Humboldt  and  the  inaugurator  of  a  new  scientific 
and  picturesque  school  of  the  literature  of  travel.     Lichtenstein 


446  ,  GERMAN    LrrERATUKE 

has  written  his  travels  in  Southern  Africa  ;  Prince  Maximilian 
von  Wied  and  Martins  in  Brazil;  Poppig  in  Chili,  Peru,  etc.; 
Burmeister  and  Tschudi  in  South  America;  Lepsius  and  Brugsch 
in  Egypt ;  and  more  recently,  Giitzlaff  in  China,  Siebold  in 
Japan,  Barth  and  Yogel  in  Africa,  Leichhardt  in  Australia, 
the  brothers  Schlagintweit,  one  of  whom  fell  a  victim  of  his  zeal,  in 
Asia;  and  Ida  Pfeiffer  (1797-185 8),  a  woman  of  rare  intrepidity, 
who  visited,  mostly  on  foot,  the  most  remote  regions  of  the  globe. 
Another  tourist  and  voluminous  writer  is  Kohl  (b.  1808). 
Qualities  rarely  united  in  one  individual  met  in  the  character  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  (1769-1859),  an  enterprising  travel- 
ler, a  man  of  extensive  science,  and  an  accomphshed  writer. 
Accompanied  by  his  friend  Bonpland,  he  visited  South  America, 
and  after  five  years  of  adventurous  research  among  the  wonders 
of  nature,  he  returned,  and  prepared  for  the  press  the  results  of 
his  travels — the  "  Aspects  of  Nature,"  "  Picturesque  Views  o-f 
the  Cordilleras,"  and  '*  Travels  in  the  Equinoctial  Regions  of 
America."  This  veteran  student  produced  at  an  advanced  age 
a  remarkable  work  entitled  "  Cosmos,"  containing  the  results  of 
a  long  life  of  observation  and  contemplation.  In  the  first  part 
he  gives  general  views  of  the  economy  of  nature,  while  in  the 
second  we  find  ingenious  speculations  regarding  the  influence  of 
nature  on  human  societv,  in  its  various  staa:es  of  culture. 

The  Chevalier  Bunsen,  celebrated  by  his  theological  and  his- 
torico-philosophical  researches,  has  written,  among  other  works, 
one  on  the  "  Position  of  Egypt  in  the  History  of  the  World," 
which  is  a  learned  dissertation  on  the  antiquities  and  especially 
on  the  primitive  language  of  Egypt. 

The  most  promising  philosophical  critic  of  the  present  day  is 
Kuno  Fischer  (b.  1824),  since  1856  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  university  of  Jena. 

In  the  periodicals  of  Germany  every  department  of  letters 
and  science  is  represented,  and  through  the  book-fairs  of  Leipsic 
all  the  literature  of  the  ancient  and  modern  world  passes.  They 
are  the  magazines  of  the  productions  of  all  nations.  Every 
class  of  contending  tastes  and  opinions  is  represented,  and  all 
the  contrasts  of  thought  which  have  been  developed  in  the 
course  of  ages  meet  in  the  Leipsic  book-market. 


DUTCH    LITERATURE. 

1.  The  Language.— 2.  Dutch  Literature  to  the  16th  Century  ;  Maerlant ;  Melis  Stoke  ; 
DeWeert;  The  Chambers  of  Rhetoric ;  The  Flemish  Chroniclers;  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch 
Republic— 3.  The  Latin  Writers  ;  Erasmus;  Grotius;  Arminius;  Lipsius ;  The  Scali- 
gers,  and  others  ;  Salmasius  ;  Spinoza  ;  Boerhaave ;  Johannes  Secundus.— 4.  Dutch 
Writers  of  the  16th  Century ;  Anna  Byns ;  Cooruhert  ;  Marnix  de  St.  Aldegonde 
Bor,  Visscher  and  Spieghel. — 5.  Writers  of  the  17lh  Century  ;  Hooft  ;  Vondel  ;  Cats 
Antonides  ;  Brandt,  and  others  ;  Decline  in  Dutch  Literature.— 6.  The  ISth  Century 
Foot ;  Langendijk  ;  Hoogvliet ;  De  Marre  ;  Feitama  ;  Huydecoper ;  The  Van  Harens 
Smits  ;  Ten  Kate ;  Van  Winter  ;  Van  Merken  ;  De  Lannoy  ;  Van  Alphen  ;  Bellamy 
Nieuwland,  Styl,  and  others.— 7.  The  19lh  Century;  Feith ;  Helmers  ;  Bilderdyk 
Van  der  Palm  ;  Loosjes  ;  Loots,  ToUens,  Van  Kampen,  De  s'Gravenweert,  Iloevill,  and 
others. 

1.  TheLaxguage. — The  Dutch,  Flemish  andErisic  languages 
spoken  in  the  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  are  branches 
of  the  Gothic  family.  Toward  the  close  of  the  15th  century, 
the  Dutch  gained  the  ascendency  over  the  others,  which  it  has 
never  since  lost.  This  language  is  energetic  and  flexible,  rich  in 
synonyms  and  delicate  shades,  and  from  its  fullness  and  strength, 
better  adapted  to  history,  tragedy  and  odes,  than  to  comedy  and 
the  lighter  kinds  of  poetry.  The  Flemish,  which  still  remains 
the  literary  language  of  the  southern  provinces,  is  inferior  to  the 
Dutch,  and  has  been  greatly  corrupted  by  the  admixture  of 
foreign  words.  The  Frisic,  spoken  in  Friesland,  is  an  idiom  less 
cultivated  than  the  others,  and  is  gradually  disappearing.  In  the 
ITth  century  it  boasted  of  several  writers,  of  whom  the  poet 
Japix  was  the  most  eminent.  The  first  grammar  of  the  Frisic 
language  was  published  by  Professor  Rask,  of  Copenhagen,  iu 
1825.  In  some  parts  of  Belgium  the  Walloon,  an  old  dialect 
of  the  French,  is  still  spoken,  but  the  Flemish  continues  to  be 
the  common  language  of  the  people,  although  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  Belgium  as  an  independent  kingdom,  the  use  of  the 
French  language  has  prevailed  among  the  higher  classes. 

2.  Dutch  Literature  to  the  Sixteenth  Cextury. — When 
the  obscurity  of  the  dark  ages  began  to  disappear  with  the 
revival  of  letters,  the  Netherlands  were   not   last  among  the 

44J 


448  DUTCH    LITERATURE. 

countries  of  Europe  in  coming  forth  from  the  darkness.  The 
cities  of  Flanders  were  early  distinguished  for  the  commercial 
activity  and  industrial  skill  of  their  inhabitants.  Bruges  reached 
the  height  of  its  splendor  in  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century, 
and  was  for  some  time  one  of  the  great  commercial  emporiums  of 
the  world,  to  which  Constantinople,  Genoa  and  Venice  sent 
their  precious  argosies  laden  with  the  products  of  the  East. 
At  the  close  of  the  13th  century  Ghent,  in  wealth  and  power, 
eclipsed  the  French  metropolis  ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  15th 
century  there  was,  according  to  Erasmus,  no  town  in  all 
Christendom  to  compare  with  it  for  magnitude,  power,  political 
institutions  or  the  culture  of  its  citizens.  The  lays  of  the  mins- 
trels and  the  romances  of  chivalry  were  early  translated,  and 
a  Dutch  version  of  Reynard  the  Fox  was  made  in  the  middle 
of  the  13th  century.  Jakob  Maerlant  (1235-1300),  the 
first  author  of  note,  translated  the  Bible  into  Flemish  rhvme, 
and  made  many  versions  of  the  classics;  and  Melis  Stoke,  his 
contemporary,  wrote  a  rhymed  '*  Chronicle  of  Holland." 

The  most  important  work  of  the  14th  century  is  the  "ISTew 
Doctrine,"  by  De  Weert,  which,  for  the  freedom  of  its  expression 
on  religious  subjects,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  precursors 
of  the  Reformation. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  14th  century  there  arose  a  class  of 
wandering  poets  called  S'prekers,  who,  at  the  courts  of  princes 
and  elsewhere,  rehearsed  their  maxims  in  prose  or  verse.  In  the 
15th  century  they  formed  themselves  into  literary  societies, 
known  as  "  Chambers  of  Rhetoric  "  (poetry  being  at  that  time 
called  the  "  Art  of  Rhetoric"),  which  were  similar  to  the  Guilds 
of  the  Mastersingers.  These  institutions  were  soon  multiplied 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  members  exercised  themselves 
in  rhyming,  or  composed  and  performed  mysteries  and  plays, 
which,  at  length,  gave  rise  to  the  theatre.  They  engaged  in 
poetical  contests,  distributed  prizes,  and  were  prominent  in  all 
national  fdtes.  The  number  of  the  rhetoricians  was  so  immense, 
that  during  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  of  Spain,  more  than  thirty 
chambers,  composed  of  fifteen  hundred  members,  often  entered 
Antwerp  in  triumphal  procession.  But  the  effect  of  these  as- 
sociations, composed  for  the  most  part  of  illiterate  men,  was  to 
destroy  the  purity  of  the  language  and  to  produce  degeneracy  in 
the  literature.  Tlie  Chamber  of  Amsterdam,  however,  was  an 
honorable  exception,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century 
it  counted  among  its  members  distinguished  scholars,  such  as 
Spieghel,  Coornhert,  Marnix  and  Visscher,  and  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  school  which  formed  Hooft  and  Vondel. 


DUTCH    LITERATURE.  449 

During  the  reigii  of  the  House  of  Burgundy  (1383-14*17), 
which  was  essentially  French  in  tastes  and  manners,  the  native 
tongue  became  corrupted  by  the  admixture  of  foreign  elements. 
The  poets  and  chroniclers  of  the  time  were  chiefly  of  Flemish 
origin;  the  most  widely  known  among  the  latter  are  Ilenricourt 
(d.  1403),  Monstrelet  (d.  1453),  and  Chastelain  (d.  1475).  A 
translation  of  the  Bible  and  a  few  more  works  close  the  literary 
record  of  the  15th  century. 

The  invention  of  printing,  the  great  event  of  the  age,  is 
claimed  by  the  cities  of  Mayence,  Strasbourg  and  Harlem ;  l3ut 
if  the  art  which  preserves  literature  originated  in  the  Nether- 
lands, it  did  not  at  once  create  a  native  literature,  the  growth 
of  which  was  greatly  retarded  by  the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue, 
which  long  continued  to  be  the  organ  of  expression  with  the 
principal  writers  of  the  country,  nearly  all  of  whom,  even  to  the 
present  day,  are  distinguished  for  the  purity  and  elegance  with 
which  they  compose  in  this  language. 

The  Reformation  and  the  great  political  agitations  of  the  16th 
century  ended  in  the  independence  of  the  northern  provinces  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  Republic  (1581)  under  the  name 
of  the  United  Provinces,  commonly  called  Holland,  from  the 
province  of  that  name,  which  was  superior  to  the  others  in- 
extent,  population  and  influence.  The  new  republic  rose  rapidly 
in  power;  and  while  intolerance  and  religious  disputes  distracted 
other  European  states,  it  oflered  a  safe  asylum  to  the  persecuted 
of  all  sects.  The  expanding  energies  of  the  people  soon  sought 
a  field  beyond  the  narrow  boundaries  of  the  country;  their  ships 
visited  every  sea,  and  they  monopolized  the  richest  commerce 
of  the  world.  They  alone  supplied  Europe  with  the  productions 
of  the  Spice  Islands,  and  the  gold,  pearls  and  jewels  of  the  East 
all  passed  through  their  hands;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  the  United  Provinces  were  the  first  commercial  and 
the  first  maritime  power  in  the  world.  A  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  literature  was  the  natural  consequence  of  this 
increasing  national  development,  which  was  still  more  power- 
fully promoted  by  the  great  and  wise  William  I.,  Prince 
of  Orange,  who  in  1575  founded  the  university  of  Ley  den 
as  a  reward  to  that  city  for  its  valiant  defence  against  the 
Spaniards.  Similar  institutions  were  soon  established  at  Gron- 
ingen,  Utrecht  and  elsewhere  ;  these  various  seats  of  learn- 
ing produced  a  rivalry  highly  advantageous  to  the  diffusion 
of  knowledge,  and  great  men  arose  in  all  branches  of  science 
and  literature.  Among  the  distinguished  names  of  the  16th 
century  those  of  the  Latin  writers  occupy  the  first  place. 


450  DUTCH   LITERATURE. 

3.  Latin  Writers. — One  of  the  great  restorers  of  letters  iu 
Europe,  and  one  of  the  most  ele.a;ant  of  modern  Latin  authors, 
was  Gerard  Didier,  a  native  of  Rotterdam,  who  took  the  name 
of  Erasmus  (1467-1536),  To  profound  learning  he  joined  a 
refined  taste  and  a  delicate  wit,  and  few  men  have  been  so 
greatly  admired  as  he  was  during  his  lifetime.  The  principal 
sovereigns  of  Europe  endeavored  to  draw  him  into  their  king- 
doms. He  several  times  visited  England,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  deference  by  Henry  YIIL,  and  where  he  gave  lectures 
on  Greek  literature  at  Cambridge.  He  made  many  translations 
from  Greek  authors,  and  a  very  valuable  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  into  Latin.  His  writings  introduced  the  spirit  of 
free  inquiry  on  all  subjects,  and  to  his  influence  may  be 
attributed  the  first  dawning  of  the  Reformation.  But  his 
caution  offended  some  of  the  best  men  of  the  times.  His 
treatise  on  "  Free  Will  "  made  an  open  breach  between  him  and 
Luther,  whose  opinions  favored  predestination  ;  his"  Colloquies" 
gave  great  offence  to  the  Catholics;  and  as  he  had  not  declared 
for  the  Protestants,  he  had  but  lukewarm  friends  in  either  party. 
It  has  been  said  of  Erasmus,  that  he  would  have  purified  and 
repaired  the  venerable  fabric  of  the  church,  with  a  light  and 
cautious  touch,  fearful  lest  learning,  virtue  and  religion  should  be 
buried  in  its  fall,  while  Luther  struck  at  the  tottering  ruin  with 
a  bold  and  reckless  hand,  confident  that  a  new  and  more  beau- 
tiful temple  would  rise  from  its  ruins. 

Hugo  De  Groot,  who,  according  to  the  fashion  of  the  time, 
took  the  Latin  name  of  Grotius  (1583-1645),  was  a  scholar  and 
statesman  of  the  most  -diversified  talents,  and  one  of  the  master 
minds  of  the  age.  He  was  involved  in  the  religious  controversy 
which  at  that  time  disturbed  Holland,  and  he  advocated  the 
doctrines  of  Arminius,  in  common  with  the  great  statesman, 
Barneveldt,  whom  he  supported  and  defended  by  his  pen  and 
influence.  On  the  execution  of  Barneveldt,  Grotius  was  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  castle  of  Louvestein; 
but  after  nearly  two  years  spent  in  the  prison,  his  faithful  wife 
planned  and  efl'ected  his  escape.  She  had  procured  the  privilege 
of  sending  him  a  chest  of  books,  which  occasionally  passed  and 
repassed,  closely  scrutinized.  On  one  occasion  the  statesman 
took  the  place  of  the  books,  and  was  borne  forth  from  the  prison 
in  the  chest,  which  is  still  in  the  i)ossession  of  the  descendants 
of  Grotius,  in  his  native  city  of  Delft.  The  States-General  per- 
j)etuated  the  memory  of  the  devoted  wife  by  continuing  to  give 
lier  name  to  a  frigate  in  the  Dutch  navy.  After  his  escaj^e 
from  prison,  Grotius  found  an  asylum  in  Sweden,  from  whence  he 


DUTCH   LITERATURE.  451 

was  sent  ambassador  to  France.  His  country  men  at  length 
repented  of  having  banished  the  man  who  was  the  honor  of  his 
native  hind,  and  he  was  recalled;  but  on  his  way  to  Holland  he 
was  taken  ill  and  died  before  he  could  profit  by  this  tardy  act  of 
justice.  The  writings  of  Grotius  greatly  tended  to  diffuse  an 
enlightened  and  liberal  manner  of  thinking  in  all  matters  of 
science.  He  was  a  profound  theologian,  a  distinguished  scholar, 
an  acute  philosopher  and  jurist,  and  among  the  modern  Latin 
poets  he  holds  a  high  place.  The  philosophy  of  jurisprudence  has 
been  especially  promoted  by  his  great  work  on  natural  and 
national  law,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  science. 

Arminius  (1560-1609),  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Arminians 
or  Remonstrants,  was  distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  for  his 
zeal  in  the  Reformed  Religion.  He  attempted  to  soften  the 
Calvinistic  doctrines  of  predestination,  in  which  he  was  vio- 
lently opposed  by  Gomarus.  He  counted  among  his  adherents 
Grotius,  Barneveldt,  and  many  of  the  eminent  men  of  Hol- 
land. Other  eminent  theologians  of  this  period  were  Drusius 
and  Cocceius. 

Lipsius  (154Y-1006)  is  known  as  a  philologist  and  for  his 
treatises  on  the  mihtary  art  of  the  Romans,  on  the  Latin  classics, 
and  on  the  philosophy  of  the  Stoics.  Another  scholar  of  exten- 
sive learning,  whose  editions  of  the  principal  Greek  and  Latin 
classics  have  rendered  him  famous  all  over  Europe,  was  Daniel 
Heinsius  (1580-1655).  Gronovius  and  several  of  the  members 
of  the  Spanheim  family  became  also  eminent  for  their  scholar- 
ship in  various  branches  of  ancient  learning. 

The  two  Scaligers,  father  and  son  (1483-1554)  (1540-1609), 
Italians,  resident  in  Holland,  are  eminent  for  their  researches  in 
chronology  and  archeology,  and  for  their  valuable  works  on  the 
classics.  Prominent  among  those  who  followed  in  the  new 
path  of  philological  study  opened  by  the  elder  Scaliger  was 
Yossius,  or  Yoss  (1577-1649),  who  excelled  in  many  branches 
of  learning,  and  particularly  in  Latin  philology,  which  owes 
much  to  him.  He  left  five  sons,  all  scholars  of  note,  especially 
the  youngest,  Isaac  Yossius  (1618-1689). 

Peter  Burmann  (1668-1741)  was  a  scholar  of  great  erudition 
and  industry. 

Christian  Huyghens  (1629-1695)  was  a  celebrated  astronomer 
and  mathematician,  and  many  great  men  in  those  branches 
of  science  flourished  in  Holland  in  the  17th  century  Among 
the  great  philologists  and  scholars  must  also  be  mentioned 
Hemsterhuis,  Ruhnkenius,  and  Yalckenaer. 

Meuno  van  Coehorn  (1641-1704)  was  a  general  and  engmcer 


452  DUTCH   LITERATURE. 

distinguished  for  his  genius  in  military  science  ;  his  great  work 
on  fortifications  has  been  translated  into  many  foreign  lan- 
guages. Helmont  and  Boerhaave  have  acquired  world-wide 
fame  by  their  labors  in  chemistry  ;  Linnaius  collected  the 
materials  for  his  principal  botanical  work  from  the  remarkable 
botanical  treasures  of  Holland ;  and  zoology  and  the  natural 
sciences  generally  counted  many  devoted  and  eminent  champions 
in  that  country. 

Salmasius  (1588-1653),  though  born  in  France,  is  ranked 
among  the  writers  of  Holland,  He  was  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  and  was  celebrated  for  the  extent  and 
depth  of  his  erudition.  He  wrote  a  defence  of  Charles  I.,  of 
England,  which  was  answered  by  Milton,  in  a  work  entitled 
"A  Defence  of  the  English  People  against  Salmasius'  Defence 
of  the  King."  Salmasius  died  soon  after,  and  some  did  not 
scruple  to  say  that  Milton  killed  him  by  the  acuteness  of  his 
reply. 

Boerhaave  (16G8-1738)  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  writers 
on  medical  science  in  the  18th  century,  and  from  the  time 
of  Hippocrates  no  physician  had  excited  so  much  admiration. 
Spinoza  (1632-16T7)  holds  a  commanding  position  as  a  philo- 
sophical writer.  His  metaphysical  system,  as  expounded  in  his 
principal  work,  "  Ethica,"  merges  everything  individual  and 
particular  in  the  Divine  substance,  and  is  thus  essentially  pan- 
theistic. The  philosophy  of  Spinoza  exercised  a  powerful  influ- 
ence upon  the  mind  of  of  Kant,  and  the  master-minds  and  great 
poets  of  modern  times,  particularly  of  Germany,  have  drawn 
copiously  from  the  deep  wells  of  his  suggestive  thought. 

Among  the  many  Latin  poets  of  Holland,  John  Everard 
(1511-1530)  (called  Jan  Second  or  Johannes  Secundus,  because 
he  had  an  uncle  of  the  same  name)  is  most  celebrated.  His 
poem  entitled  "  The  Basia  or  Kisses"  has  been  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages.  Nicholas  Heinsius  (1620- 
1681),  son  of  the  great  philologist  and  poet  Heinsius,  wrote 
various  Latin  poems,  the  style  of  which  is  so  sweet  that  ho 
was  called  by  his  contemporaries  the  "  Swan  of  Holland." 

4.  Dutch  Writers  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. — The  first 
writer  of  this  century  in  the  native  language  was  Anna  Byns, 
who  has  been  called  the  Flemish  Sappho,  She  was  bitterly 
opposed  to  the  Reformation,  and  such  of  her  writings  as  were 
free  from  religious  intolerance,  evince  more  poetic  fire  than  is 
found  in  those  of  her  contemporaries.  Coornhert  (1522- 
1695)   was  a  poet  and  philosopher,  distinguished  not  less  by  his 


DUTCH    LITERATURE.  453 

literary  works  than  by  his  participation  in  the  revolution  of  the 
Provinces.  In  purity  of  style  and  vigor  of  thought  he  far  sur- 
passed his  predecessors.  Maruix  de  St.  Aldegonde  (d.  1598) 
was  a  soldier,  a  statesman,  a  theologian  and  a  poet.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  celebrated  "  Compromise  of  the  Nobles,"  and 
his  satire  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  one  of  the  most 
effective  productions  of  the  time.  He  translated  the  Psalms 
from  the  original  Hebrew,  and  was  the  author  of  a  lyric,  which 
after  two  centuries  and  a  half  is  still  the  rallying  song  of  the 
nation  on  all  occasions  of  peril  or  triumph. 

Bor  (1559-1635)  was  commissioned  by  the  States  to  write 
a  history  of  their  struggles  with  Spain,  and  his  work  is  still 
read  and  valued  for  its  truthfulness  and  impartiality.  Meteren, 
the  contemporary  of  Bor,  wrote  the  history  of  the  country  from 
the  accession  of  the  House  of  Burgundv  to  the  vear  1612 — a 
work  which,  with  some  faults,  has  a  high  place  in  the  literature. 

Yisscher  (d.  1612),  and  Spieghel  (d.  1613),  form  the  con- 
necting Unk  between  the  16th  and  ITth  centuries.  Yisscher, 
the  Maecenas  of  the  day,  was  distinguished  for  his  epigram- 
matic and  fugitive  poems,  and  rendered  immense  service  to  let- 
ters bv  his  influence  on  the  literarv  men  of  his  time.  His 
charming  daughters  were  both  distinguished  in  literature. 
Spieghel  is  best  remembered  by  his  poem,  the  "  Mirror  of  the 
Heart,"  which  abounds  in  lofty  ideas,  and  in  sentiments  of 
enhghtened  patriotism. 

5.  The  Seventeenth  Century. — At  the  close  of  the  16th 
century,  although  the  language  was  established,  it  still  re- 
mained hard  and  inflexible,  and  the  literature  was  still  desti- 
tute of  dramatic,  erotic,  and  the  lighter  kinds  of  poetry ;  but  an 
earnest,  patriotic,  religious,  and  national  character  was  impressed 
upon  it,  and  its  golden  age  was  near  at  hand. 

The  commencement  of  the  17th  century  saw  the  people  of 
the  United  Provinces  animated  by  the  same  spirit  and  energy, 
preferring  death  to  the  abandonment  of  their  principles,  strug- 
gling with  a  handful  of  men  against  the  most  powerful  monarchy 
of  the  time;  conquering  their  political  and  religious  indepen- 
dence, after  more  than  half  a  century  of  conflict,  and  giving 
to  the  world  a  great  example  of  freedom  and  toleration  ; 
covering  the  ocean  with  their  fleets,  and  securing  possessions 
beyond  the  sea  a  hundred  times  more  vast  than  the  mother 
country;  becoming  the  centre  of  universal  commerce,  and 
cultivating  letters,  the  sciences  and  the  arts,  with  equal  suc- 
cess.    Poetry  was  national,  for  patriotism  predominated  over  all 


454  DUTCH   LITERATURE. 

other  .sentiments  ;  and  it  was  original,  because  it  recognized  no 
models  of  imitation  l)ut  the  classics. 

The  spirit  of  the  age  naturally  communicated  itself  to  the 
men  of  letters,  who  soon  raised  the  literature  of  the  country  to 
a  classic  height ;  first  among  these  were  Hooft,  Yondel  and 
Jacob  Cats. 

Hooft  (1581-164t),  a  tragic  and  lyric  poet  as  well  as  a  histo- 
rian, greatly  developed  and  perfected  the  language,  and  by  a 
careful  study  of  the  Italian  poets,  impaired  to  his  native  tongue 
that  sonorous  sweetness  which  has  since  characterized  the  poets 
of  Holland.  He  was  the  creator  of  native  tragedy,  as  well  as 
erotic  poetry,  in  which  his  style  is  marked  by  great  sweetness, 
tenderness  and  grace.  He  rendered  still  greater  service  to  the 
native  prose.  His  histories  of  "  Henry  lY.,"  of  the  "  House 
of  Medici,"  and  above  all  the  history  of  the  '*  War  of  Indepen- 
dence, in  the  Low  Count^'ies,"  without  sacrificing  truth,  often 
border  on  poetry,  in  their  brilliant  descriptions  and  paintings  of 
character,  and  in  their  nervous  and  and  energetic  style.  Hooft 
was  a  man  of  noble  heart ;  he  dared  to  protect  Grotius  in  the 
days  of  his  persecution  ;  he  defended  Des  Cartes  and  offered  an 
asylum  to  Galileo. 

Yondel  (1587-1660),  as  a  lyric,  epic  and  tragic  poet,  far 
surpassed  all  his  contemporaries,  and  his  name  is  honored  in 
Holland  as  that  of  Shakspeare  is  in  England.  His  tragedies, 
which  are  numerous,  are  his  most  celebrated  productions,  and 
among  them  "  Palamedes  unjustly  Sacrificed "  is  particularly 
interesting  as  representing  the  heroic  firmness  of  Barneveldt, 
who  repeated  one  of  the  odes  of  Horace  when  undergoing  the 
torture.  Yondel  excelled  as  a  lyric  and  epigrammatic  poet,  and 
the  faults  of  his  stvle  belonged  rather  to  his  age  than  to  himself. 

No  writer  of  the  time  acquired  a  greater  or  more  lasting  repu- 
tation than  Jacob  Cats  (1577-1660),  no  less  celebrated  for  the 
purity  of  his  life  than  for  the  sound  sense  and  morality  of  his 
writings,  and  the  statesmanlike  abilities  which  he  displayed  as 
ambassador  in  England,  and  as  grand  pensioner  of  Holland. 
His  style  is  simple  and  touching,  his  versification  easy  and 
harmonious,  and  his  descriptive  talent  extraordinary.  His 
works  consist  chiefly  of  apologues  and  didactic  and  descrip- 
tive poems.  No  writer  of  Holland  has  been  more  read  than 
Father  Cats,  as  the  peojjle  affectionately  call  him;  and  up  to  the 
present  hour,  in  all  families  his  works  have  theii  place  beside 
the  Bible,  and  his  verses  are  known  by  heart  all  over  the 
country.  An  illustrated  edition  of  his  poems  in  Pilnglish,  is  now 
passing  through  the  London  press. 


DUTCH    LITERATURE.  455 

Hooft  aud  Vondel  left  many  disciples  and  imitators,  among 
whom  are  Antonides  (1647-1684),  sm'named  Yan  der  Goes, 
whose  charming  poem  on  the  River  Y,  the  model  of  several 
similar  compositions,  is  still  read  and  admired.  Among  nnmer- 
rous  other  writers  were  Huygens  (b.  1596),  a  poet,  who  wrote 
in  many  languages  besides  his  own  ;  Hensius  (b.  1580),  a  pupil 
of  Scaliger,  the  author  of  many  valuable  works  in  prose  and 
poetry  ;  Yallenhoven,  contemporary  with  Antonides,  a  religious 
I3oet  ;  Rotgans,  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  William  of  Eng- 
land ;  Elizabeth  Hoofman  (b.  1664),  a  poetess  of  rare  elegance 
and  taste,  and  Wellekens  (b.  1658),  whose  eclogues  and  idyls 
occupy  the  first  place  among  that  class  of  poems.  As  a  histo- 
rian Hooft  found  a  worthy  successor  in  Brandt  (1626-1683), 
also  a  poet,  but  best  known  by  his  "  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  the  Xetherlands,"  which  has  been  translated  into  French 
and  English,  and  which  is  a  model  in  point  of  style.  At  this 
period  the  Bible  was  translated  and  commented  upon,  and  bio- 
graphies, criticisms,  and  many  other  prose  works  appeared.  The 
voyages  and  discoveries  of  the  Dutch  merchants  and  navigators 
were  illustrated  by  numerous  narratives,  which  for  their  interest 
both  in  style  and  detail,  deserve  honorable  mention. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  I'Tth 
century,  however,  many  causes  combined  to  produce  a  decline 
in  the  literature  of  the  Netherlands.  The  honors  which  were 
accorded  not  only  by  the  Dutch  universities,  but  by  all  Europe 
to  their  Latin  writers  and  learned  professors,  were  rarely  be- 
stowed on  writers  in  the  native  tongue,  and  thus  the  minds  of 
men  of  genius  were  turned  to  the  study  of  the  classics  and  the 
sciences.  The  Dutch  merchants,  while  they  cultivated  all  other 
languages  for  the  facilities  they  thus  gained  in  their  commercial 
transactions,  restricted  by  this  means  the  diffusion  of  their  own. 
Other  causes  of  this  decline  are  to  be  found  in  the  indifference 
of  the  repubhcan  government  to  the  interests  of  literature,  and 
in  the  increasing  number  of  alliances  with  foreigners,  who  were 
attracted  to  Holland  by  the  mildness  of  its  laws,  in  the  growing 
commercial  spirit  and  taste  for  luxury,  and  especially  in  the 
influence  of  French  literature,  which  towards  the  close  of  the 
17th  century  became  predominant  in  Holland  as  elsewhere. 

6.  The  Eighteenth  Century. — For  the  first  three-quarters 
of  the  18th  century,  the  literature  of  Holland  like  that  of  other 
countries  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  France,  remained 
stationary,  or  slowly  declined.  But  in  the  midst  of  universal 
mediocrity,  a  few  names  shine  with  distinguished  lustre.     Among 


456  DUTCH   LITERATURE. 

them  that  of  Poot  (1689-1132)  is  commonly  cited  with  those 
of  Hooft  and  Voudel.  He  was  a  young  peasant,  whose  rare 
genius  found  expression  in  a  sweet  and  unaffected  style.  He 
excelled  in  idyllic  and  erotic  poetry,  and  while  he  has  no  rival  in 
Holland,  he  may  perhaps  be  compared  to  ^Burns  in  Scotland,  and 
Beranger  in  France.  The  theatre  of  Amsterdam,  the  only  one 
of  the  country,  continued  to  confine  itself  to  translations  or 
imitations  from  the  French.  There  appeared,  however,  at  the 
commencement  of  this  period,  an  original  comic  author,  Lan- 
gendijk  (1683-1*191),  whose  works  still  hold  their  place  upon 
the  stage,  partly  for  their  merit,  and  partly  to  do  honor  to  the 
only  comic  poet  Holland  has  produced. 

Hoogvliet  (1689-1763)  was  distinguished  as  the  author  of  a 
poem  entitled  *'  Abraham,"  which  had  great  and  merited  suc- 
cess, and  which  still  ranks  among  the  classics  ;  for  some  years 
after  it  appeared,  it  produced  a  flood  of  imitations. 

De  Marre  (b.  1696),  among  numerous  writers  of  tragedy  oc- 
cupies the  first  place.  From  his  12  th  year  he  was  engaged  in 
the  merchant  marine  service,  and  besides  his  tragedies  his  voyages 
inspired  many  other  works,  the  chief  of  which,  a  poem  entitled 
"  liatavia,"  celebrates  the  Dutch  domination  in  the  Asiatic 
archipelago.  Feitama  (1694-1758),  with  less  poetic  merit  than 
De  Marre,  had  great  excellence.  He  was  the  first  translator  of 
the  classics  who  succeeded  in  imparting  to  his  verse  the  true 
spirit  of  his  originals. 

Huydecoper  (d.  1778)  was  the  first  grammarian  of  merit, 
and  he  united  great  erudition  with  true  poetic  power.  His 
tragedies  are  still  represented. 

Onno  Zwier  Van  Haren  (1713-1789)  was  also  a  writer  of  tra- 
gedy, and  the  author  of  a  long  poem  in  the  epic  style,  called  the 
Gueax  (beggars),  a  name  given  in  derision  to  the  allied  noblemen 
of  the  Netherlands  in  the  time  of  Philip,  and  adopted  by  them. 
This  poem  represents  the  great  struggle  of  the  country  with 
Spain,  which  ended  in  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  republic, 
and  is  distinguished  for  its  fine  episodes,  its  brilliant  pictures,  and 
its  powerful  developments  of  character. 

The  only  strictly  epic  poem  that  Holland  has  produced  is  the 
''Friso  "  of  William  Van  Haren  ( 1710-1758),  the  brother  of  the 
one  already  named.  Friso,  the  mythical  founder  of  the  Prisons, 
is  driven  from  his  home  on  the  shores  of  the  Ganges,  and  after 
many  adventures,  finds  an  asylum  and  establishes  his  government 
iu  the  country  to  which  he  gives  his  name.  This  work  with  many 
faults  is  full  of  beauties.  The  brothers  Van  Haren  were  free 
from  all  foreign  influence,  and  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  two 


DUTCH    LITEKATURE.  457 

great  poets  of  tlieir  time.  The  poems  of  Smits  (1702-1^50)  arc 
full  of  grace  aud  sentiment,  but  like  those  of  almost  all  the  Dutch 
poets,  they  are  characterized  by  a  seriousness  of  tone  nearly 
allied  to  melancholy.  Ten  Kate  (1676-1723)  stands  first 
among  the  grammarians  and  etymologists,  and  his  works  are 
classical  authorities  on  the  subject  of  the  language. 

Preeminent   among   the   crowd  of  historians  is  "Wagenaar 
(1709-17 73), the  worthy  successor  of  Hooft  and  Brandt,  whose 
"  History  of  the  United  Provinces"  is  particularly  valuable  for 
its  simplicity  of  style,  and  truthfulness  of  detail. 

Of  the  lighter  literatm-e,  Yan  Eflfen,  who  had  visited  England, 
produced  in  French  the  "Spectator"  in  imitation  of  the  English 
periodical,  and  like  that  it  is  still  read  and  considered  classi- 
cal. 

Toward  the  conclusion  of  the  century,  other  periodicals  were 
established,  which,  in  connection  with  Uterary  societies  and 
academies,  exercised  great  influence  on  literature.  The  contem- 
porary writers  of  Germany  were  also  read  and  translated,  and 
henceforth  in  some  degree  they  counterlmlanced  French  in- 
fluence. 

First  among  the  writers  who  mark  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  are  Van  Winter,  (d.  1795)  and  his  distinguished  wife, 
Madame  Yan  Merken,  (d.  1789).  They  published  conjouitly  a 
volume  of  tragedies  in  which  the  chief  merit  of  those  of  Yan 
Winter  consists  in  their  originaUty,  and  in  the  expression  of  those 
sentiments  of  justice,  humanity  and  equaUty  before  the  law,  which 
were  just  then  beginuning  to  find  a  voice  in  Europe. 

Madame  Yan  Merken,  who  late  in  life  married  Yan  Winter, 
has  been  called  the  Racine  of  Holland.  To  masculine  energy 
and  power  she  united  all  the  virtues  and  sweetness  of  her  own 
sex.  Besides  many  long  pc)ems  she  was  the  author  of  several 
tragedies,  many  of  which  have  remarkable  merit.  Madame 
Yan  Merken  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  literature  of  her  country 
of  which  she  is  one  of  the  classic  ornaments,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  Feith  and  Bilderdyk. 

The  Baroness  De  Lannoy,  the  contemporary  of  Madame  Yan 
Merken,  was,  like  her,  eminent  in  tragedy  and  other  forms  of 
poetry,  though  less  a  favorite,  for  in  that  free  country  an  illus- 
trious birth  has  been  ever  a  serious  obstacle  to  distinction  in  the 
republic  of  letters. 

Nomz  (d.  1803  )  furnished  the  theatre  of  Amsterdam  with 
many  pieces,  original  and  translated,  and  merited  a  better  fate 
from  his  native  city  than  to  die  in  the  public  hospital. 

The  poets  who  mark  the  age  from  Madame  Yan  Merken  to 

20 


458  DUTCH    LITEKATUEE. 

Bilderdyk,  are  Van  Alphen,  Bellamy,  and  Kieuwland.  "Van 
Alphen  (d.  1803  )  is  distinguished  for  his  patriotism,  origi- 
nality, and  deeply  rehgious  spirit.  His  poems  for  children  are 
known  by  heart  by  all  the  children  of  Holland,  and  he  is  their 
national  poet,  as  Cats  is  the  poet  of  mature  life  and  old  age. 
Bellamy,  who  died  at  the  early  age  of  28  years  (1786),  left 
many  poems  characterized  by  originality,  force,  and  patriotic 
fervor,  no  less  than  by  beauty  and  harmony  of  style.  jMeuw- 
land  (d.  1794,)  like  Bellamy,  arose  from  the  lower  order  of 
society,  by  the  force  of  his  genius  ;  at  the  age  of  23  he  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  astronomy  at, 
Utrecht,  and  later  to  the  university  of  Leyden.  He  was  equally 
great  as  a  mathematician,  and  as  a  poet  in  the  Latin  language 
as  well  as  his  own.  All  his  productions  are  marked  by  elegance 
and  power. 

Styl  (d.  1804)  was  a  poet  as  well  as  a  historian  ;  one  of  the 
most  valuable  -works  on  the  history  of  the  country  is  his 
"  Growth  and  Prospects  of  the  United  Provinces."  Te  Water, 
Bondam  and  Yan  de  Spiegel  contributed  to  the  same  depart- 
ment. 

Romance  writing  has,  with  few  exceptions,  been  surrendered 
to  the  fair  sex.  Among  the  romances  of  character  and  manners, 
those  of  Elizabeth  Bekker  Wolif  (d.  1804  )  are  distinguished 
for  their  brilliant  and  caustic  style,  and  those  of  Agatha  Deken 
for  their  earnest  and  enlightened  piety.  The  works  of  both 
present  lively  pictures  of  national  character  and  manners. 

t.  The  Nineteenth  Century. — ^The  political  convulsions 
of  the  last  years  of  the  18th  century  and  the  early  part  of 
the  19th,  which  overthrew  the  Dutch  llepublic,  revolution- 
ized the  literature  not  less  than  4he  state — and  the  new^  era 
was  illustrated  by  its  poets,  historians  and  orators.  But  in  the 
elevation  of  inferior  men  by  the  popular  party,  the  more  eminent 
men  of  letters  for  a  time  withdrew  from  the  field,  and  the 
noblest  productions  of  native  genius  were  forgotten  in  the  flood 
of  poor  translations  which  inundated  the  country  and  corrupted 
the  taste  and  the  language  by  their  Germanisms  and  Gallicisms. 

Among  the  crowd  of  poets  a  few  only  rose  superior  to  the 
influences  of  the  time.  Feith  (d.  1824  )  united  a  lofty  patriot- 
ism to  a  brilliant  poetical  genius  ;  his  odes  and  other  poems 
possess  rare  merit,  and  his  prose  is  original,  forcible  and  elegant. 

Helmers  (d.  1813  )  is  most  honored  for  his  poem,  *'The  Dutch 
Nation,"  which,  with  some  faults,  abounds  in  beautiful  episodes 
and  magnificent  passages. 


DUTCH    LITEKATUEE.  459 

Bilderdyk  (1156-1831  )  is  not  only  the  greatest  poet  Holland 
has  produced,  but  he  is  equally  eminent  as  a  universal  scholar. 
He  was  a  lawyer,  a  physician,  a  theologian,  a  historian,  astrono- 
mer, draftsman,  engineer  and  antiquarian,  and  he  was  acquainted 
with  nearly  all  the  ancient  and  modern  languages.  In  1820  he 
pul^lished  live  cantos  of  a  poem  on  "  The  Destruction  of  the 
Primitive  World,"  which,  though  it  remains  uuhnished,  is  a 
superb  monument  of  genius  and  one  of  the  literary  glories  of 
Holland.  Bilderdyk  excelled  in  every  species  of  poetry,  tragedy 
only  excepted,  and  his  published  works  fill  more  than  one  hundred 
■octavo  volumes. 

Van  der  Palm  (b.  1763  )  occupies  the  same  place  among 
the  prose  writers  of  the  19th  century  that  Bilderdyk  does 
among  the  poets.  He  held  the  highest  position  as  a  pulpit 
orator  and  member  of  the  Council  of  State,  and  his  dis- 
courses, orations  and  other  prose  works  are  models  of  style,  and 
are  counted  among  the  classics  of  the  country.  His  great  work, 
however,  was  the  translation  of  the  Bible. 

Since  the  time  of  Bilderdyk  and  Yan-der  Palm,  no  remarkable 
genius  has  appeared  in  Holland. 

Loosjes  (d.  1806)  added  to  his  reputation  as  a  poet  by  his 
historical  romances,  and  Fokke  (d.  1812)  was  a  satirist  of  the 
folUes  and  en'ors  of  his  age.  Among  the  historians  who  have 
devoted  themselves  to  the  history  of  foreign  countries  are  Stuart, 
Yan  Hamelsveld  and  Muntinghe,  who,  in  a  short  space  of  time, 
enriched  their  native  Hterature  with  more  than  sixty  volumes  of 
history,  of  a  profoundly  religious  and  philosophical  charac- 
ter, and  which  bear  the  stamp  of  originality  and  nationality. 

The  department  of  oratory  in  Dutch  literature,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  of  the  pulpit,  is  poor,  and  this  is  to  be  explained  in 
part  by  the  fact  that  the  deliberations  of  the  States-General  were 
always  held  with  closed  doors.  Holland  was  an  aristocratic 
republic,  and  the  few  families  who  monopolized  the  power  had 
no  disposition  to  share  it  with  the  people,  who  on  the  other 
hand  were  too  much  occupied  with  their  own  affairs  and  too 
confident  of  the  wisdom  and  moderation  of  their  rulers  to  wish 
to  mingle  in  the  business  of  state.  The  National  Assembly, 
however,  from  1775  to  1800,  had  its  orators,  chiefly  men 
carried  into  public  life  by  the  events  of  the  age,  but  they  were 
far  inferior  to  those  of  other  countries.  The  fear  of  wounding 
and  the  modesty  of  the  Dutch  character,  are  also  impediments 
to  success  in  this  department. 

The  impulse  given  to  literature  by  Bilderdyk  and  Yan  der  Palm 
is  not  arrested.     Among  the  numerous  contemporary  authors 


460  DUTCH   LITERATURE. 

who  have  distinguished  themselves  are  Loots,  a  patriotic  poet  of 
the  school  of  Voudel  ;  Tollens,  who  ranks  with  the  best  native 
authors  in  descriptive  poetry  aud  romance  ;  Wisehus,the  author 
of  several  tragedies,  a  schohir  and  political  writer  ;  Klyn 
(d.  1856),  Yau  Walre,  and  Yan  Halmaal,  dramatic  poets  of 
great  merit ;  Da  Costa  and  Madame  Bilderdyk,  who,  as  a 
poetess,  shared  the  laurels  of  her  husband.  In  romance  there  are 
Miss  Toussaint,  Bogaers  and  Jan  Yan  Lennep,  son  of  the  cele- 
brated professor  of  that  name,  who  introduced  into  Holland  his- 
torical romances  modelled  after  those  of  Scott,  and  who  has 
contributed  much  to  discard  French,  and  to  popularize  the 
national  literature.  In  prose,  De  Yries  must  be  named  for 
his  eloquent  history  of  the  poetry  of  the  Netherlands  ;  Yan 
Kampeu  (1776-1839)  for  his  historical  works  ;  Geysbeck 
for  his  biographical  dictionary  and  anthology  of  the  poets,  and 
De  s'Gravenweert,  a  poet,  and  the  translator  of  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey.  Yan  Hoevell  is  the  author  of  a  work  on  slavery,  which 
appeared  three  or  four  years  since,  the  effect  of  which  can  only 
be  compared  to  that  of  ''  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 

In  Belgium,  Conscience  is  a  successful  author  of  fiction  and 
history,  and  his  works  have  been  frequently  translated  into  other 
languages.  De  Laet,  one  of  the  ablest  writers  of  the  country, 
in  connection  with  Conscience,  has  done  much  for  the  revival  of 
Flemish  literature,  which  now  boasts  of  many  original  writers 
in  various  departments. 

The  literature  of  the  Netherlands,  like  the  people,  is  earnest, 
religious,  always  sunple,  and  often  elevated  and  sublime.  It 
is  especially  distinguished  for  its  reflective  and  patriotic  char- 
acter, and  bears  the  mark  of  that  accurate  study  of  the  classic 
models  which  has  formed  the  basis  of  the  national  education, 
and  to  which  its  purity  of  taste,  naturalness  and  simplicity  are 
undoubtedly  to  be  attributed.  There  exists  no  nation  of  equal 
population  which,  within  the  course  of  two  or  three  centuries, 
has  produced  a  greater  number  of  eminent  men. 

From  the  age  of  Hooft  and  Yondel  to  the  present  day,  the 
Dutch  hterature  may  have  submitted  at  times  to  foreign  influence, 
and  though,  like  all  others,  it  may  have  paid  its  tribute  to  the 
fashions  and  faults  of  the  day,  it  has  still  preserved  its  nation- 
aUty  and  is  worthy  of  being  known  and  admired. 


ENGLISH  LITERATUKE. 


iMTRODUCTiON. — 1.  English  Literature.— lis  Divisions,    2.  The  language. 

Period  First. — 1.  Celtic  Literature. — Irish,  Scotcli,  and  Cymric  Celts  ;  the  Chroni- 
cles of  Ireland;  Ossian's  Poems;  Traditions  of  Arthur;  the  Triads  ;  Tales.  2.  Latin 
Literaiure.—Bede  ;  Alcuin  ;  Erigena.  3.  Anglo-Saxon  Literature.— Poetry  ;  Prose  ; 
"Versions  of  Scripture  ;  the  Saxon  Chronicle  ;  Alfred. 

Period  Skcond. — The  Norman  Age  and  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries. — 
1.  Literature  in  the  Latin  Tongue.  2.  Literature  in  Norman-French. — Poetry ; 
Romances  of  Chivalry.  Z.Saxon-English — Metrical  Remains.  4.  Literatweinthe 
Fourteenth  Century. — Prose  Writers  ;  Occam,  Duns  Scotus,  Wickliffe,  Mandeville, 
Chaucer.  Poetry;  Langland,  Gower,  Chaucer.  5.  Literature  in  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury.—BaWada.  6.  Poets  of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  in  Scotland. — 
AVyntoun,  Barbour,  and  others. 

Pkriod  Third.— 1.  Age  of  the  Reformation  (1509-'5S) —Classical,  Theological,  and 
Miscellaneous  Literature  ;  Sir  Thomas  More  and  others.  Poetry ;  Skelton,  Surrey,  and 
Sackville  ;  the  Drama.  2.  The  Age  of  Spenser,  Shakspea-'e,  Bacon,  and  Milton  (155S- 
1660).  Scholastic  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature  ;  Translations  of  the  Bible ;  Hooker, 
Andrews,  Donne,  Hall,  Taylor,  Baxter ;  other  Prose  Writers ;  Fuller,  Cudworth,  Ba- 
con, Hobbes,  Raleigh,  Milton,  Sidney,  Selden,  Burton,  Browne,  and  Cowley.  Dramatic 
Poetry;  Marlowe  and  Greene,  Shakspeare,  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Ben  Jonson,  and 
others  ;  Massinge-,  Ford,  and  Shirley  ;  Decline  of  the  Drama.  Non-dramatic  Poetry  ; 
Spenser  and  the  Minor  Poets.  Lyrical  Poets ;  Donne,  Cowley,  Denham,  Waller,  Mil- 
ton. 3.  The  Age  of  the  liestoration  aiid  Revolution  (1660-1T02).  Prose;  Leigh- 
ton,  Tillotson,  Barrow,  Bunyan,  Locke,  and  others.  The  Drama ;  Dryden,  Otway. 
Comedy.  Didactic  Poetry ;  Roscommon,  Marvell,  Butler,  Pryor,  Dryden.  4.  Hie 
Eighteenth  Century.  The  First  Generation  (1702-'27) ;  Pope,  Swift,  and  others; 
the  Periodical  Essayists  ;  Addison,  Steele.  The  Second  Generation  ^1727-'60) ; 
Theology ;  Warburton,  Butler,  Watts,  Doddridge.  Philosophy ;  Hume.  Miscella- 
neous Prose ;  Johnson  ;  the  Novelists  ;  Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  and  Sterne. 
The  Drama ;  Non-dramatic  Poetry ;  Young,  Blair,  Akenside,  Thompson,  Gray, 
and  Collins.  The  Third  Generation  (1760-lSOO);  the  Historians;  Hume,  Robert- 
son, and  Gibbon.  Miscellaneous  Prose  ;  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  "  Junius,"  Pitt, 
Fox,  Sheridan,  and  Burke.  Criticism;  Burke,  Reynolds,  Campbell,  Karnes.  Political 
Economy ;  Adam  Smith.  Ethics  ;  Paley,  Smith,  Tucker.  Metaphysics  ;  Reid.  Theo- 
logical and  Religious  Writers;  Campbell,  Paley,  Watson,  Newton,  Hannah  More,  and 
Wilberforce.  Poetry;  Comedies  of  Goldsmith  and  Sheridan;  Minor  Poets;  Later 
Poems;  Beattie's Minstrel ;  Cowper  and  Burns.  5.  The  Nineteenth  Ceiitury. — First 
Agp  (lS00-'30);  the  Poets;  Campbell,  Southey,  Scott,  Byron,  Coleridge,  and  Words- 
worth, Wilson,  Shelley,  Keats,  Crabbe,  Moore,  and  others.  Prose;  the  Waverley 
and  other  Novels.  Periodical  Writings ;  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  Review  and 
Blackwood's  Magazine.  Criticism  ;  Jeffrey,  Coleridge,  Hazlitt,  Lamb,  Wilson.  Social 
Science;  Bentham  and  others.  History;  Ilallam  and  others.  Theology;  Foster,  Hall, 
and  Chalmers.  Pliilosophy;  Stewart,  Brown,  Mackintosh,  and  Bentham,  Alison  and 
others.     The   Second   Age  (lS30-'60).— Poets  ;  Tennyson  and   others.     Novels;  Bul- 

461 


462  ENGLISH    LITERxiTURE. 

wer,  Thackeray,  and  Dickens.  History  and  Essays ;  Hallam,  De  Quincey,  Macaulay, 
Carlyle.  Keligious  Works  ;  Newspapers  and  Magazines  ;  Philology  ;  Travels ;  Physical 
Science;  Political  Economy;  Logic;  Metapliysics. 

IXTRODUCTION. 

1.  English  Literature  and  its  Divisions. — The  original  in- 
habitants of  England,  belonging  to  the  great  race  of  Celts, 
were  not  the  true  founders  of  the  English  nation ;  and  their 
language,  which  is  still  spolven  unchanged  in  various  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  has  exerted  but  an  incredibly  small  influence  on 
the  English  tongue.  During  the  period  of  the  Roman  domina- 
tion (55  B.C.  447  A.D.),  the  relations  between  the  conquerors  and 
the  natives  did  not  materially  alter  the  nationality  of  the  people, 
nor  did  the  Latin  language  permanently  displace  or  modify  the 
native  tongue. 

The  2:reat  event  of  the  Dark  Ages  which  succeeded  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  empire,  was  that  vast  series  of  emigrations  which 
planted  tribes  of  Gothic  blood  over  large  tracts  of  Europe,  and 
which  was  followed  by  the  formation  of  all  the  modern  Euro- 
pean languages,  and  by  the  general  profession  of  Christianity. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  invaders  of  England  continued  to  emigrate 
from  the  Continent  for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  and  before 
many  generations  had  passed  away,  their  language,  customs,  and 
character  prevailed  throughout  the  provinces  they  had  seized. 
During  the  600  years  of  their  independence  (448-1066),  the 
nation  made  wonderful  progress  in  the  arts  of  life  and  thought. 
The  Pagans  accepted  the  Christian  faith  ;  the  piratical  sea- 
kings  applied  themselves  to  the  tillage  of  the  soil,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  some  of  the  ruder  manufactures  ;  the  fierce  soldiers  con- 
structed out  of  the  materials  of  legislation  common  to  the  whole 
Teutonic  race,  a  manly  political  constitution. 

The  few  extant  literary  monuments  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
possess  a  singular  value  as  illustrations  of  the  character  of  the 
people,  and  have  the  additional  attraction  of  being  written  in 
what  was  really  our  mother  tongue. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  (from  the  11th  to  the  16th  centuries), 
the  painful  convulsions  of  infant  society  gave  way  to  the  grow- 
ing vigor  of  healthy  though  undisciplined  youth.  All  the  re- 
lations of  life  were  modified,  more  or  less,  by  the  two  influences 
predominant  in  the  early  part  of  the  period,  but  decaying  in  the 
latter — Feudalism  and  the  Church  of  Rome — and  by  the  con- 
solidation of  the  i\ew  languages,  which  were  successively  de- 
veloped in  all  European  countries,  and  were  soon  quaUfied  as 
instruments  for  communicating  the  results  of  intellectual  activity. 


ENGLISH   LITEEATUEE.  4G3 

The  Middle  Ages  closed  by  two  events  occurring  nearly  at  the 
same  time  :  the  erection  of  the  great  monarchies  on  the  ruins 
of  feudalism,  and  the  shattering  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Romish  Church  by  the  Reformation.  At  the  same  period, 
the  invention  of  printing,  the  most  important  event  in  the 
annals  of  literature,  became  available  as  a  means  of  enlighten- 
ment. 

The  Norman  conquest  of  England  (106G)  subjected  the  na- 
tion at  once  to  both  of  the  ruhng  mediasval  impulses  :  feudahsm, 
which  metamorphosed  the  relative  positions  of  the  people  and 
the  nobles,  and  the  recognition  of  papal  supremacy,  which  al- 
tered not  less  thoroughly  the  standmg  of  the  Church.  While 
these  changes  were  not  unproductive  of  good  at  that  time,  they 
were  distasteful  to  the  nation,  and  soon  became  injurious,  both 
to  freedom  and  knowledge,  until  at  length,  under  the  dynasty 
of  the  Tudors,  the  ecclesiastical  shackles  were  cast  off,  and  the 
feudal  bonds  began  gradually  to  be  slackened. 

The  Korman  invaders  of  England  took  possession  of  the 
country  as  military  masters.  They  suppressed  the  native  polity 
by  overwhelming  force,  made  IS'orman-French  the  fashionable 
speech  of  the  court  and  the  aristocracy,  and  imposed  it  on  the 
tribunals.  Their  romantic  literature  soon  weaned  the  hearts  of 
educated  men  from  the  ancient  rudeness  of  taste,  but  the  mass 
of  the  English  people  clung  with  obstinacy  to  their  ancestral 
tongue,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  kept  its  hold  in  substance 
until  it  was  evolved  into  modern  English  ;  and  the  Norman  no- 
bles were  at  length  forced  to  learn  the  dialect  which  had  been 
preserved  among  their  despised  Enghsh  vassals. 

Emerging  from  the  Middle  Ages  into  the  illuminated  vista 
of  Modern  History,  we  find  the  world  of  action  much  more 
powerfully  influenced  by  the  world  of  letters  than  ever  before. 
Among  the  causes  which  produced  this  change  are  the  invention 
of  printing,  the  use  of  a  cultivated  living  language,  and  in  Eng- 
land the  vindication  of  freedom  of  thought  and  constitutional 
libertv. 

The  period  from  tli.e  accession  of  Elizabeth  to  the 
Restoration  (1558-1660)  is  the  most  brilliant  in  the  literary 
history  of  England.  The  literature  assumes  its  most  varied 
forms,  expatiates  over  the  most  distant  regions  of  speculation 
and  investigation  ;  and  its  intellectual  chiefs,  while  they  breathe 
the  spirit  of  modem  knowledge  and  freedom,  speak  to  us  in 
tones  which  borrow  an  irregular  stateliness  from  the  chivalrous 
past.  But  this  magnificent  panorama  does  not  meet  the  eye  at 
once  ;  the  unveiling  of  its  features  is  as  gradual  as  the  passing 


464  EXGLISII    LITEKATUKE. 

away  of  tlie  mists  that  shroud  the  landscape  before  the  morning 
sun. 

The  first  quarter  of  the  century  was  unproductive  in  all  de- 
partments of  literature.  Of  the  great  writers  who  have  im- 
mortalized the  name  of  Elizabeth,  scarcely  one  was  born  five 
years  before  she  ascended  the  throne,  and  the  immense  and 
invaluable  series  of  literary  works  which  embellished  the  period 
in  question,  may  be  regarded  as  beginning  only  with  the  earliest 
poem  of  Spenser,  1579. 

**  There  never  was  anywhere,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "  anything 
like  the  sixty  or  seventy  years  that  elapsed  from  the  middle  of 
the  reign  of  Elizabetli  to  the  Restoration.  In  point  of  real 
force  and  originality  of  genius,  neither  the  age  of  Pericles  nor  the 
age  of  Augustus,  nor  the  times  of  Leo  X.,  or  of  Louis  XIV., 
can  come  at  all  into  comparison.  In  that  short  period  we  shall 
find  the  names  of  almost  all  the  very  great  men  that  this  nation 
has  ever  produced." 

Among  the  influences  which  made  the  last  generation  of  the 
sixteenth  century  so  strong  in  itself,  and  capable  of  bequeathing  so 
much  strength  to  those  who  took  up  its  inheritance,  was  the  ex- 
panding elasticity,  the  growing  freedom  of  thought  and  action. 
The  chivalry  of  the  Middle  Ages  began  to  seek  more  useful  fields  of 
adventure  in  search  of  new  worlds,  and  fame,  and  gold.  There 
was  an  increasing  national  prosperity,  and  a  corresponding 
advance  of  comfort  and  refinement,  and  mightier  than  all  these 
forces  was  the  silent  working  of  the  Reformation  on  the  hearts 
of  the  people. 

The  minor  writers  of  this  age  deserve  great  honor,  and  may 
almost  be  considered  the  builders  of  the  structure  of  English 
Literature,  whose  intellectual  chiefs  were  Spenser,  Shakspeare, 
and  Hooker. 

Spenser  and  Shakspeare  were  both  possessed  of  thoughts, 
feelings,  and  images,  which  they  could  not  have  had  if  they  had 
lived  a  century  later,  or  much  earlier  ;  and,  altliough  their  views 
were  very  dissimilar,  they  both  bear  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  age  in  which  they  lived.  Speyser  dwelt  with  animation 
on  the  gorgeous  scenery  which  covered  the  elfin  land  of  knight- 
hood and  romance,  and  present  realities  were  lost  hi  his  dream 
of  antique  grandeur,  and  ideal  loveliness.  He  was  the  modern 
poet  of  the  remote  past  ;  the  last  minstrel  of  chivalry,  though 
incomparably  greater  than  his  forerunners. 

Shakspeare  was  the  poet  of  the  present  and  the  future,  and 
of  universal  humanity.  He  saw  in  tlic  past  the  fallen  fragments 
on  Avhich  men  were  to  build  anew — au2:ust  scenes  of  desola- 


ENGLISH   LITEKATURE.  4G3 

tion,  whose  ruin  taught  meu  to  work  more  wisely.  He  painted 
them  as  the  accessory  features  and  distant  landscape  of  colossal 
pictures,  in  whose  foreground  stood  figures  soaring  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  place,  instinct  with  the  spirit  of  the  time  in  which 
the  poet  lived,  yet  lifted  out  of  it  and  above  it  by  the  impulse 
of  potent  genius  prescient  of  momentous  truths  that  lay  slumber- 
ing in  the  bosom  of  futurity. 

By  the  side  of  poetry  contemporary  prose  shows  poorly  with 
"bne  great  exception.  In  respect  to  style  Hooker  stands  almost 
alone,  in  his  tune,  and  may  be  considered  the  first  of  the  illustri- 
ous train  of  great  prose  writers.  His  "Ecclesiastical  Pohty" 
appeared  in  1594.  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Arcadia  had  been  writ- 
ten before  158T.  Bacon's  Essays  appeared  in  1596,  and  also 
Spenser's  Yiew  of  Ireland.  But  none  of  these  are  comparable 
in  point  of  style  to  Hooker. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  gave  the  key-note  to  the  literature  of 
the  two  succeeding  reigns,  that  of  James  I.  (1603-25)  and 
Charles  (1625-49),  and  the  literary  works  of  this  period  were 
not  only  more  numerous,  but  stand  higher  in  the  mass  than  those 
which  closed  the  sixteenth  century.  But  Spenser  remained  unimi- 
tated,  and  Shakspeare  was  inimitable ;  the  drama,  however,  which 
in  this  as  in  the  last  generation  monopolized  the  best  minds,  received 
new  developments,  poetry  was  enriched  beyond  precedent,  and 
prose-writing  blossomed  mto  a  harvest  of  unexampled  eloquence. 
But  although  under  the  rule  of  James  learning  did  good  service 
in  theology  and  the  classics,  English  writing  began  to  be 
infected  with  pedantic  affectations.  The  chivalrous  temper  of 
the  preceding  age  was  on  the  wane,  coarseness  began  to  pass 
into  licentiousness,  and  moral  degeneracy  began  to  difi'use  its 
poison  widely  over  the  lighter  kinds  of  literature.  Bacon,  the 
great  pilot  of  modern  science,  gave  to  the  world  the  rudiments 
of  his  philosophy.  Bishop  Hall  exemplified  not  only  the  elo- 
quence and  talent  of  the  clergy,  but  the  beginning  of  that 
resistance  to  the  tendencies  by  which  the  church  was  to  be 
soon  overthrown.  The  drama  was  headed  by  Ben  Jonson, 
honorably  severe  in  morals,  and  by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
who  heralded  the  licentiousness  which  soon  corrupted  the  art 
generally,  while  the  poet  Donne  introduced  fantastic  eccen- 
tricities into  poetical  composition. 

Some  of  the  most  eloquent  prose  writings  of  the  English  lan- 
guage had  their  birth  amidst  the  convulsions  of  the  Civil  War, 
or  in  the  strangely  perplexed  age  of  the  Commonwealth  and 
protectorate  (1649-60),  that  stern  era  which  moulded  the 
mind  of  one  poet  gifted  with  extraordinary  genius.     Although 

20* 


0 
466  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

Milton  would  not,  in  all  likelihood,  have  conceived  the  Paradise 
Lost  had  he  not  felt  and  acted  with  the  Puritans,  yet  it  would 
have  been  less  the  consummate  work  of  art  which  it  is,  had  he 
not  fed  his  fancy  with  the  courtly  pomp  of  the  last  days  of  the 
monarchy. 

The  prose  writers  of  this  time  are  represented  by  Bishop  Hall 
and  Jeremy  Taylor  among  the  clergy,  and  Selden  and  Camden 
among  the  laymen.  The  roughness  of  speech  and  manners  of 
Elizabeth's  time,  followed  in  the  next  reign  by  a  real  coarseness 
and  lowness  of  sentiment,  grew  rapidly  worse  under  Charles, 
whose  reign  was  especially  prolific  in  poetry,  the  tone  of 
which  varied  from  grave  to  gay,  from  devotion  to  licentiousness, 
from  severe  solemnity  to  indecent  levity  ;  but  no  great  poet 
appeared  in  the  crowd.  The  drama  was  still  rich  in  genius,  its 
most  distinguished  names  being  those  of  Ford,  Massinger,  and 
Shirley  ;  but  here  depravity  had  taken  a  deeper  root  than  else- 
where, and  it  was  a  blessing  that  soon  after  the  breaking  out  of 
the  war,  the  theatres  were  closed,  and  the  poets  left  to  idleness 
or  repentance. 

The  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate,  extending  over  eleven 
years  (1649-'60),made  an  epoch  in  literature,  as  well  as  in  the 
state  and  church.  The  old  English  drama  was  extinct,  and 
poetry  had  few  votaries.  Cowley  now  closed  with  great  bril- 
liancy the  eccentric  and  artificial  school  of  which  Donne  had 
been  the  founder,  and  Milton  was  undergoing  the  last  steps  of 
that  mental  discipUne  that  was  to  qualify  hun  for  standing  forth 
the  last  and  all  but  the  greatest  of  the  poetical  ancients.  At  the 
same  time  the  approach  of  a  modern  era  was  indicated  by  the 
frivohty  of  sentiment  and  ease  of  versification  which  prevailed 
in  the  poems  of  Waller. 

In  philosophy,  Hobbes  now  uttered  his  defiance  to  con- 
stitutional freedom  and  ecclesiastical  independence  ;  Henry 
More  expounded  his  platonic  dreams  in  the  cloisters  of  Cam- 
bridge; and  Cudworth  vindicated  the  belief  in  the  being  of  the 
Almighty,  and  in  the  foundations  of  moral  distinctions.  The 
Puritans,  the  ruling  power  in  the  state,  became  also  a  power  in 
literature  nobly  represented  by  Richard  Baxter.  Milton,  like 
many  of  his  remarkable  contemporaries,  lived  into  the  succeeding 
generation,  and  he  may  be  accepted  as  the  last  representative  of 
the  eloquence  of  English  prose  in  that  brilliant  stage  of  its 
history,  which  terminated  about  the  date  of  the  Restoration. 

The  aspect  of  the  last  forty  years  of  the  17th  century — the 
age  of  the  Restoration  and  the  Revolution — is  far  froni  being 
encouraging,    and  some    features  marking    many  of  theu-  lite- 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  467 

rary  works,  are  positively  revolting.  Of  the  social  evils  ot 
the  time,  none  infected  literature  so  deeply  as  the  depravation 
of  morals,  into  which  the  court  and  aristocracy  plunged,  and 
many  of  the  people  followed.  The  drama  sunk  to  a  frightful 
grossness,  and  the  tone  of  all  other  poetry  was  lowered.  The 
reinstated  courtiers  imparted  a  mania  for  foreign  models, 
especially  French,  literary  works  were  anxiously  moulded  on  the 
tastes  of  Paris,  and  this  prevalence  of  exotic  predilections 
lasted  for  more  than  a  century.  But  amidst  these  and  other 
weaknesses  and  blots,  there  was  not  wanting  either  strength  or 
brightness. 

The  literary  career  of  Dryden  covers  the  whole  of  this  period, 
and  marks  a  change  which  contained  many  improvements. 
Locke  was  the  leader  of  philosophical  speculation  ;  and  mathe- 
matical and  physical  science  had  its  distinguished  votaries, 
headed  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  whose  illustrious  name  alone  would 
have  made  the  age  immortal. 

The  Nonconformists,  forbidden  to  speak,  wrote  and  printed. 
A  younger  generation  was  growing  up  among  them,  and  some 
of  the  elder  race  still  survived,  such  as  Baxter,  Owen  and 
Calamy.  But  greatest  of  all,  and  only  now  reaching  the  chmax 
of  his  strength,  was  Milton,  in  his  neglected  old  age  consoling 
himself  for  the  disappointments  which  had  darkened  a  weary 
life,  by  consecrating  its  waning  years  with  redoubled  ardor 
of  devotion,  to  religion,  to  truth,  and  to  the  service  of  a  remote 
posterity. 

In  England,  as  elsewhere  in  Europe,  the  temper  of  the  18th 
century  was  cold,  dissatisfied  and  hypercritical.  Old  principles 
were  called  in  question,  and  the  literary  man,  the  statesman,  the 
philosopher  and  the  theologian  found  their  tasks  to  be  mainly 
those  of  attack  or  defence.  The  opinions  of  the  nation  and  the 
sentiments  which  they  prompted  were  neither  speculative  nor 
heroic,  and  they  received  adequate  literary  expression  in  a 
philosophy  which  acknowledged  no  higher  motive  than  utility, 
— in  a  kind  of  poetry  which  found  its  field  in  didactic  discus- 
sion, and  sunk  in  narrative  into  the  coarse  and  domestic.  In  all 
departments  of  literature,  the  form  had  come  to  be  more 
regarded  than  the  matter;  and  melody  of  rhythm,  elegance  of 
phrase,  and  symmetry  of  parts  were  held  to  be  higher  excel- 
lences than  rich  fancy  or  fervid  emotion.  Such  an  age  could 
not  give  birth  to  a  literature  possessing  the  loftiest  and  most 
striking  qualities  of  poetry  or  of  eloquence  ;  but  it  increased  the 
knowledge  previously  possessed  by  mankind,  swept  away  many 
wrong   opinions,    produced   many  Uterary  works,  excellent   in 


468  ENGLISH    LITERATUliE. 

thouglit  and  expression,  and  it  exercised  on  the  English  lan- 
guage an  influence  partly  for  good  and  partly  for  evil,  which  is 
shown  in  every  sentence  which  we  now"  speak  or  write. 

The  First  Generation  is  named  from  Queen  Anne  (lt02-'14), 
but  it  includes  also  the  reign  of  her  successor.  Our  notion  of  its 
literary  character  is  derived  from  the  poetry  of  Pope  and  the  prose 
of  Addison  and  his  friends.  In  its  own  region,  which,  though  not 
low,  is  yet  far  from  the  highest,  the  lighter  and  more  popular 
literature  of  Queen  Anne's  time,  is  valuable  ;  its  lessons  were 
full  of  good  sense  and  correct  taste,  and  as  literary  artists,  the 
writers  of  this  age  attained  an  excellence  as  eminent  as  can  be 
attained  by  art  not  inspired  by  the  enthusiasm  of  genius,  nor 
employed  on  majestic  themes.  In  its  moral  tone,  the  early  part 
of  the  18th  century  was  much  better  than  that  of  the  age 
before  it. 

The  Second  Generation  of  the  century  may  be  reckoned  as 
contained  in  the  reign  of  George  II.  (1127-60).  It  was  more 
remarkable  than  the  preceding  for  vigor  of  thinking  and  often 
for  genuine  poetic  fancy  and  susceptibility,  though  inferior  in  the 
skill  and  details  of  literary  composition.  Samuel  Johnson  pro- 
duced  his  principal  works  before  the  close  of  this  period. 
Among  the  novelists,  Richardson  alone  had  anything  in  common 
with  him.  Fielding,  Smollett  and  Sterne  are  equally  distant 
from  the  dignitied  pomp  of  his  manner  and  the  ascetic  elevation 
of  his  morality.  In  contrast  to  the  looseness  of  the  novels  and 
the  skepticism  of  Hume,  the  reasoning  of  Butler  was  employed 
in  defence  of  sacred  truth,  and  the  stern  dissent  of  Whitefield 
and  Wesley  was  entered  against  religious  deadness.  Poetry 
began  to  stir  with  new  life  ;  a  noble  ambition  animated  Young 
and  Akenside,  and  in  Thomson,  Gray  and  ColUns,  a  finer  poetic 
sense  was  perceptible. 

The  Third  Generation  of  the  18th  centurv,  beginnino;  with 
the  accession  of  George  III.  (1T60),  was  by  no  means  so  fertile 
in  literary  genius  as  either  of  the  other  two.  But  the  earliest 
of  its  remarkable  writers,  Hume,  Robertson  and  Gibbon,  pro- 
duced works  which  have  rarely  been  exceeded  as  literary  compo- 
sitions of  their  class.  In  ethics,  there  were  Paley  and  Adam 
Smith  ;  in  psychology  and  metaphysics,  Reid  and  the  founders 
of  the  Scottish  school  ;  and  in  the  list  of  poets  who  adorned 
these  forty  years,  were  Goldsmith,  Cowper  and  Burns. 

The  19th  century,  for  us  naturally  more  interesting  than  any 
other  period  of  English  literature,  is,  in  its  intellectual  charac- 
ter, peculiarly  difl&cult  of  analysis,  from  its  variety  and  novelty; 
and  from  the  fact  that  we  have  been  moulded  on  its  lessons,  wc 


EXGLISII    LITERATURE.  46  V 

are  not  favorably  placed  for  comprehending  it  profoundly,  or 
for  impartially  estimatiog  the  value  of  the  monuments  it  has 
produced. 

It  has  been  a  time  of  extraordinary  mental  activity  more 
widely  diffused  than  ever  before  throughout  the  nation  at  large. 
While  books  have  been  multiplied  beyond  precedent,  readers 
have  increased  in  a  yet  greater  proportion,  and  the  diflusion  of 
enhghtenment  has  been  aimed  at  as  zealously  as  the  discovery 
of  new  truths.  While  no  other  time  has  exhibited  so  sur- 
prising a  variety  in  the  kinds  of  literature,  none  has  been  so 
distinguished  for  the  prevalence  of  enlightened  and  philanthropic 
sentiment. 

In  point  of  literary  merit,  the  half  century  presents  two  suc- 
cessive and  dissimilar  stages,  of  which  the  first  or  opening  epoch 
of  the  century  embraced  in  its  first  thirty  years,  was  by  far  the 
most  brilliant.  The  animation  and  energy  which  characterized 
it,  arose  from  the  universal  excitation  of  feehng  and  the  mighty 
cohision  of  opinions  which  broke  out  over  all  Europe  with  the 
first  French  Revolution,  and  the  fierce  struggle  so  long  main- 
tained almost  single-handed  by  England  against  Napoleon  I. 
The  strength  of  that  age  was  greatest  in  poetry,  but  it  gave 
birth  to  much  valuable  speculation  and  eloquent  writing.  The 
poetical  literature  of  that  time  has  no  parallel  in  English  litera- 
ture, unless  in  the  age  of  Shakspeare. 

A  marked  feature  in  the  English  poetry  of  the  19th  century, 
is  the  want  of  skill  in  execution.  Most  of  the  poets  not  only 
neglect  polishing  in  diction  but  also  in  symmetry  of  plan,  and 
this  fault  is  common  to  the  most  reflective  as  well  as  the  most 
passionate  of  them.  Byron,  in  his  tales  and  sketches,  is  not 
more  deficient  in  skill  as  an  artist  than  Wordsworth  in  his 
"  Excursion,"  the  huge  fragment  of  an  unfathomable  design, 
cherished  throuo-hout  a  long  and  thouQ-htful  hfetime. 

Another  feature  is  this,  that  the  poems  which  made  the 
strongest  impression  were  of  the  narrative  kind.  That  and  the 
drama  may  be  said  to  be  the  only  forms  of  representation  ade- 
quate to  embody  the  spirit  or  to  interest  the  sympathies  of  an 
age  and  nation  immersed  in  the  turmoil  of  eneru'etic  action. 

Among  the  prose  writings  of  this  period,  two  kinds  of  compo- 
sition employed  a  larger  fund  of  literary  genius  than  any  other, 
and  exercised  a  wider  influence  ;  these  were  the  novels  and 
romances,  and  the  reviews  and  other  periodicals.  Novel-writing 
acquired  an  unusually  high  rank  in  the  world  of  letters,  througli 
its  greatest  master,  and  was  remarkable  for  the  high  character 
imprinted  on  it.     By  Scott  and  two  or  three  precursors  and 


470  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

some  not  unworthy  successors,  the  novel  was  made  for  us  nearly 
all  that  the  drama  in  its  palmy  days  had  been  for  our  fore- 
fathers, imbibing  as  much  of  its  poetic  spirit  as  its  form  and 
purpose  allowed,  thoughtful  in  its  views  of  life,  and  presenting 
jDictures  faithful  to  nature. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  was  founded  the 
dynasty  of  the  reviews,  which  now  began  to  be  choseji  as  the 
vehicles  of  the  best  prose-writing  and  the  most  energetic  thinking 
that  the  nation  could  command.  Masses  of  valuable  knowledge 
have  been  laid  up,  and  streams  of  eloquence  have  been  poured 
out  in  the  periodicals  of  our  century  by  authors  who  have  often 
left  their  names  to  be  guessed  at.  But  the  best  writers  have 
not  always  escaped  the  dangers  of  this  form  of  writing,  which 
is  unfavorable  to  completeness  and  depth  of  knowledge,  and 
strongly  tempting  to  exaggeration  of  style  and  sentiment.  This 
evil  has  worked  on  the  ranks  of  inferior  contributors  with  a 
force  which  has  seriously  injured  the  purity  of  the  public  taste. 
The  strong  points  of  periodical  writers  are .  their  criticism  of 
literary  works  and  their  speculation  in  social  and  political  philo- 
sophy, which  have  nowhere  been  handled  so  skillfully  as  in  the 
Reviews.  After  poetry,  they  are  the  most  valuable  departments 
in  the  literature  of  the  first  acre. 

Since  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  English  literature  has  derived 
much  of  its  materials  and  inspiration  from  the  teaching  of  other 
countries.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  France  furnished  the  models  of 
chivalrous  poetry  and  much  of  the  social  system  ;  the  Augustan 
age  of  French  letters,  the  reign  of  Louis  XI Y.,  ruled  the 
literary  taste  of  England  from  the  Restoration  to  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century;  and  from  Germany  more  than  from  any  other 
foreign  nation,  have  come  the  influences  by  which  the  intellect 
of  Great  Britain  has  been  affected,  especially  during  the  last 
tliirty  years.  Within  this  time,  the  study  and  translation  of 
German  literature  have  become  fashionable  pursuits,  and  on  the 
whole,  highly  beneficial.  The  philology  of  Germany  and  its 
profound  poetical  criticism  have  taught  much ;  the  philosophical 
tendency  of  German  theology  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
teachers  of  religion,  and  had  its  effect  both  for  good  and  evil, 
and  the  accurate  study  of  the  highest  branches  of  German  phi- 
losophy has  decidedly  tended  to  elevate  the  standard  of  abstract 
siX!culation. 

The  most  hopeful  symptom  of  English  literature  in  the  last 
thirty  years,  is  to  be  found  in  the  zeal  and  success  with  which  its 
teachings  have  been  extended  beyond  the  accustomed  limits. 
Knowledge  has  been  diffused  with  a  zeal  and  rapidity  never 


ENGLISH    LITERATUllE.  471 

before  dreamed  of,  and  the  spirit  which  prompted  it  has  been 
worthily  embodied  in  the  enlarged  and  enlightened  temper  with 
which  it  has  been  communicated.  In  the  midst  of  much  error, 
there  are  many  features  prominent  which  presage  the  birth  of  a 
love  of  mankind  more  expansive  and  generous  than  any  that  has 
ever  yet  pervaded  society. 

The  present  age  possesses  no  poetry  comparable  to  that  of  the 
preceding,  and  few  men  who  unite  remarkable  eloquence  with 
power  of  thought.  Among  the  thinkers,  there  is  greater 
activity  of  speculation  in  regard  to  questions  affecting  the 
nature  and  destiny  of  man  ;  and  problems  have  been  boldly  pro- 
pounded, but  the  solutions  have  not  been  found,  and  amidst 
much  doubt  and  dimness,  the  present  generation  seems  to  be 
strugghng  toward  a  new  organization  of  social  and  mtellectual 
life. 

The  literature  of  England  may  be  divided  into  three  periods  ; 
the^;-5^,  extending  from  the  departure  of  the  Romans  to  the 
Norman  conquest  (448-1066),  comprises  the  literature  in  the 
Celtic,  Latin  and  Anglo-Saxon  tongues. 

The  second  period,  extending  from  the  Norman  conquest  to 
the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.  (1066-1509),  contains  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Norman  period  from  1066  to  1307,  in  the  Latin, 
Norman-French  and  Anglo-Saxon  tongues,  the  transition  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  into  English,  and  the  literature  of  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries. 

The  third  period,  extending  from  1509  to  1860,  includes  the 
literature  of  the  age  of  the  Reformation,  that  of  the  age  of 
Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Bacon,  and  Milton,  of  the  Restoration 
and  Revolution,  and  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries. 

2.  The  Language. — The  English  language  is  directly  de- 
scended from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  but  derives  much  from  the  Nor- 
man-French, and  from  the  Latin.  Although  the  Celtic  in  its 
branches  of  Cymric  and  Gaelic  still  continues  to  be  the  speech 
of  a  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain,  it  has  never 
exercised  any  influence  on  the  language  of  the  nation. 

The  origin  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  is  involved 'in  obscu- 
rity. It  most  nearly  resembles  the  Frisic,  a  Low  German 
dialect  once  spoken  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  which 
is  the  parent  of  modern  Dutch. 

Before  the  battle  of  Hastings,  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  had 
been  spoken  in  England  for  at  least  600  years,  during  which 
time  it  must  have  undergone  many  changes  and  dialectic  varia- 
tions.    On  the  subjugation  of  the  conflicting  states  by  the  kings 


472  EXGLISU    LITERATURE. 

of  Wessex,  the  language  of  the  West  Saxous  came  to  be  the 
ruKng  one,  and  its  use  was  extended  and  confirmed  by  the 
example  of  Alfred,  himself  a  native  of  Berks.  But  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  this  dialect  is  the  parent  of  the  English 
language.  We  must  look  for  the  probable  ground-work  of  this 
in  the  gradual  coalescence  of  the  leading  dialects. 

The  changes  by  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  passed  into  the 
modern  Enghsh  assumed  in  succession  two  distinct  t}'pes,  mark- 
ing two  eras  quite  dissimilar.  First  came  the  Semi-Saxon,  or 
transition  period,  throughout  which  the  old  language  was  suffer- 
ing disorganization  and  decay,  a  period  of  confusion,  perplexing 
alike  to  those  who  then  used  the  tongue,  and  to  those  who  now 
endeavor  to  trace  its  vicissitudes.  This  chaotic  state  came  to 
an  end  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  centurv,  after  a  duration 
of  nearly  two  hundred  years.  The  Second  era,  or  period  of 
reconstruction,  follows,  during  which  the  language  may  be 
described  as  English. 

A  late  critic  divides  the  Old  English  Period,  extending  from 
1250  to  1500,  into  the  Early  English  (1250-1330)  and  the 
Middle  English  (1330-1500).  The  latter  was  used  by  Chaucer 
and  Wickliffe,  and  is  in  all  essentials  so  like  the  modern  tongue, 
except  in  the  spelling,  that  a  tolerable  English  scholar  may 
easily  understand  it.  A  great  change  was  effected  in  the  voca- 
bulary by  the  introduction  and  naturalization  of  words  from  the 
French.  The  poems  of  Chaucer  and  Gower  are  studded  with 
them,  and  the  style  of  these  favorite  writers  exercised  a  com- 
manding influence  ever  after. 

The  grammar  of  the  English  language,  in  all  points  of  impor- 
tance, is  a  simplification  of  the  grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon. 
In  considering  the  sources  of  the  English  vocabulary,  we  find 
that  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  are  derived  first,  almost  all  those 
words  which  import  relations  ;  secondly,  not  only  all  the  adjec- 
tives, but  all  the  other  words,  nouns  and  verbs  which  gramma- 
rians call  irregular  ;  thirdly,  the  Saxon  gives  us  in  most  in- 
stances our  only  names,  and  in  all  instances  those  which  suggest 
themselves  most  readily  for  the  objects  perceived  through  the 
senses  ;  fourthly,  all  words,  with  few  exceptions,  whose  significa- 
tion is  specific,  are  Anglo-Saxon.  For  instance,  we  use  a 
foreign,  naturalized  term  when  we  speak  of  color,  or  motion,  in 
general,  but  the  Saxon  in  speaking  of  the  particular  color  or 
motion,  and  the  style  of  a  writer  becomes  animated  and  sugges- 
tive in  proportion  to  the  frequency  with  which  he  uses  these 
specific  terms  ;  fifthly,  it  furnishes  a  rich  fund  of  expressions  for 
the  feelings  and  affections,  for  the  persons  who  are  the  earliest 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  473 

and  most  natural  objects  of  our  attachment,  and  for  those 
inanimate  things  whose  names  are  figuratively  significant  of 
domestic  union  ;  sixthly,  the  Anglo-Saxon  is,  for  the  most  part, 
the  language  of  business  ;  of  the  counting-house,  the  shop,  the 
street,  the  market,  the  farm.  Among  an  eminently  practical 
people  it  is  eminently  the  organ  of  practical  action,  and  it 
retains  this  prerogative  in  defiance  alike  of  the  necessary  inno- 
vations caused  by  scientific  discovery  and  of  the  corruptions  of 
ignorance  and  affectation.  Seventhly,  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  language  of  invective,  humor,  satire,  and  colloquial 
pleasantry  is  Anglo-Saxon.  In  short,  the  Teutonic  elements  of 
our  vocabulary  are  equally  valuable  in  enabling  us  to  speak  and 
write  perspicuously  and  with  animation;  and  besides  dictating 
the  laws  which  connect  our  words,  and  furnishing  the  cement 
which  binds  them  together,  they  yield  all  our  aptest  means  of 
describing  imagination,  feeling,  and  the  every-day  facts  of  life. 

From  the  Latin  the  English  has  borrowed  more  or  less  for 
two  thousand  years,  and  freely  for  more  than  six  centuries  ;  but 
from  the  time  of  the  Conquest  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  words 
of  Latin  origin  from  those  of  French.  The  Latinisms  of  the 
language  have  arisen  chiefly  in  three  epochs.  The  first  was  the 
13th  century,  which  followed  an  age  devoted  to  classical  studies, 
and  its  theological  writers  and  poets  coined  freely  in  the  Roman 
mint.  The  second  was  the  Elizabethan  age,  when,  in  the  enthusi- 
asm of  a  new  revival  of  admiration  for  antiquity,  the  privilege  of 
naturalization  was  used  to  an  extent  which  threatened  serious 
danger  to  the  purity  and  ease  of  speech.  In  the  third  epoch, 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  Johnson  was  the  dictator 
of  form  and  style,  and  the  pompous  rotundity  that  then  pre- 
vailed has  been  permanently  injurious,  although  our  Latin 
words,  on  the  whole,  have  done  much  more  good  than  harm. 

The  introduction  of  French  words  began  with  the  Conquest, 
when  the  political  condition  of  the  country  made  it  imperative 
that  many  words  should  be  understood.  The  second  stage 
began  about  a  century  later,  when  the  few  native  Englishmen 
who  loved  letters  entered  on  the  study  of  French  poetry.  The 
third  era  of  English  Gallicisms  opened  in  the  14th  century, 
when  the  French  tastes  of  the  nobles,  and  the  zeal  with  which 
Chaucer  and  other  men  of  letters  studied  the  poetry  of  France, 
greatly  contributed  to  introduce  that  tide  of  French  diction 
which  flowed  on  to  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  By  that  time 
the  new  words  were  so  numerous  and  so  strongly  ingrafted  on 
the  native  stock,  that  all  subsequent  additions  are  unimportant. 
The  dictionaries  of  modern  English  are  said  to  contain  about 


474  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

38,000   words,   of  whicli  about  23,000,  or  five-eigliths  of  the 
whole  iiuniber,  come  from  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  English  knguage,  by  its  remarkable  combination  of 
strength,  precision,  and  copiousness,  is  worthy  of  being,  as  it 
already  is,  spoken  by  many  millions,  and  these  the  part  of  the 
liuman  race  that  appear  likely  to  control,  more  than  any  others, 
the  future  destinies  of  the  world. 


PERIOD   FIRST. 

From  the   Departure  of  the  Romans  to  the   Xorman  Con- 
quest (448-10G6) 

1.  Celtic  Literature. — During  this  period  four  languages 
were  used  for  literary  communication  in  the  British  Islands  ; 
two  Celtic  tongues  spoken  by  nations  of  that  race,  who  still 
occupied  large  portions  of  the  country  ;  Latin,  as  elsewhere, 
the  organ  of  the  church  and  of  learning  ;  and  Anglo-Saxon. 
The  first  of  the  Celtic  tongues,  the  Erse  or  Gaelic,  was  common 
only  to  the  Celts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  where  it  is  still 
spoken.  The  second,  that  of  the  Cymrians  or  ancient  Britons, 
has  been  preserved  by  the  Welsh. 

The  literary  remains  of  this  period  in  Ireland  consist  of 
bardic  songs  and  historical  legends,  some  of  which  are  asserted 
to  be  older  than  the  9th  century,  the  date  of  the  legendary 
collection  called  the  "  Psalter  of  Cashel,"  which  still  survives. 
There  exist,  also,  valuable  prose  chronicles  which  are  believed 
to  contain  the  substance  of  others  of  a  very  early  date,  and 
which  furnish  an  authentic  contemporary  history  of  the  country 
iu  the  language  of  the  people  from  the  5th  century.  No 
other  modern  nation  of  Europe  is  able  to  make  a  similar  boast. 

All  the  earliest  relics  of  the  Scotch  Celts  are  metrical.  The 
poems  which  bear  the  name  of  Ossian  are  professedly  celebra- 
tions by  an  eye-witness  of  events  which  occurred  in  the  3d 
century.  They  were  first  presented  to  the  world  in  1762  by  ^lac- 
Phersoii,  a  Scotch  poet,  and  represented  by  him  to  be  transla- 
tions from  the  ancient  Graelic  poetry  handed  down  by  tradition 
through  so  many  centuries  and  still  found  among  the  Highlands. 
The  question  of  their  authenticity  excited  a  fierce  literary  contro- 
versy which  still  remains  unsettled.  By  some  recent  English  and 
German  critics,  however,  Ossian's  poems  are  considered  genuine. 
The  existence  of  bards  among  the  Celtic  nations  is  well  estab- 
lished, and  their  songs  were  preserved  with  pride.     The  name 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  475 

of  Ossian  is  mentioned  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis  in  the  12th 
century,  and  that  of  Fingal,  tlie  hero  of  the  legends,  was  so 
popular  that  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  many  bishops  com- 
plained that  their  people  were  more  familiar  with  Fingal  than 
with  the  catechism.  The  Gaelic  original  of  Ossian  was  pub- 
lished in  1807. 

The  literature  of  the  Cymric  Celts  is  particularly  interesting, 
as  affording  those  fragments  of  British  poetry  and  history  from 
which  the  magnificent  legends  were  built  up  to  immortalize 
King  Arthur  and  his  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  In  the 
bardic  songs  and  elsewhere,  frequent  allusion  is  made  to  this 
heroic  prince,  who  with  his  warriors  resisted  the  Saxon  enemies 
of  his  countries,  and  who,  we  are  told,  died  by  domestic  treason, 
the  flower  of  the  British  nobles  perishing  with  him.  His  deeds 
were  magnified  among  the  Welsh  Britons,  and  among  those  who 
sought  refuge  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire.  The  chroniclers  wove 
these  traditions  into  a  legendary  history  of  Britain.  From  this 
compilation  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  in  the  12th  century,  con- 
structed a  Latin  historical  work  ;  and  the  poets  of  chivalry,  al- 
lured by  the  beauty  and  pathos  of  the  tale,  made  it  for  ages  the 
centre  of  the  most  animated  pictures  of  romance. 

Manv  ancient  Welsh  writino-s  are  extant  which  treat  of  a 
wonderful  variety  of  topics,  both  in  prose  and  verse.  The  sin- 
gular pieces  called' the  Triads  show  a  marked  character  of  primi- 
tive antiquity.  They  are  collections  of  historical  facts,  mytho- 
logical doctrines,  maxims,  traditions,  and  rules  for  the  structure 
of  verse,  expressed  with  extreme  brevity,  and  disposed  in  groups 
of  three.  Among  the  Welsh  metrical  remains,  some  are  plausi- 
bly assigned  to  celebrated  bards  of  the  6th  century.  There  is 
also  a  considerable  stock  of  old  Welsh  romances,  the  most  re- 
markable of  which  are  contained  in  a  series  called  the  Mahinogi, 
or  Tales  of  Youth,  many  of  which  have  been  translated  into 
English.  Some  of  these  stories  are  very  similar  to  the  older 
Norse  Sagas,  and  must  have  sprung  from  traditions  of  a  very 
rude  and  early  generation. 

2.  Latin  Literature. — The  Latin  learning  of  the  Dark 
Ages  formed  a  point  of  contact  between  instructed  men  of  all 
countries.  At  first  it  was  necessarily  adopted, — the  native 
tongues  beuig  in  their  infancy;  and  it  was  afterwards  so  tena- 
ciously adhered  to,  that  the  Latin  literature  of  the  Middle 
Ages  far  exceeds  in  amount  all  other.  Its  cultivation  in  Eng- 
land arose  out  of  the  introduction  of  Christianitv,  and  its  most 
valued  uses  related  to  the  church. 


476  ENGLISH    LITEKATUEE. 

Almost  all  who  cultivated  Latiu  learning  were  ecclesiastics, 
and  by  far  the  larger  number  of  those  who  became  eminent  in 
it  were  natives  of  Ireland.  Amidst  the  convulsions  which  fol- 
lowed the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  Ireland  was  a  place  of  rest 
and  safety  to  fugitives  from  England  and  the  Continent,  and  it 
contained  for  some  centuries  a  larger  amount  of  learning  than 
could  have  been  collected  in  all  Europe. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  Christian  faith  each  nation  be- 
came a  member  of  the  ecclesiastical  community,  and  maintained 
its  connection  with  other  nations  and  with  Rome  as  the  common 
centre;  thus  communication  between  different  countries  received 
a  new  impulse.  The  churches  and  schools  of  England  received 
many  distinguished  foreigners,  and  many  of  the  native  church- 
men lived  abroad.  Of  the  three  scholars  who  held  the  highest 
place  in  the  literature  of  this  period — Bede  (d.  735),  Alcuin, 
(d.  804)  and  Erigena  (d.  884),  (celebrated  for  his  original  views 
ill  philosopliy) — the  two  last  gave  the  benefit  of  their  talents  to 
France.  The  writings  of  the  Venerable  Bede,  as  he  is  called, 
exhibit  an  extent  of  classical  scholarship  surprising  for  his  time, 
and  his  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  England'*  is  to  this  day  a 
leading  authority  not  only  for  church  annals,  but  for  all  public 
events  that  occurred  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Saxon  period. 

3.  Literature  in  the  Axglo-Saxon  Tongue. — The  remains 
of  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  specimens  of  a  similar  age  which  come  down  to 
us  from  other  nations.  The  ancestral  legends,  which  were  at 
once  the  poetry  and  history  of  their  contemporaries,  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  entirely  neglected  ;  they  even  avoided  the  choice  of 
national  themes  for  their  poetry,  which  consisted  of  ethical  re- 
ilections  and  religious  doctrines  or  narratives.  They  avoided 
all  expression  of  impassioned  fancy,  and  embodied  in  rough  but 
lucid  phrases  practical  information  and  every-day  shrewdness. 

Among  the  Anglo-Saxon  metrical  monuments  three  historical 
poems  are  still  preserved,  which  embody  recollections  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  must  have  been  composed  long  before  the  emigrations 
to  England ;  of  these  the  most  important  is  the  tale  of 
"  Beowulf,"  consisting  of  G,000  lines,  which  is  essentially  a 
Norse  Saga. 

After  the  introduction  of  Christianity  there  appeared  many 
hymns,  metrical  lives  of  the  saints,  and  religious  and  reflective 
poems.  The  most  remarkable  relics  of  this  period  are  the  works 
attributed  to  Ciedmon  (d.  G80),  whose  narrative  poems  on  scrip- 
tural events  are  inspired  by  a  noble  tone  of  solemn  imagination. 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  477 

The  melody  of  the  Saxon  verse  was  regulated  by  syllalDic  ac- 
cent or  emphasis,  and  not  by  quantity,  like  the  classical  metres. 
Alliteration,  or  the  use  of  several  syllables  in  the  same  stanza 
beginning  with  the  same  letter,  takes  the  place  of  rhyme.  The 
alliterative  metres  and  the  strained  and  figurative  diction  common 
to  the  Anglo-Saxon  poets  was  common  to  the  JN^orthmen,  and 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  them. 

Anglo-Saxon  prose  was  remarkable  for  its  straightforward 
and  perspicuous  simplicity,  and,  especially  after  the  time  of  Al- 
fred, it  had  a  marked  preference  over  the  Latin.  Translations 
were  early  made  from  the  Latin,  particularly  versions  of  parts  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  come  next,  in  point  of  date,  to  the  Moeso- 
Gothic  translation  of  Ulphilas,  and  preceded  by  several  genera- 
tions all  similar  attempts  in  any  of  the  new  languages  of  Europe. 

The  most  important  monument  of  Saxon  prose  literature  is 
the  series  of  historical  records  arranged  together  under  the  name 
of  ''  The  Saxon  Chronicle,"  which  is  made  up  from  records  kept 
in  the  monasteries,  probably  from  the  time  of  Alfred,  and  brought 
down  to  the  year  1L54. 

The  illustrious  name  of  Alfred  (849-900)  closes  the  record 
of  Anglo-Saxon  literature.  From  him  went  forth  a  spirit  of 
moral  strength  and  a  thirst  for  enlightenment  which  worked 
marvels  among  an  ignorant  and  half-barbarous  people.  Besides 
his  translations  from  the  Scriptures,  he  made  selections  from  St. 
Augustine,  Bede,  and  other  writers  ;  he  translated  "  The  Con- 
solations of  Philosophy,"  by  Boethius,  and  he  incorporates  his 
own  reflections  with  all  these  authors.  It  is  impossible,  at  this 
time,  to  estimate  justly  the  labors  of  Alfred,  since  the  obstacles 
which  in  his  time  impeded  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  cannot 
even  now  be  conceived.  "  I  have  wished  to  live  worthily," 
said  he,  "  while  I  lived,  and  after  my  life,  to  leave  to  the  men 
who  should  come  after  me,  my  remembrance  in  good  works." 


PERIOD   SECOND. 

From  the    Xormax   Conquest  to   the    Accession   of  Henry 

Yin.  (1066-1509). 

1.  Literature  in  the  Latin  Tongue. — The  IS'orman  Conquest 
introduced  into  England  a  fbreiirn  race  of  kings  and  barons, 
with  their  military  vassals,  and  churchmen,  who  followed  the 
conqueror  and  his  successors.  The  generation  succeeding  the 
Conquest  gave  bh'th  to  httle  that  was  remarkable,  but  the  12th 


478  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

centnry  was  particularly  distinguished  for  its  classical  scliolarsliip, 
and  Norman-French  poetry  began  to  find  English  imitators. 

The  13th  century  was  a  decisive  epoch  in  the  constitutional 
as  well  as  in  the  intellectual  history  of  England.  The  Great 
Charter  was  extorted  from  John  ;  the  representation  of  the 
commons  from  his  successors  ;  the  universities  were  founded  or 
organized  ;  the  romantic  poetry  of  France  began  to  be  trans- 
fused into  a  language  intelligible  throughout  England  ;  and 
aljove  all,  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  was  in  this  century  finally 
transformed  into  English.  Three  of  the  Crusades  had  already 
taken  place  ;  the  other  four  fell  within  the  next  century  ;  and 
these  wars  diffused  knowledge,  and  kindled  a  flame  of  zeal  and 
devotion  to  the  church. 

The  only  names  which  adorned  the  annals  of  erudition  in 
England  in  the  latter  half  of  the  11th  century  were  those  of 
two  Lombard  priests — Lanfranc  (d.  1089)  and  Ansehn  (d.  1109). 
They  prepared  the  means  for  diffusing  classical  learning  among 
the  ecclesiastics,  and  both  acquired  high  celebrity  as  theological 
writers.  Their  influence  was  visible  on  the  two  most  learned 
men  whom  the  country  produced  in  the  next  century — John  of 
Salisbury  (d.  1181),  befriended  by  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  Peter 
of  Blois,  the  king's  secretary,  and  an  active  statesman. 

In  the  13th  century,  when  the  teachings  of  Abelard  and 
RoseUinus  had  made  philosophy  the  favorite  pursuit  of  the 
scholars  of  Europe,  England  possessed  many  names  which,  in 
this  field,  stood  higher  than  any  others — among  them  Alexander 
de  Hales,  called  "the  Irrefragable  Doctor,"  and  Johannes  Duns 
Scotus,  one  of  the  most  acute  of  thinkers.  In  the  same  age, 
while  Scotland  sent  Michael  Scott  into  Germany,  where  he 
prosecuted  his  studies  with  a  success  that  earned  for  him  the 
fLime  of  a  sorcerer,  a  similar  character  was  acquired  by  Roger 
Bacon  (d.  1292),  a  Franciscan  friar,  who  made  many  curious 
conjectures  on  the  possibility  of  discoveries  which  have  since 
been  made. 

Very  few  of  the  historical  works  of  this  period  possess  any  merit, 
except  as  curious  records  of  fact.  Chronicles  were  kept  in  the 
various  monasteries,  which  furnish  a  scries  extending  through 
the  greater  part  of  the  ;Middle  Ages.  Among  these  historians 
are  William  of  Malmesbury,  who  belonged  properly  to  the  12th 
century  ;  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  who  preserved  for  us  the  st/> 
lies  of  Arthur,  of  Lear,  and  Cymbcline  ;  Gerald  de  Barri,  or 
Giraldus  Cambrensis  ;  Matthew  Paris,  a  Benedictine  monk,  of 
St.  All)ans  ;  Henry  of  Huntingdon  ;  Gervase  of  Tilbury  ;  and 
Roger  de  Hoveden. 


EN'GLISH    LITERATURE.  479 

The  spirit  of  resistance  to  secular  and  ecclesiastical  tyranny 
which  now  began  to  show  itself  among  the  English  people,  found 
also  a  medium  of  expression  in  the  Latin  tongue.  The  most 
biting  satires  against  the  church,  and  the  most  lively  political 
pasquinades,  were  thus  expressed,  and  written  almost  always  by 
churchmen.  To  give  these  satires  a  wider  circulation,  tht>  Nor- 
man-French came  to  be  frequently  used  ;  but  at  the  close  of  the 
period  the  English  dialect  was  almost  the  only  organ  of  this 
satirical  minstrelsy. 

The  Latin  tongue  also  became  the  means  of  preserving  and 
transmitting  an  immense  stock  of  tales,  by  which  the  later  poetry 
of  Europe  profited  largely.  One  of  these  legends,  narrated  by 
Gervase  of  Tilbury,  suggested  to  Scott  the  combat  of  Marmion 
with  the  spectre  knight. 

A  series  of  fictions  called  the  "  Gesta  Romanorum"  attained 
great  celebrity.  It  is  composed  of  fables,  traditions  and 
familiar  pictures  of  society,  varying  with  the  different  countries 
it  passed  through.  The  romance  of  Apollonius,  in  the  Gesta, 
furnished  the  plot  of  two  or  three  of  Chaucer's  tales,  of  Gower's 
most  celebrated  poem,  which  again  gave  the  ground-work  of 
Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre.  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  the  Three 
Black  Crows,  and  ParnelPs  Hermit,  are  indebted  also  to  the 
Gesta  Romanorum. 

4,  Literature  in  JN'orman'  French. — From  the  preference 
of  the  Norman  kings  of  England  for  the  poets  of  their  own 
country,  the  distinguished  literary  names  of  the  first  two  cen- 
turies after  the  Conquest  are  those  of  Norman  poets.  One 
of  the  chief  of  these  is  Wace  (fl.  1160),  who  composed  in 
French  his  ^^ Brut  cV Angleterre^^  (Brutus  of  England),  the 
mythical  son  of  ^neas  and  founder  of  Britain.  The  Britons 
settled  in  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Bretagne  had  long  been  distin- 
guished for  their  traditionary  legends,  which  were  at  length 
collected  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (fl.  1138),  and  gravely 
related  by  him  in  Latin  as  serious  history.  This  production, 
composed  of  incredible  stories,  furnished  the  ground-work  for 
Wace's  poem,  and  proved  an  unfailing  resource  for  writers  of 
romantic  narration  for  two  centuries  ;  at  a  later  period  Shak- 
speare  drew  from  it  the  story  of  Lear,  Sackville  that  of 
Ferrex  and  Porrex;  Drayton  reproduced  it  in  his  Polyolbion, 
and  MUton  and  other  poets  frequently  draw  allusions  from 
it.  The  Romances  of  chivalry  drawn  from  the  same  source, 
were  composed  for  the  Enghsh  court  and  nobles,  and  the  trans- 
lation of  them  was  the  most  frequent  use  to  which  the  infant 


480  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

English  was  applied.  They  iraprinted  on  English  poetry  cha- 
racteristics which  it  did  not  lose  for  centuries,  if  it  can  be 
said  to  have  lost  them  at  all. 

A  poetess  known  as  Marie  of  France  made  copious  nse  of 
British  materials,  and  addressed  herself  to  a  king,  supposed  to 
haveJ^een  Henry  YI.  Her  twelve  lays,  which  celebrate  the 
marvels  of  the  llound  Table,  are  among  the  most  beautiful 
relics  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  were  freely  used  by  Chaucer  and 
other  English  poets. 

The  romances  are,  many  of  them,  in  parts  at  least,  delight- 
fully imaginative,  spirited,  or  pathetic,  and  their  history  is 
important  as  illustrating  medieval  manners  and  customs,  and  for 
their  connection  with  early  English  literature.  Among  the 
oldest  of  these  romances  is  "  Havelok,"  relating  to  the  early 
Korse  settlement  in  England,  the  "  Gest  of  King  Horn,"  and 
"  Guv  of  Warwick." 

But  of  all  the  French  romances,  the  most  interesting  by  far 
are  those  that  celebrate  the  glory  and  fall  of  King  Arthur  and 
the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  The  order  in  which  they 
were  composed  seems  to  have  been  the  same  with  that  of  the 
events  narrated. 

First  comes  the  romance  of  "The  Saint  Graal,"  relating  the 
history  of  this  sacred  relic  which  was  carried  by  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  or  his  descendants  into  Britain,  where  it  vanished 
for  ages  from  the  eyes  of  sinful  men. 

Second,  the  romance  of  "  Merlm,"  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  liend-born  prophet  and  magician,  celebrates  the  birth 
and  exploits  of  Arthur,  and  the  gathering  round  him  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  The  historic  origin  of  this  story 
is  from  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  though  it  is  disguised  by  its 
supernatural  and  chivah'ous  features. 

In  the  third  romance,  that  of  Launcelot,  the  hero  nurtured 
by  the  Lady  of  the  Lake  in  her  fairy  realm  beneath  the  waters, 
grows  up  the  bravest  champion  of  chivalry,  admired  for  all  its 
virtues,  although  guilty  of  treachery  to  Arthur,  and  from  his 
guilt  is  to  ensue  the  destruction  of  the  land. 

Fourth,  the  *'  Quest  of  the  Saint  Graal"  relates  the  solitary 
wanderings  of  the  knights  in  this  search,  and  how  the  adventure 
is  at  last  achieved  by  Sir  Gallahad,  who,  while  the  vision  passes 
before  him,  prays  that  he  may  no  longer  live,  and  is  immediately 
taken  away  from  a  world  of  calamity  and  sin. 

Fifth,  "  The  Mort  Artus,"  or  Death  of  Arthur,  winds  up 
with  supernatural  horrors,  the  tale  into  which  the  fall  of  the 
ancient  Britons  had  been  thus  transformed.     Arthur,  wounded 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  481 

and  dying,  is  carried  by  the  fairy  of  the  lake  to  the  enchanted 
island  of  Avalon,  there  to  dream  away  the  ages  that,  must 
elapse  before  his  return  to  reign  over  the  perfected  world  of 
chivalry. 

Sixth,  "  The  Adventures  of  Tristram,"  or  Tristan,  is  a  repeti- 
tion of  those  which  had  been  attributed  to  Launcelot  of  the  Lake. 

These  six  romances  of  the  British  cycle,  the  originals  of  all 
others,  were  written  in  the  latter  half  of  the  12th  century  for  the 
Enghsh  court  and  nobles,  some  of  them  at  the  suggestion  of 
king  Henry  II.  Although  composed  in  French,  the  authors 
were  Englishmen,  and  from  these  prose  romances,  the  poets  of 
France  constructed  many  metrical  romances  which  in  the  15th 
century  reappeared  as  English  metrical  romances. 

5.  Saxox  English. — ^The  Saxon  tongue  of  England  decayed, 
but  like  the  healthy  seed  in  the  ground  it  germinated  again. 
The  Saxon  Chronicle  which  had  been  kept  in  the  monasteries 
ceased  abruptly  on  the  accession  of  Henry  II.,  1154,  and  at  the 
same  period  the  Saxon  language  began  to  take  a  form  in  which 
the  beginning  of  the  present  English  is  apparent. 

During  the  13th  century  appeared  a  series  of  rhyming  chroni- 
clers, the  chief  of  whom  were  Layamon  and  Robert  of  Glouces- 
ter. All  the  remains  of  the  English  tongue,  in  its  transition 
state,  are  chiefly  in  verse  ;  among  them  are  the  ''Ormulum" 
(so  called  from  the  name  of  the  author,  Ormin),  which  is  a 
metrical  harmony  of  passages  from  the  gospels  contained  in  the 
service  of  the  mass,  and  the  long  fable  of  "  The  Owl  and  the 
Nightingale,"  one  of  the  most  pleasing  of  these  early  relics. 
*'  The  Land  of  Cockayne,"  a  satirical  poem,  said  to  have  been 
written  by  Michael  of  Kiklare,  belongs  also  to  the  13th  century, 
as  well  as  many  anonymous  poems,  both  amatory  and  rehgious. 

The  old  English  drama  was  almost  contemporaneous  with  the 
formation  of  the  Old  English  language  ;  but  all  dramatic  efforts 
previous  to, the  16th  century  were  so  rude  as  to  deserve  little 
notice. 

6.  Literature  in  the  Fourteenth  Century. — The  14th  and 
15th  centuries,  the  afternoon  and  evening  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
are  the  picturesque  period  in  Enghsh  history.  In  the  contem- 
porary chronicle  of  Froissart,  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  shines 
with  a  long  array  of  knightly  pageants,  and  a  loftier  cast  of 
imaginative  adornment  is  imparted  by  the  historical  dramas 
of  Shakspeare  to  the  troubled  rule  of  the  house  of  Lancas- 
ter and  the  crimes  and  fall  of  the  brief  dynasty  of  York. 

21   ' 


482  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 


The  reign  of  Edward  II.  was  as  inglorious  in  literature  as  in 
the  history  of  the  nation.  That  of  his  son  was  not  more 
remarkable  for  the  victories  of  Poictiers  and  Cressy  than  for  the 
triumphs  in  poetry  and  thought  The  Black  Prince,  the  model 
of  historic  chivalry,  and  Occam,  the  last  and  greatest  of  the 
English  scholastic  philosophers,  lived  in  the  same  century  with 
Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  poetry,  and  Wickliffe,  the  herald 
of  the  Reformation. 

The  earlier  half  of  the  14th  century,  in  its  literary  aspects, 
may  be  regarded  as  a  separate  period  from  the  later.  The 
genius  of  the  nation  seemed  to  sleep.  England,  indeed,  was 
the  birth-place  of  Occam  (1300-47),  but  he  neither  remained 
in  his  own  country,  nor  imparted  any  strong  impulse  to  his 
countrymen.  Educated  abroad,  he  lived  chiefly  in  France,  and 
died  in  Munich.  While  the  writings  of  his  master,  Duns 
Scotus  (d.  1308),  were  the  chief  authorities  of  the  metaphysical 
sect  called  Realists,  Occam  himself  was  the  ablest  and  one  of 
the  earliest  writers  among  the  NominalisLs,  While  the  for- 
mer of  these  sects  was  held  especially  favorable  to  the  Romish 
church,  the  latter  was  discouraged  as  heretical,  and  Occam  was 
persecuted  for  enunciating  those  opinions  which  are  now  held  in 
one  form  or  another  by  almost  all  metaphysicians.  No  eminent 
names  appear  in  the  ecclesiastical  literature  of  this  period,  nor 
in  that  of  the  spoken  tongue  ;  but  the  dawn  of  English  litera- 
ture was  close  at  hand. 

The  latter  half  of  this  century  was  a  remarkable  era  in  the 
ecclesiastical  and  intellectual  progress  of  England.  Many 
colleges  were  founded,  and  learning  had  munificent  patrons. 
The  increase  of  papal  power  led  to  claims  which  were  re- 
sisted by  the  clergy  as  well  as  by  the  parliament.  Foremost 
among  those  who  called  for  reform  was  the  celebrated  John 
Wickliffe  (1324-84).  A  priest  of  high  fame  for  his  know- 
ledge and  logical  dexterity,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  several 
of  the  colleges  of  Oxford,  and  there,  and  from  the  country 
parsonages  to  which  he  was  afterwards  compelled  to  retreat,  he 
thundered  forth  his  denunciations  against  the  abuses  of  the 
church,  attacked  the  papal  supremacy,  and  set  forth  doctrinal 
views  of  his  own  nearly  approaching  to  Calvinism.  Although 
repeatedly  called  to  account  for  his  opinions  he  was  never  even 
imprisoned,  and  he  enjoyed  his  church-livings  to  the  last.  But  the 
church  was  weakened  by  the  Great  Schism,  and  he  was  protected 
by  powerful  nobles.  Soon  after  his  death,  however,  a  storm 
of  persecution  burst  on  his  disciples,  which  crushed  dissent  till 
the  16th  century.     We  owe  to  Wickliffe  the  earliest  version  of 


ENGLISH    LITEKATURE.  483 

the  Scriptures  into  English,  which  is  among  the  first  prose  writ- 
ings in  the  old  tongue. 

The  very  oldest  book  in  English  prose,  however,  is  the 
account  given  by  Sir  John  Mandeville  of  his  thirty-three  years' 
travel  in  the  East,  from  which  he  returned  about  1355.  It  is 
an  odd  and  amusing  compound  of  facts  and  marvellous  stories. 
But  the  best  specimens  of  English  prose  of  this  period  are 
Chaucer's  translation  of  Boethius,  his  "  Testament  of  Love,"  and 
two  of  his  Canterbury  Tales. 

In  poetical  literature,  "  The  Vision,  of  Piers  Plowman," 
written  (1362)  by  a  priest  named  Robert  Langland,  is  one  of 
the  highest  works  in  point  of  genius  and  one  of  the  most  curi- 
ous as  illustrating  manners  and  opinions.  The  poet  supposes 
himself  falling  asleep  on  Malvern  Hills,  and  in  his  vision  he 
describes  the  vices  of  the  times  in  an  allegorical  form,  which  has 
been  compared  to  "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress."  The  poetical 
vigor  of  many  passages  is  extraordinary. 

John  Gower  (d.  1408),  the  contemporary  and  friend  of 
Chaucer,  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  "  Confessio  Amantis,"  or 
Lover's  Confession,  a  long  English  poem,  containing  physical, 
metaphysical,  and  ethical  reflections  and  stories  taken  from  the 
common  repertories  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  tedious,  and 
often  feeble,  but  it  has  many  excellences  of  language  and 
description. 

Geoffrey  Chaucer  (1328-1400)  was  born  in  London.  He 
was  early  thrown  into  public  life  and  intimacy  with  men  of  high 
rank.  John  of  Gaunt  was  his  chief  patron,  and  he  was  several 
times  employed  in  embassies  to  France  and  Italy.  A  very  large 
proportion  of  Chaucer's  writings  consists  of  free  versions  from 
the  Latin  and  French,  and  perhaps  also  from  the  Italian  ;  but 
in  some  of  these  he  has  incorporated  so  much  that  is  his  own  as 
to  make  them  the  most  celebrated  and  valuable  of  his  works. 
His  originals  were  not  the  chivalrous  romances,  but  the  comic 
Fabliaux,  and  the  allegorical  poetry  cultivated  by  the  Trouveres 
and  Troubadours.  Three  of  his  largest  minor  works  are  thus 
borrowed  ;  the  *'  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  from  one  of  the  most 
popular  French  poems  of  the  preceding  century  ;  "  Troilus  and 
Cressida,"  a  free  translation,  probably,  from  Boccaccio ;  and  the 
"  Legend  of  Good  Women,"  founded  on  Ovid's  Epistles.  The 
poetical  immortality  of  Chaucer  rests  on  his  "  Canterbury  Tales," 
a  series  of  stories  linked  together  by  an  ingenious  device.  A 
party  of  about  thirty  persons,  the  poet  being  one,  are  bound  on 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  at  Canterbury  ; 
each  person  is  to  tell  two  tales,  one  in  going,  and  the  other  in 


484  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

returning.  Twenty-four  only  of  the  stories  are  related,  but  they 
extend  to  more  than  17,000  lines.  In  the  prologue,  itself  a 
poem  of  great  merit,  the  poet  draws  up  the  curtain  from  a  scene 
of  life  and  manners  which  has  not  been  sm-passed  in  subsequent 
literature,  a  picture  whose  figures  have  been  studied  with  the 
truest  observation,  and  are  outlined  with  the  firmest,  yet  most 
delicate  pencil.  The  vein  of  sentiment  in  these  tales  is  always 
unaffected,  cheerful,  and  manly,  the  most  touching  seriousness 
varying  with  the  keenest  humor.  In  some  the  tone  rises  to  the 
highest  flight  of  heroic,  reflective,  and  even  religious  poetry  ; 
while  in  others  it  sinks  below  coarseness  into  positive  licentious- 
ness of  thought  and  sentiment. 

Literature  in  the  Fifteenth  Century. — The  15th  cen- 
tury, usually  marked  in  continental  history  as  the  epoch  of 
tlie  Revival  of  Classical  Learning,  was  not  in  England  a  period 
of  erudition  or  of  original  invention.  The  unwise  and  unjust 
wars  with  France,  the  revolts  of  the  populace,  and  the  furi- 
ous struggles  between  the  partisans  of  the  rival  houses  deso- 
lated the  country,  and  blighted  and  dwarfed  all  intellectual 
growth.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the  death  of 
Chaucer,  scarcely  any  names  of  mark  distinguish  the  literary 
annals  of  England,  and  the  poetical  compositions  of  this  period 
are  principally  valuable  as  specimens  of  the  rapid  transition  of 
the  language  into  modern  English.  Almost  all  the  literary  pro- 
ductions previous  to  the  time  of  Chaucer,  were  designed  only 
for  a  limited  audience.  Neither  comprehensive  observation  of 
society,  nor  a  wish  to  instruct  or  please  a  wide  circle  of  readers, 
was  observable  before  this  period.  Chaucer  was  indeed  a  na- 
tional poet,  an  active  and  enlightened  teacher  of  all  classes  of 
men  who  were  susceptible  of  literary  instruction. 

John  Lydgate  (d.  1430),  a  Benedictine  monk,  the  best  and 
most  popular  poet  of  the  15th  century,  began  to  write  before 
the  death  of  Chaucer,  but  in  passing  from  the  works  of  the  latter 
to  those  of  Lydgate,  we  seem  to  be  turning  from  the  open 
highway  into  the  dark,  echoing  cloisters.  If  he  was  the  pupil 
of  Chaucer  in  manner  and  style,  his  masters  in  opinion  and  senti- 
ment were  the  compilers  of  the  "  Gesta  Komanorum." 

Stephen  Ilawes,  who  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YII,  is  the 
author  of  "  The  Pastime  of  Pleasure,"  an  allegorical  poem  in 
the  same  taste  as  the  "  Romance  of  tlie  Rose."  This  allegori- 
cal school  of  poetry,  so  widely  spread  through  the  Middle  Ages, 
reappears  in  the  Elizabethan  age,  where  the  same  turn  of 
thought  is  seen  in  the  immortal  "  Fairy  Queen.'' 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  485 

In  leaving  this  period  we  bid  adieu  to  metrical  romances, 
which,  introduced  into  English  in  the  latter  half  of  the  13th 
century,  continued  to  be  composed  until  tlie  middle  of  the  15th 
century,  and  were  to  the  last  almost  always  translations  or 
imitations.  Chivalrous  stories  next  began  to  be  related  in  prose. 
The  most  famous  of  these,  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  Old 
English,  and  the  most  delightful  of  all  repositories  of  romantic 
fiction  is  the  "  Mort  Arthur,"  in  which  Sir  Thomas  Mallory,  a 
priest  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  combined  into  one  narrative 
the  leading  adventures  of  the  Round  Table. 

As  the  romances  ceased  to  be  produced,  the  ballads  gradually 
took  then*  place,  many  of  which  indeed  are  either  fragments  or 
abridgments  of  them.  The  ballad-poetry  was  to  the  popular 
audience,  what  the  recital  of  the  romances  had  been  among  the 
nobles.  The  latter  half  of  the  15th  century  appears  to  have 
been*  fertile  in  minstrels  and  minstrelsy.  "  Chevy  Chase,"  of 
which  Sir  Philip  Sidney  said  it  would  move  him  like  the  blast 
of  a  trumpet,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  ;  but  according  to 
Hallam,  it  relates  to  a  totally  fictitious  event.  The  ballad  of 
"Robin  Hood"  had  probably  as  little  origin  in  fact. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  a  mighty  revolution 
took  place.  William  Caxtou,  a  merchant  of  London  residing 
abroad,  became  acquainted  with  the  recently  invented  art  of 
printing,  and  embraced  it  as  a  profession.  He  introduced  it 
into  England  about  1474,  and  practised  it  for  nearly  twenty 
years.  He  printed  sixty-four  works  in  all,  and  the  low  state  of 
taste  and  information  in  the  public  for  which  they  were  desig- 
nated, is  indicated  by  the  selection.  But  the  enterprise  and 
patience  of  Caxton  hastened  the  time  when  this  mighty  dis- 
covery became  available  in  England,  and  his  name  deserves  to 
stand  with  honor  at  the  close  of  the  survey  of  English  litera- 
ture in  the  Middle  Ages.  Thenceforth  literary  works  were  to 
undergo  a  total  change  of  character,  brought  about  by  many 
causes,  but  none  more  active  than  the  substitution  of  the 
printed  book  for  the  manuscript. 

6.  The  Eourteenth  axd  Fifteexth  Centlt^ries  in  Scotland. 
— Erom  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  there  might  be  collected  the 
names  of  a  few  scholastic  theologians  of  Scottish  birth,  whose 
works  have  survived  ;  but  they  spent  their  lives  mostly  on  the 
continent,  as  was  the  case  with  Michael  Scott,  who  gained  his 
fame  as  a  wizard  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.  His 
extant  writings  are  wholly  inferior  to  those  of  Friar  Bacon, 
his  contemporary. 


486  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

Two  metrical  romances  of  note  belono*  to  the  14th  centarv  ; 
the  "  Original  Cronjkil"  of  Andrew  Wyntoun  (d.  1420),  a 
long  history  of  Scotland,  and  of  the  world  at  large  ;  and  "  The 
Bruce"  of  John  Barbour  (d.  1390),  a  narrative  of  the  adven- 
tures of  King  Robert  in  more  than  13,000  rhymed  lines.  Dra- 
matic vigor  and  occasional  breadth  of  sentiment  entitle  this  poem 
to  a  high  rank.  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  his  Loi-d  of  the  Isles,  owes 
much  to  Tlie  Bruce. 

The  earliest  Scottish  poem  of  the  15th  century,  "The  King's 
Quair,"  or  Book,  in  which  James  I.  (d.  1437)  celebrates  the 
lady  whom  he  afterwards  married,  presents  no  traces  of  a  distinct 
Scottish  dialect.  But  James  was  educated  in  England,  and 
probably  wrote  there,  and  his  pleasing  poem  exhibits  the  in- 
tiuence  of  those  Ens^lish  wi'iters  whom  he  acknowledu'es  as  his 
masters.  From  this  time,  however,  the  development  of  the  lan- 
guage of  Scotland  into  a  dialect  went  rapidly  on.  The  "  Wal- 
lace" of  Henry  the  Minstrel,  or  Blind  Harry,  rivalled  the  Bruce* 
in  popularity,  on  account  of  the  more  picturesque  character  of 
the  incidents,  its  passionate  fervor,  and  the  wildness  of  fancy  by 
which  it  is  distinguished. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  centurv,  and  in  the  beQ:innino-  of  the 
next,  Scottish  poetry,  now  couched  in  a  dialect  decidedly  pecu- 
liar, was  cultivated  by  men  of  high  genius.  Robert  Henrvson 
(d.  1400)  wrote  ''  The  Testament  of  the  Faire  CressideV'  a 
continuation  of  Chaucer's  poem,  and  "  Robin  and  Makyue,"  a 
beautiful  pastoral,  preserved  in  Percy's  "  Reliques." 

More  vigorous  in  thought  and  fancy,  though  inferior  in  skill 
and  expression,  was  Gavin  Douglas,  bishop  of  Dunkeld  (d.  1522). 
His  "  King  Hart,"  and  *'  Palace  of  Honor"  are  complex  alle- 
gories ;  and  his  translation  of  the  iEneid  is  the  earliest  attempt 
to  render  classical  poetry  into  the  living  language  of  the  country. 

William  Dunbar  (d.  1520),  the  best  British  poet  of  his  age, 
exhibits  a  versatility  of  talent  which  has  rarely  been  equalled  ; 
but  in  his  comic  and  familiar  pieces,  the  grossness  of  language 
and  sentiment  destroys  the  effect  of  their  force  and  humor. 
Allegory  is  his  favorite  field.  In  his  *'  Golden  Terge,"  the 
target  is  Reason,  a  protection  against  the  assaults  of  love. 
''  The  Dance  of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins  "  is  wonderfully  striking; 
but  the  design  even  of  this  remarkable  poem  could  not  be  deco- 
rously described. 

While  Scotland  thus  redeemed  the  poetical  character  of  the 
15th  century,  her  living  tongue  was  used  only  in  versified  com- 
positions, Scottish  prose  does  not  appear  in  any  literary  shape 
until  the  first  decade  of  the  16th  century. 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  487 


TERIOD  THIRD. 

From  the  Accession  of  Henry  Till,  to  the  Presext  Time 

(1509-1860). 

1.  Age  of  the  Reformation. — In  the  early  part  of  the  IGth 
century  human  mtellect  began  to  be  stuTed  by  impulses  alto- 
gether new,  while  others,  which  had  as  yet  been  held  in  check, 
were  allowed,  one  after  another,  to  work  freely.  But  there  was 
no  sudden  or  universal  metamorphosis  in  literature,  or  in  those 
phenomena  by  which  its  form  and  spirit  were  determined.  It 
was  not  until  1568,  when  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  within  30 
years  of  its  close,  that  Euglish  literature  assumed  a  character 
separating  it  decisively  from  that  of  the  ages  which  had  gone 
before,  and  took  its  station  as  the  worthy  organ  of  a  new  epoch 
in  the  history  of  civilization.  But  the  literary  poverty  of  the  age 
of  the  Reformation,  was  the  poverty  which  the  settler  in  a  new 
country  experiences,  while  he  fells  the  woods  and  sows  his 
half-tilled  fields;  a  poverty,  in  the  bosom  of  which  lay  rich  abun- 
dance. 

The  students  of  classical  learning  profited  at  first  more  than 
others  by  the  diffusion  of  the  art  of  printing,  from  the  greater 
number  of  classical  works  which  were  given  to  the  press.  Foreign 
men  of  letters  visited  England  ;  Erasmus,  especially,  gave  a 
strong  impulse  to  study,  and  Greek  and  Latin  were  learned  with 
an  accuracy  never  before  attained.  Among  the  scholars  of  the 
time  were  Cardinals  Pole  and  Wolsey,  Ridley,  Ascham,  and  Sir 
Thomas  More,  the  author  of  the  **  Utopia,"  a  romance  in  the 
scholastic  garb.  It  describes  an  imaginary  commonwealth,  the 
chief  feature  of  which  is  a  community  of  property,  on  an  ima- 
ginary island  from  which  the  book  takes  its  name.  The 
epitliet  '*  Utopian "  is  still  used  as  descriptive  of  chimerical 
schemes. 

The  most  important  works  in  the  living  tongue  were  those  de- 
voted to  theologv,  and  first  among^  them  were  the  translations 
of  the  Scriptures  into  English,  none  of  which  had  been  publicly 
attempted  since  that  of  Wickliflfe.  In  1526,  William  Tyndale 
(afterwards  strangled  and  burnt  for  heresy,  at  Antwerp) 
translated  the  New  Testament,  and  the  five  books  of  Moses.  In 
153T,  after  the  final  breach  of  Henry  YIII.  with  Rome,  there 
was  published  the  first  complete  translation  of  the  Bible,  by 
Miles  Coverdale.  Many  others  followed  until  the  accession  of 
Marv,  when  the  circulation  of  the  translations  was  made  in 


488  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

secrecy  and  fear.  The  theological  writers  of  this  period  are 
chiefly  controversial.  Among  them  are  Ridley,  famous  as  a 
preacher  ;  Cranmer,  remarkable  for  his  patronage  of  theological 
learning,  and  Latimer  (d.  1555),  whose  sermons  and  letters  are 
highly  instructive  and  interesting.  The  "  Book  of  Martyrs,"  by 
John  Fox  (d.  1527),  was  printed  towards  the  close  of  this 
period. 

The  miscellaneous  writings  of  this  age  in  prose  are  most  valu- 
able as  specimens  of  the  language  in  its  earliest  maturity.  None 
of  them  are  entitled  to  high  rank  as  monuments  of  English 
literature.  The  style  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (1480-1535)  had 
great  excellence  ;  but  his  v-^orks  were  only  the  recreation  of  an 
accomplished  man  in  a  learned  age.  The  v/ritings  of  the  learned 
Ascham  (1515-65)  have  a  value  not  to  be  measured  by  their 
inconsiderable  bulk.  Tlieir  language  is  pure,  idiomatic,  vigorous 
English  ;  and  they  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  knowledge,  re- 
markable sagacity,  and  sound  common  sense.  His  most  cele- 
brated work,  the  "  Schoolmaster,"  proposes  improvements  in 
education  for  which  there  is  still  both  room  and  need.  Thomas 
Wilson,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  ''  Art  of  Logic "  and 
"  Rhetoric,"  may  be  considered  the  first  critical  writer  in  the 
living  tongue. 

The  poetry  of  England  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  YIII.  and 
his  immediate  successors,  is  like  the  prose,  valuable  for  its  rela- 
tion to  other  things^  rather  than  for  its  own  merit.  Yet  it 
occupies  a  higher  place  than  the  prose  ;  it  exhibits  a  decided 
contrast  to  that  of  the  times  past,  and  in  many  points  bears  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  poetry  of  the  energetic  age  that  was 
soon  to  open. 

The  names  of  the  poets  of  this  age  may  be  arraj^ed  in  three 
groups,  headed  by  Skelton,  Surrey,  and  SackvIUe.  The  poems 
of  Skelton  (d.  1529)  are  singularly  though  coarsely  energetic. 
He  was  the  tutor  of  Henry  YIIL,  and,  dm'ing  the  greater  part 
of  the  reign  of  his  pupil,  he  continued  to  satirize  social  and 
ecclesiastical  abuses.  His  poems  are  exceedingly  curious  and 
grotesque,  and  the  volubility  with  which  he  vents  his  acrid 
humors  is  truly  surprising.  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey 
(1510-47),  opened  a  new  era  in  English  poetry,  and  by  his 
foreign  studies,  and  his  refinement  of  taste  and  feeling,  was 
enabled  to  turn  poetical  literature  into  a  path  as  yet  untrodden, 
although,  in  vigor  and  originality,  this  ill-fated  poet  was  inferior 
to  others  who  have  been  long  forgotten.  His  works  consist  of 
sonnets  and  poems  of  a  lyrical  and  amatory  cast,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  the  ^neid.     He  first  introduced  the  sonnet,  and  the  re- 


EN^GLISH    LITER ATPRE.  489 

fined  and  sentimental  turn  of  thought  borrowed  from  Petrarch 
and  the  other  Itahan  masters.  In  his  ^neid  he  introduced  blank 
verse,  a  form  of  versilication  in  which  the  noblest  English  poetry 
lias  since  been  couched.  This  was  also  taken  from  Italy,  where 
it  had  appeared  early  in  the  century.  Surrey's  versions  of  some 
of  the  Psalms,  and  those  of  his  contemporary,  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt, 
are  the  most  polished  of  the  many  similar  attempts  made  at 
that  time,  among  which  was  the  collection  of  Sternhold  and 
Hopkins. 

Thomas  Sackville,  Lord  Backhurst  (1586-1608)  wrote  those 
portions  most  worthy  of  notice,  of  the  *'  Mirror  for  Magistrates," 
a  collection  of  poems  celebrating  illustrious  but  unfortunate  per- 
sonages who  figure  in  the  history  of  England.  From  his  "  In- 
duction," or  preparatory  poem,  later  writers  have  drawn  many 
suggestions. 

The  dramatic  exhibitions  of  the  Middle  Ages, which  originated 
in  the  Church,  or  were  soon  appropriated  by  the  clergy,  were  of 
a  rehgious  cast,  often  composed  by  priests  and  monks  who  were 
frequently  the  performers  of  them  in  the  convents.  All  the  old 
religious  plays  called  Mysteries,  were  divided  into  Miracles, 
or  Miracle  plays,  founded  on  Bible  narratives  or  legends  of  the 
saints  ;  and  Moralities  or  Moral  plays,  which  arose  out  of  tlic 
former  by  the  introduction  of  imaginary  features  tind  allegorical 
personages,  the  story  being  so  constructed  as  to  convey  an 
ethical  or  rehgious  lesson.  They  became  common  in  England 
about  the  time  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1422-61).  Some  of 
the  Miracle  plays  treated  of  all  the  events  of  Bible  history,  from 
the  Creation  to  the  Day  of  Judgment ;  they  were  acted  on 
festivals,  and  the  performance  often  lasted  more  than  one  day. 
The  most  sacred  things  are  here  treated  with  undue  freedom, 
and  the  broadest  and  coarsest  mirth  is  introduced  to  keep  the 
attention  of  the  rude  audience.  Many  of  them  had  a  character 
called  Iniquity,  whose  avowed  function  was  that  of  buffoonery. 
The  Mysteries  were  not  entirely  overthrown  by  the  Reformation, 
the  Protestant  Bishop  Bale  having  composed  several,  intended  to 
instruct  the  people  in  the  errors  of  popery.  After  the  time  of 
Henry  YIII.  these  plays  are  known  by  the  name  of  Interludes, 
the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  those  by  John  Hey  wood  (the 
epigrammatist).  They  deal  largely  in  satire,  and  are  not  devoid 
of  spirit  and  humor.  But  they  have  httle  skill  in  character- 
painting,  and  little  interest  in  the  story. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  (16th)  the  drama  extricated 
itself  completely  from  its  ancient  fetters,  and  both  comedy  and 
tragedy  began  to  exist  in  a  rude  reahty.     The  oldest  known 

21* 


490  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

comedy  was  written  by  Nicholas  Udall  (d.  1556);  it  has  tlie 
title  of  "  Ralph  Roister  Doister,"  a  personage  whose  misad- 
ventures are  represented  with  much  comic  force. 

Ten  years  later  the  earliest  tragedy,  known  by  two  names 
'*  Gorboduc,"  and  "  Ferrex  and  Porrex,"  was  publicly  played  in 
the  Lower  Temple.  It  is  founded  on  the  traditions  of  fabulous 
British  history,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  written  by  Thomas 
Xorton  and  Lord  Buckhurst.  The  chief  merit  of  this  earliest 
English  tragedy  hes  in  its  stately  language  and  solemnly  reflec- 
tive tone  of  sentiment. 

2.  The  Age  of  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Bacon  and  Milton 
(1558-1660). — The  prose  of  this  illustrious  period  is  vast  in 
amount  and  various  in  range.  The  study  of  the  oriental  lan- 
guages, and  other  pursuits  bearing  on  theology,  were  prose- 
cuted with  success,  and  many  of  the  philosophical  and  polemical 
writings  were  composed  in  Latin.  A  second  series  of  transla- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  were  among  the  most  important  works  of 
the  time.  The  first  of  the  three  versions  which  now  appeared 
(1560),  came  from  a  knot  of  English  and  Scotch  exiles  who 
sought  refuge  in  Geneva,  and  their  work,  known  as  the  Geneva 
Bible,  though  not  adopted  by  the  Church  of  England,  long  con- 
tinued in  favor  with  the  English  Puritans  and  Scotch  Presbyteri- 
ans. Cranmer's  version  was  next  revised  (1568)  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Matthew  Parker,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  emi- 
nent among  the  fathers  of  the  English  church,  and  called  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  a  majority  of  fifteen  translators  having  been 
selected  from  the  bench.  The  Catholic  version,  known  as  the 
Douay  Bible,  appeared  in  1610.  Our  current  translation,  which 
also  appeared  in  1610,  during  the  reign  of  James  I.,  occupied 
forty-><even  learned  men,  assisted  by  other  eminent  scholars,  for  a 
period  of  three  years. 

Among  theological  writings,  the  "Ecclesiastical  Polity"  of 
Hooker  (1553-1600)  is  a  striking  effort  of  philosophical  think- 
ing, and  in  point  of  eloquence  one  of  the  noblest  monuments  of 
the  language.  More  than  Ciceronian  in  its  fullness  and  dignity 
of  style,  it  wears  with  all  its  richness  a  sober  majesty  which  is 
equally  admirable  and  rare.  The  sermons  of  Bishop  Andrews 
(1565-1626),  though  corrupt  as  models  of  style,  made  an  extra- 
ordinary impression,  and  contain  more  than  any  other  works  of 
the  kind  the  inwrought  materials  of  oratory.  The  sermons  of 
Donne  (1513-1631),  while  they  are  superior  in  style,  are  some- 
times fantastic,  like  his  poetry,  but  they  are  never  coarse,  and 
they  derive  a  touching  interest  from  his  history. 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  491 

m 

But  the  most  eloquent  of  all  the  old  English  divines,  are  the 
two  celebrated  prelates  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  Joseph  Hall 
(1574-1656)  and  Jeremy  Taylor  (1613-71),  alike  eminent  for 
Christian  piety  and  conscientious  zeal.  Besides  his  pulpit  dis- 
courses, Bishop  Hall  has  left  a  series  of  "  Contemplations  "  on 
passages  of  the  Bible,  and  "  Meditations,"  wlvch  are  particu- 
larly rich  in  beautiful  descriptions.  Among  the  most  practical 
and  popular  of  Taylor's  works,  are  his  "  Holy  Living,"  and 
"  Holy  Dying,''  while  his  sermons  distinguish  him  as  one  of  the 
great  ornaments  of  the  English  pulpit.  The  chief  theologian  of 
the  close  of  the  period  was  Richard  Baxter  (1615-'91).  His 
works  have  great  value  for  their  originality  and  acuteness  of 
thought,  and  for  their  vigorous  and  passionate  though  un- 
polished eloquence.  His  "  Call  to  the  Unconverted,"  and  "  The 
Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,"  deserve  their  wide  popularity. 
Among  the  semi-theological  writers  of  the  time,  are  Fuller, 
Cudworth  and  Henry  More.  Fuller  (1608-61)  is  most  widely 
known  through  his  ''Worthies  of  England,"  a  book  of  lively  and 
observant  gossip.  Cudworth  and  More,  his  contemporaries, 
deviated  in  their  philosophical  writings  from  the  tendencies  of 
Bacon  and  the  sensualistic  doctrines  of  Hobbes,  and  regarded 
existence  rather  from  the  spiritual  point  of  view  of  Plato;  in  the 
preceding  generation,  the  skepticism  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury  taught  a  different  lesson  from  theirs. 

In  this  period  we  encounter  in  the  philosophical  field  two  of 
the  strongest  thinkers  who  have  appeared  in  modern  Europe, 
Bacon  and  Hobbes.  Bacon  (1561-1620)  aimed  at  the  solution 
of  two  great  problems,  the  answers  to  which  were  intended  to 
constitute  the  ''lustauratio  Magna,"  the  great  Restoration  of 
Philosophy,  that  colossal  work,  towards  which  the  chief  writings 
of  this  illustrious  author  were  contributions.  The  first  problem 
was,  an  Analytic  Classification  of  all  departments  of  Human 
Knowledge,  which  occupies  a  portion  of  his  treatise  "  On  the 
Advancement  of  Learning."  Imperfect  and  erroneous  as  his 
scheme  may  be  allowed  to  be,  D'Alembert  and  his  coadjutors  in 
the  last  century  were  able  to  do  no  more  than  to  copy  and 
distort  it.  In  his  "  Xovum  Organum,"  he  undertakes  to  supply 
certain  deficiencies  of  the  Aristotelian  system  of  logic,  and 
expounds  his  mode  of  philosophizing;  he  was  the  first  to  unfold 
the  inductive  method,  which  he  did  in  so  masterly  a  way,  that  he 
has  earned,  with  posterity,  the  title  of  the  father  of  experimental 
science.  His  "  Essays,"  from  the  excellence  of  their  style  and 
the  interesting  nature  of  the  subjects,  are  the  most  generally 
read  of  all  the  author's  productions.     No  English  writer  sur- 


492  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

passes  Bacon  in  fervor  and  brilliancy  of  style,  in  for^^c  of 
expression,  or  in  richness  and  significance  of  imagery.  His 
writings,  though  they  received  during  his  lifetime  the  neglect 
for  which  he  had  proudly  prepared  himself,  gave  a  mighty 
impulse  to  scientific  thought  for  at  least  a  century  after  his  time. 
In  his  will,  the  following  strikingly  prophetic  passage  is  found  : 
"  My  name  and  memory  I  leave  to  foreign  nations,  and  to  mine 
own  country,  after  some  time  is  passed  over.'' 

The  influence  of  Hobbes  on  philosophy  in  England  has  been 
greater  than  that  of  Bacon.  In  politics,  his  theory  is  that  of 
uncontrolled  absolutism,  subjecting  religion  and  morality  to  the 
will  of  the  sovereign  ;  in  ethics  he  resolves  all  our  impulses 
renrardin":  rio:ht  and  wrons:  into  self-love.  His  reasoning  is  close 
and  consistent,  and  if  his  premises  are  granted,  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible to  avoid  his  conclusions.  Other  departments  in  the  prose 
literature  of  this  period  were  amply  filled  and  richly  adorned. 
Speculations  upon  the  Theory  of  Society  and  Civil  Polity  were 
frequent.  Among  them  are  the  Latin  works  of  Bellenden  **  On 
the  State,*'  the  "  New  Atlantis,"  a  romance  by  Lord  Bacon,  the 
'*  Oceana"  of  Harrington,  and  the  *'  Leviathan"  of  Hobbes. 

In  the  collection  of  materials  for  national  history,  the  period 
was  exceedingly  active.  Camden  and  Selden  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  band  of  antiquaries.  Hobbes  wrote  in  his  old  age, 
"  Behemoth,  or  a  History  of  the  Civil  Wars,"  and  the  "  Turkish 
History "  of  Knolles  has  been  pronounced  one  of  the  most 
spirited  narratives  in  the  language. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1552-1618), while  lying  in  the  tower 
under  sentence  of  death,  wrote  a  "History  ot^  the  World,"  from 
the  Creation  to  the  Republic  of  Rome.  The  narrative  is 
spirited  and  pervaded  by  a  tone  of  devout  sentiment. 

The  accomplished  Sir  Philip  Sidney  (155-4-'86),  in  hLs 
"  Defence  of  Poesy,"  pays  an  eloquent  tribute  to  the  value  of 
the  most  powerful  of  all  the  literary  arts.  His  "  Arcadia"  is  a 
ponderous  combination  of  romantic  and  pastoral  incidents,  the 
unripe  production  of  a  young  poet,  but  it  abounds  in  isolated 
passages  beautiful  alike  in  sentiment  and  language. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  period,  Milton  manifested  extraordi- 
nary power  in  prose  writing  ;  his  defence  of  the  "  Liberty  of 
Unlicensed  Printing"  is  one  of  the  most  impressive  pieces  of  elo- 
quence in  the  English  tongue.  His  style  is  more  Latinized  than 
that  of  most  of  his  contemporaries,  and  this  exotic  infection  per- 
vades both  his  terms  and  his  arrangement,  yet  he  has  passages 
marvellously  sweet,  and  others  in  which  the  grand  sweep  of  his 
sentences  emulates  the  cathedral-music  of  Hooker 


EXGLISII    LITERATURE.  493 

The  press  now  began  to  pour  forth  shoals  of  short  novels, 
romances  and  essays,  and  pamphlets  on  various  subjects.  Among 
other  productions,  is  Burton's  "Anatomy  of  Melancholy,"  a 
storehouse  of  odd  learning  and  quaintly-original  ideas;  it  is 
deficient,  however,  in  style  and  power  of  consecutive  reasoning. 
Far  above  Burton  in  eloquence  and  strength  of  thought,  is  Sir 
Thomas  Browne  (1605-82),  whose  writings  have  ail  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  age  in  a  state  of  extravagant  exaggeration.  The 
thoughtful  melancholy,  the  singular  mixture  of  skepticism  and 
credulity,  and  the  brilhancy  of  imaginative  illustration,  give  his 
essays  a  peculiarity  of  character  that  renders  them  exceedingly 
fascinating.  The  poet  Cowley,  in  his  prose  writings,  is  distin- 
guished for  his  undeviating  simplicity  and  perspicuity,  and  for 
smoothness  and  ease,  of  which  hardly  another  instance  could 
be  produced  from  any  other  book  written  before  the  Besto- 
ration. 

The  EngUsh  drama  has  been  called  Irregular  in  contrast  to 
the  Regular  drama  of  Greece  and  that  of  modern  France, 
founded  upon  the  Greek,  by  the  French  critics  of  the  age  of 
Louis  XIV.  The  principal  law  of  this  system,  as  we  have  seen, 
prescribed  obedience  to  the  Three  Unities,  of  l^ime,  of  Place  and 
of  Action  ;  the  two  first  being  founded  on  the  desire  to  imitate 
in  the  drama  the  series  of  events  w^hich  it  represents,  the  time  of 
action  was  allowed  to  extend  to  twenty-four  hours,  and  the 
scene  to  change  from  place  to  place  in  the  same  city.  But  by 
Shakspeare  and  his  contemporaries,  no  fixed  limits  were  acknow- 
ledged in  regard  either  of  time  or  place,  the  action  stretching 
through  many  years,  and  the  scene  changing  to  very  wide  distances. 
The  rule  prescribing  unity  of  action,  that  everything  shall  be 
subordinate  to  the  series  of  events  which  is  taken  as  the  guiding- 
thread,  is  a  much  more  sound  one  ;  and  in  most  of  Shakspeare's 
w^orks,  as  well  as  those  of  his  contemporaries,  this  unity  of  im- 
pression, as  it  has  been  called,  is  fully  preserved. 

Before  the  year  1585,  no  perceptible  advance  had  been  made 
in  the  drama,  and  for  the  period  of  sixty  years,  from  that  date 
to  the  closing  of  the  theatres  in  1645,  on  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Civil  War,  the  history  of  Shakspeare's  w^orks  forms  the  lead- 
ing thread.  Men  of  eminent  genius  lived  around  and  after  him, 
but  there  were  none  who  do  not  derive  much  of  their  importance 
from  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  him,  and  hardly  any 
whose  works  do  not  owe  much  of  their  excellence  to  the  influ- 
ence of  his. 

Thus  considered,  the  stages  through  which  the  drama  now 
passed  may  be  said  to  have  been  four,  three  of  which  occurred 


494  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

chiefly  during  the  life  of  the  poet,  the  fourth  after  his  death. 
The  iirst  of  these  periods  witnessed  the  early  manhood  of  Shaks- 
peare,  and  closes  about  1593.  Among  his  immediate  prede- 
cessors and  coadjutors  were  Marlowe  and  Grreene.  The  plays 
of  Marlowe  (1562-93)  are  stately  tragedies,  serious  in  purpose, 
energetic  and  often  extravagant  in  passion  and  in  language,  and 
richly  and  pompously  imaginative.  His  "  Tragical  History  of 
Doctor  Faustus  "  is  one  of  the  finest  poems  in  the  language. 
The  productions  of  Greene  are  loose,  legendary  plays  of  a  form 
exemplified  in  Cymbeline. 

To  the  first  period  of  the  dramatic  life  of  Shakspeare  (1564- 
1616)  belong  the  "  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,"  the  "  Comedy  of 
Errors,"  and  "Love's  Labor's  Lost,"  which  show  that  the  mighty 
master,  even  in  these  juvenile  essays,  had  taken  a  wide  step  beyond 
the  dramas  of  the  time.  Pure  comedy  had  no  existence  in  Eng- 
land until  he  created  it,  and  in  these  comedies,  it  is  evident  that 
everything  is  juvenile,  unripe,  and  marvellously  unlike  the  grand 
pictures  of  life  which  he  soon  afterwards  began  to  paint.  But 
if  he  was  more  than  a  scholar  in  this  first  stage  of  his  progress, 
he  was  a  teacher  and  model  ever  after.  The  second  period  for 
Shakspeare  and  the  drama  closes  with  the  year  1600.  During 
this  most  active  part  of  his  literary  life,  he  produced  eight 
comedies,  and  re-wrote  "  Romeo  and  Juliet."  But  the  most  ele- 
vated works  of  these  six  years  were  his  magnificent  series  of 
historical  plays.  The  series  after  1600  began  with  the  great 
tragedies  Othello,  Hamlet  (recomposed),  Macbeth  and  Lear, 
followed  by  Henry  YIIL,  the  three  tragedies  on  Roman  sub- 
jects, and  the  three  singular  pieces,  "  Timon  of  Athens,"  "  Troi- 
lus  and  Cressida,"  and  '*  Measure  for  Measure,"  apparently  of  the 
same  date.  "  Cymbeline"  and  the  "  Winter's  Tale"  were  pro- 
bably composed  after  he  had  retired  from  the  turmoil  of  his  pro- 
fession to  the  repose  of  his  early  home.  In  the  "  Tempest," 
doubtless  his  last  work,  he  peopled  his  haunted  island  with  a 
group  of  beings  whose  conception  indicates  a  greater  variety  of 
imagination,  and  in  some  points  a  greater  depth  of  thought 
than  any  others  which  he  has  bequeathed  to  us. 

The  name  of  Shakspeare  is  the  greatest  in  all  literature.  No 
man  ever  came  near  him  in  creative  power — no  man  had  ever 
such  strength  combined  with  such  variety  of  imagination.  Of 
all  authors,  he  is  the  most  natural  in  his  style,  and  yet  tnere  is 
none  whose  words  are  so  musical  in  arrangement,  so  striking  and 
picturesque  in  themselves,  or  contain  so  many  thoughts.  Every 
page  furnishes  instances  of  that  intensifymg  of  expression,  where 
some  happy  word  conveys  a  whole  train  of  ideas  condensed  into 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  495 

« 

a  single  luminous  point — words  so  new,  so  full  of  meaning,  yet 
so  unforced  and  natural,  that  the  rudest  mind  intuitively  per- 
ceives their  meaning,  and  yet  which  no  study  could  improve  or 
imitate.  This  constitutes  the  most  striking  pecuharity  of  the 
Shakspearean  language,  and  while  it  justifies  the  almost  idolatrous 
veneration  of  his  countrymen,  renders  him,  of  all  writers,  the 
most  untranslatable.  Of  all  authors,  Shakspeare  has  least 
imitated  or  repeated  himself.  While  he  gives  us,  in  many 
places,  portraits  of  the  same  passion,  the  delineations  are  as 
distinct  and  dissimilar  as  they  are  in  nature ;  all  his  personages 
involuntarily,  and  in  spite  of  themselves,  express  their  own 
characters.  From  his  works  may  be  gleaned  a  complete  collec- 
tion of  precepts  adapted  to  every  qondition  of  life  and  every 
conceivable  circumstance  of  human  affairs.  His  wit  is  un- 
bounded, his  passion  inimitable,  and  over  all  he  has  thrown  a 
halo  of  human  sympathy  no  less  tender  than  his  genius  was 
immeasm'able  and  profound. 

The  effect  of  Shakspeare's  influence  on  his  contemporaries 
was  predominating  in  everything  but  the  moral  aspect  of  his 
plays.  The  licentiousness,  begun  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  17  th 
century,  increased  with  accelerated  speed  down  to  the  closing 
of  the  theatres  by  the  Civil  War. 

Highest  by  far,  in  poetical  and  dramatic  value,  stand  the  works 
of  Beaumont  (1586-1615)  and  Fletcher  (1576-1625),  Many 
of  them  are  said  to  have  been  written  bv  the  two  iointlv,  a  few 
by  the  former  alone,  and  a  large  number  by  the  latter  after  he 
had  lost  his  friend  ;  such  alliances  in  dramatic  poetry  were 
common  in  England  at  this  period.  But  the  looseness  of  fancy 
which  deformed  the  drama,  and  which  degenerated  at  last  into 
dehberate  licentiousness,  is  nowhere  so  glaring  as  in  these 
finest  and  most  imaginative  productions  of  their  day,  and  which 
are  poetically  superior  to  all  of  the  kind  in  the  language,  except 
those  of  Shakspeare. 

The  classical  model  was  closely  approached  by  Ben  Jonson 
(1574-1637)  in  both  tragedy  and  comedy,  and  he  deserves  im- 
mortality for  other  reasons  than  his  comparative  purity  of  morals. 
He  was  the  one  man  of  his  time  besides  Shakspeare  who  deserves 
to  be  called  a  reflective  artist,  who  perceived  the  rules  of  art 
and  worked  in  obedience  to  them.  His  tragedies  are  stately, 
eloquent,  and  poetical  ;  his  comedies  are  more  faithful  poetic 
portraits  of  contemporary  English  life  than  those  of  any  other 
dramatist,  Shakspeare  excepted. 

Jonson  wrote  for  men  of  sense  and  knowledge  ;  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher  for  men  of  fashion  and  the  world.     A  similar  audience 


496  EXGLISH    LITEllATUKE. 

to  that  of  Jonson  may  have  been  aimed  at  in  the  stately  trage- 
dies of  Chapman,  and  the  other  class  would  have  relished  the 
plays  of  Middleton  and  AVebster. 

Among  the  dramatists  of  the  commonalty  may  be  named 
Thomas  Heywood,  one  of  the  most  moral  play  writers  of  his 
time,  who  has  sometimes  been  called  the  prose  Shakspeare,  and 
Decker,  a  voluminous  writer,  who  cooperated  in  several  plays  of 
more  celebrated  men,  especially  those  of  Massinger. 

The  closing  period  of  the  old  EngUsh  drama  is  represented  by 
Massinger,  Ford,  and  Shirley.  Massinger  (1584-1640)  is  by 
some  critics  ranked  next  to  Shakspeare.  The  theatres  have  re- 
tained unaltered  his  "]S'ewWayto  Pay  Old  Debts,"  and  his 
"  Fatal  Dowry "  is  preserved  in  Rowe's  plagiarism  from  it,  in 
the  "  Fair  Penitent,"  But  the  low  moral  tone  of  the  time  is  indi- 
cated in  all  these  works,  in  which  heroic  sentiments,  rising  often 
even  to  religious  rapture,  are  mingled  with  scenes  of  the  grossest 
ribaldry. 

By  Ford,  incidents  of  the  most  revolting  kind  are  laid  down 
as  the  foundation  of  his  plots,  upon  which  he  wastes  a  pathos 
and  tenderness  deeper  than  is  elsewhere  found  in  the  drama  ; 
and  with  Shirley  vice  is  no  longer  held  up  as  a  mere  picture, 
but  it  is  indicated,  and  sometimes  directly  recommended,  as  a 
fit  example.  When  the  drama  was  at  length  suppressed,  the 
act  destroyed  a  moral  nuisance. 

Spenser  (1553-99),  among  the  English  poets,  stands  lower 
only  than  Shakspeare,  Chaucer,  and  Milton.  His  works  unite 
rare  genius  with  moral  purity,  exquisite  sweetness  of  language, 
luxuriant  beauty  of  imagination,  and  a  tenderness  of  feeling  rarely 
surpassed,  and  never  elsewhere  conjoined  with  an  imagination  so 
vivid.  His  magnificent  poem,  the  "  Faerie  Queene,"  though  it 
contains  many  thousand  lines,  is  yet  incomj^lete,  no  more  than 
half  of  the  original  design  being  executed.  The  diction  is  stud- 
ded purposely  with  forms  of  expression  already  become  auti- 
quatcd,  and  many  peculiarities  are  forced  upon  the  author  from 
the  difficulties  of  the  complex  measure  which  he  was  the  first  to 
adopt,  and  which  still  bears  his  name. 

The  Fairy  Land  of  Spenser  is  rather  the  Land  of  Chivalry 
than  the  region  we  are  accustomed  to  understand  by  that  term; 
a  scene  in  which  heroic  daring  and  ideal  purity  are  the  objects 
chiefly  presented  to  our  imagination,  in  which  the  principal  per- 
sonages are  knights  achieving  perilous  adventures,  ladies  rescued 
from  frightful  miseries,  and  good  and  evil  enchanters,  whose 
spells  affect  the  destiny  of  those  human  persons.  Spenser  would 
probably  not  have  written  precisely  as  he  did,  if  Ariosto  had  not 


ENGLISH   LITEEATURE.  49^ 

written  before  him,  nor  is  it  unlikely  that  he  was  also  guided  hy 
the  later  example  of  Tasso  ;  but  his  design  was  in  many  features 
nobler  and  more  arduous  than  that  of  either.  His  deep  serious- 
ness is  unlike  the  mocking  tone  of  the  "  Orlando  Fnrioso/'  and 
in  his  moral  enthusiasm  he  rises  higher  than  the  "  Jerusalem;" 
although  the  poetic  effect  of  his  work  is  marred  by  his  design 
of  producing  a  series  of  ethical  allegories. 

The  hero  is  the  chivalrous  Arthur  of  the  British  legends,  but 
wrapt  in  a  cloud  of  symbols.  Gloriana,  the  Faerie  Queene,  who 
was  to  be  the  object  of  the  prince's  warmest  love,  Avas  herself 
an  emblem  of  Yirtuous  Kenown,  and  designed  also  to  represent 
the  poet's  queen,  Elizabeth.  All  the  incidents  are  significant 
of  moral  truth,  and  all  the  personages  are  allegorical.  The 
adventures  of  the  characters,  connected  by  no  tie,  except  the 
occasional  interposition  of  Arthur,  form  really  six  independent 
jDoetic  tales.  The  First  Book,  by  far  the  finest  of  all,  relates 
the  Legend  of  the  Red  Cross  Knight,  who  is  a  type  of  Holi- 
ness, and  who  shadows  forth  the  history  of  the  Church  of  Eng-' 
land.  In  the  second,  which  abounds  in  exquisite  painting  of 
picturesque  landscapes,  we  have  the  Legend  of  Sir  Guyon,  illus- 
trating the  virtue  of  Temperance.  The  theme  of  the  Third  Book 
is  the  Legend  of  Britomart,  or  of  Chastity,  in  which  we  are  in- 
troduced to  Belphoebe  and  Amoret,  two  of  those  beautiful  female 
characters  which  the  poet  takes  such  pleasure  in  delineating. 
Next  comes  the  Legend  of  Friendship,  personified  in  the  knights 
Cambel  and  Triamond.  In  the  Fifth  13ook,  CQntaining  the  Le- 
gends of  Sir  Artegal,  the  emljlera  of  Justice,  there  is  a  percep- 
tible falling  off.  The  Sixth  Book,  the  Legend  of  Sir  Calidore, 
or  Courtesy,  though  it  lacks  unity,  is  in  some  scenes  inspired 
with  the  warmest  glow  of  fancy. 

The  mind  of  Spenser  embraced  a  vast  range  of  imaginary 
creation,  but  the  interest  of  real  life  is  wanting.  His  world  is 
ideal,  abstract,  and  remote,  yet  affording  in  its  multiplied  scenes 
ample  scope  for  those  nobler  feelings  and  heroic  virtues  which 
we  love  to  see  even  in  transient  connection  with  human  nature. 

The  non-dramatic  poets  of  this  time  begin  with  Spenser  and 
end  with  Milton,  and  between  these  two  there  were  writers  of 
great  excellence.  The  vice  of  the  age  was  a  laboring  after 
conceits  or  novel  turns  of  thought,  usually  false,  and  resting 
upon  some  equivocation  of  language  or  remote  analogy.  No 
poet  of  the  time^  was  free  from  it ;  Shakspcuare  indulged  in  it 
occasionally,  others  incessantly,  holding  its  manifestations  to  be 
their  finest  strokes  of  art. 

The  poetical  works  of  this  age  were  metrical  translations  from 


498  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

the  classics — narrative,  historical,  descriptive,  didactic,  pastoral, 
and  lyrical  poems.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  religious  poems 
in  any  lang-uage  is  "  Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph,"  by  Giles 
Fletcher  (d.  1623)  ;  it  is  animated  in  narrative,  lively  in  fancy, 
and  touching  in  feeling.  Drayton  (d.  1631)  was  the  author  of 
the  •"  Poly-Olbiou,"  a  topographical  description  of  England,  and 
a  signal  instance  of  fine  fancy  and  great  command  of  language, 
almost  thrown  away  from  its  prosaic  design.  Fulke  Grcville 
(Lord  Brooke),  the  friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  exhibits  great 
powers  of  philosophical  thought,  in  pointed  and  energetic  diction, 
in  his  poem  on  "  Human  Learning."  Among  the  religious  poets 
are  "  Holy  George  Herbert"  (d.  1632),  who,  by  his  life  and  writ- 
ings, presented  the  belief  and  offices  of  the  church  in  their  most 
amiable  aspect,  and  Quarles  (d.  1644),  best  known  by  his 
*' Divine  Emblems,"  which  abound  in  quaint  and  grotesque 
illustrations. 

The  lyrical  poems  of  the  time  were  numerous,  and  were  writ- 
ten by  almost  all  the  poets  eminent  in  other  departments.  In 
those  of  Donne,  in  spite  of  their  conceits  and  affectations,  are 
many  passages  wonderfully  line.  Those  of  Herrick  (b.  1591), 
in  graceful  fancy  and  dehcate  expression,  are  many  of  them  un- 
surpassed ;  in  subject  and  tone  they  vary  from  grossly  licentious 
expression  to  the  utmost  warmth  of  devout  aspiration.  Cowley 
(1618-67),  the  latest  and  most  celebrated  of  the  lyric  poets, 
was  gifted  with  extraordinary  poetic  sensibility  and  fancy,  but 
he  was  prone  to  strained  analogies  and  unreal  refinements. 
Among  the  minor  lyrical  poets  are  Carew,  Ay  ton,  Habington, 
SuckUng,  and  Lovelace.  Denham  (1615-68)  and  Waller 
(1605-87)  form  a  sort  of  link  between  the  time  before  the 
Restoration  and  that  which  followed.  The  "  Cooper's  Hill " 
of  the  first  is  a  reflective  and  descriptive  poem  in  heroic  verse, 
and  the  diversified  poems  of  the  last  were  remarkable  advances 
in  ease  and  correctness  of  diction  and  versification. 

The  poetry  of  that  imaginative  period  which  began  with 
Spenser  closes  yet  more  nobly  with  Milton  (1608-74).  He, 
standing  in  some  respects  apart  from  his  stern  contemporaries 
of  the  Commonwealth  as  from  those  who  debased  literature  in 
the  age  of  the  Restoration,  yet  belongs  rather  to  the  older  than 
the  newer  period.  In  the  midst  of  evil  men  and  the  gloom  of 
evil  days  the  brooding  thought  of  a  great  poetical  work  was  at 
length  matured,  and  the  Christian  epic,  chanted  at  first  when 
there  were  few  disposed  to  hear,  became  an  enduring  monument 
of  genius,  learning,  and  art.  His  early  poems  alone  would  indi- 
cate his  superiority  to  all  the  poets  of  the  period,  except  Shak- 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  499 

speare  and  Spenser.  The  most  popular  of  them,  "  L'Allegro" 
and  "  II  Penseroso,"  are  the  best  of  their  kind  in  any  language. 
In  the  "Comus"  there  are  passages  exquisite  for  imagination, 
for  sentiment,  and  for  the  musical  flow  of  the  rhythm,  in  which 
the  majestic  swell  of  the  poet's  later  blank  verse  begins  to  be 
heard.  The  "Paradise  Regained"  abounds  with  passages  in 
themselves  beautiful,  but  the  plan  is  poorly  conceived,  and  the 
didactic  tendency  prevails  to  weariness  as  the  work  proceeds. 
The  theme  of  the  "  Paradise  Lost "  is  the  noblest  of  any  ever 
chosen.  The  stately  march  of  its  diction  ;  the  organ  peal  with 
which  its  versification  rolls  on  ;  the  continual  overflowing  of 
beautiful  illustrations  ;  the  brightly-colored  pictures  of  human 
happiness  and  innocence  ;  the  melancholy  grandeur  with  ^^lich 
angelic  natures  are  clothed  in  their  fall,  are  features  which  give 
the  mind  images  and  feelings  not  soon  or  easily  effaced. 

3.  The  Age  of  the  Restoration  and  the  Revolution 
(1660-1702). — Among  the  able  churchmen  who  passed  from  the 
troubles  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate  to  the  Restora- 
tion, were  Jeremy  Taylor,  Archbishop  Leighton  and  others  of 
eminence.  South,  Tillotson  and  Barrow  were  more  able  theolo- 
gians, but  their  writings  lack  the  charm  of  sentiment  which 
Leighton's  warmth  of  heart  diffuses  over  all  his  works.  South 
(d.  ITIG)  was  a  man  of  remarkable  oratorical  endowments,  sar- 
castic, intolerant  and  fierce  in  polemical  attacks.  The  writings 
of  Tillotson  (d.  169-1)  are  pervaded  by  a  higher  and  better  spirit, 
and  the  sermons  of  Barrow  (d.  1671)  combine'  comprehensive- 
ness, sagacity  and  clearness.  Other  divines,  such  as  Stilhng- 
fleet,  Pearson,  Burnet,  Bull,  hold  a  more  prominent  place  in 
the  history  of  the  Church  than  in  that  of  letters.  But  all  the 
writers  of  this  age  are  wanting  in  that  impressiveness  and  force 
of  undisciplined  eloquence  which  distinguished  the  first  half  of 
the  17  th  century.  Among  the  nonconformist  clergy,  Howe 
(d.  1715)  wrote  the  "  Living  Temple,"  which  is  ranked  among 
the  religious  classics. 

The  great  though  untrained  genius  of  John  Bunyan 
(1628-'88)  produced  the  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  which  holds  a 
distinguished  place  in  permanent  English  literature. 

John  Locke  (1632-1704)  may  be  taken  as  the  representative 
of  the  English  Philosophy  of  the  time.  His  inlluence  on  the 
speculative  opinions  of  his  day  was  second  only  to  that  of 
Hobbes,  and  although  his  system  is  controverted  by  the  German 
and  Scottish  schools,  his  "  Essay  on  the  Understanding  "  is  en- 
titled to  high  praise.     As  a  writer  his  merits  are  not  great. 


500  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

In  classical  learaiug  the  greatest  of  the  scholars  of  this  period 
was  Bentley  (1662-1742). 

In  history  Lord  Clarendon  (160S-17T4-)  wrote  the  "  History 
of  the  Rebellion,"  and  Burnet  (16-13-1715)  his  *'  History  of  the 
Reformation,"  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  digested  works  of  the 
century.  His  ''  History  of  his  own  Times  "  is  valuable  for  its 
facts,  and  for  the  shrewdness  with  which  he  describes  the  state 
of  things  around  him. 

In  Miscellaneous  Prose,  John  Evelyn  wrote  several  useful 
and  tasteful  works,  and  Izaak  Walton  (1593-1688)  a  London 
tradesman,  wrote  his  interesting  Biographies  and  the  quaint 
treatise  "  On  AngrUno-."  Both  in  diction  and  sentiment  these 
worJi^  remind  us  of  the  preceding  age;  and  Walton  surviving  Mil- 
ton, closes  the  series  of  old  English  prose  writers. 

Samuel  Butler  (1612-80),  the  unfortunate,  ill-requited  laure- 
ate of  the  Royalists,  who  satu'ized  the  Puritans  and  Republicans 
in  his  celebrated  ''  Hudibras,"  left  some  exceedingly  witty  and 
vigorous  prose  writings;  and  Andrew  Marvell  (1620-78),  the 
friend  and  protector  of  Milton,  was  most  successful  in  sarcastic 
irony,  and  in  his  attacks  on  the  High  Chui'ch  opinions  and 
doings. 

John  Drydon  (1631-1700)  was  the  literaiy  chief  of  the  inter- 
val between  Cromwell  and  Queen  Anue.  His  prose  writings, 
besides  comedies,  are  few,  but  in  these  he  taught  principles  of 
poetical  art  previously  unknown  to  his  countrymen,  and  showed 
the  capabilities  of. the  tongue  in  a  new  light.  Inferior  to  Dryden 
in  vigor  of  thought  was  Sir  AVilliam  Temple  (1628-98),  who 
may  yet  share  with  him  the  merit  of  having  founded  regular 
English  prose.  His  literary  character  rests  cliieily  on  his  "  Mis- 
cellaneous Essays." 

The  symmetrical  structure  and  artificial  polish  of  contempo- 
raneous French  literature,  while  it  was  not  without  some  good 
influence  on  Englisli  prose,  was  less  beneficial  to  poetry,  and  its 
worst  effect  was  on  the  Drama,  which  soon  ceased  to  be  pictures 
of  human  beings  in  action  and  became  only  descriptive  of  such 
pictures.  In  this  walk  as  in  others  Dryden  was  the  literary 
chief,  and  of  his  plays  it  can  truly  be  said,  that  the  serious  ones 
contain  many  striking  and  poetical  pieces  of  declamation,  finely 
versified.  His  comedies  are  bad  morally,  and  as  dramas 
even  worse  than  those  of  his  rival  Shadwell.  Lee  was  only  a 
poor  likeness  of  Dryden. 

In  the  "  Orphan  "  and  "  Venice  Preserved  "  of  Otway  we 
have  something  of  tlie  revival  of  the  ancient  strength  of  feeling 
though  alloyed  by  false  sentiment  and  poetic  poverty. 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  501 

Oongreve  showed  great  power  of  language  in  tragedy,  and 
Southerue  not  a  little  nature  and  pathos. 

In  Comedy  the  fame  of  these  writers  was  eclipsed  by  a  knot 
of  dramatists  who  adopted  prose,  but  whose  works  are  the  foul- 
est that  ever  disgraced  the  literature  of  a  nation.  They  are 
excellent  specimens  of  that  which  has  been  called  the  comedy  of 
manners;  vice  is  inextricably  interwoven  in  the  texture  of  all 
alike,  in  the  broad  humor  of  Wycherly  (the  most  vigorous  of 
the  set), in  the  wit  of  Congreve,  in  the  character  painting  of 
Yanbrugh,  and  the  lively  invention  of  Farquhar. 

In  other  kinds  of  poetry  we  find  similar  changes  of  taste 
which  affected  the  art  injuriously,  although  the  increased  atten- 
tion paid  to  correctness  and  refinement  was  a  step  in  imjM'ove- 
ment.  These  mischievous  changes  related  both  to  the  themes 
and  forms  of  poetry,  and  in  neither  can  the  true  functions  of 
art  be  forgotten  without  injury  to  the  work.  An  age  must  be 
held  unpoetical,  and  cannot  produce  great  poetical  works,  if  its 
poetry  chooses  insufficient  topics  ;  and  the  aims  of  the  age  of 
the  Restoration  were  low,  producing  only  a  constant  crop  of 
poems  celebrating  contemporary  events  or  incidents  in  the  fives 
of  individuals.  The  dramatic  and  narrative  forms  of  poetry  are 
undoubtedly  those  in  which  that  imaginative  excitement  of 
pleasing  emotion,  which  is  the  immediate  and  characteristic 
end  of  the  art,  may  be  most  powerfuUy  worked  out,  and  to 
one  of  these  forms  all  the  greatest  poems  have  belonged.  But 
in  the  age  of  the  Restoration  the  Drama  had  lost  its  elevation 
and  poetic  significance,  and  original  narrative  poetry  was  hardly 
known.  Almost  all  the  poems  of  the  day  were  didactic,  and  the 
prevalence  of  this  style  of  poetry  is  a  palpable  symptom  of  an 
unpoetical  age.  The  verse-making  of  these  forty  years,  after 
setting  aside  a  very  few  works,  maintains  a  dead  level.  Among 
the  dwarfish  rhymers  of  the  day  there  lingered  some  of  the 
august  shapes  of  a  former  age.  Milton  still  walked  his  solitary 
course,  and  Waller  wrote  his  occasional  odes  and  verses,  but  of 
names  not  already  given  there  are  no  more  than  two  or  three 
that  require  commemoration.  One  of  the  famous  poems  of  the  day 
was  an '' Essay  on  Translated  Yerse,"  by  Lord  Roscommon; 
and  the  smaller  poems  of  Marvell  are  felicitous  in  feeling 
and  diction  ;  both  writers  are  distinguished  for  their  moral 
purity. 

The  "  Hudibras "  of  Butler  which  properly  belongs  to  the 
age  before,  is  a  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  English  Litera- 
ture. His  pungent  wit,  his  extraordinary  ingenuity,  and  his 
command  of  words  are  rare  endowments,  but  he  has  no  poetic 


502  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

vein  that  yields  jewels  of  the  first  water,  and  his  place  is  not  a 
high  one  in  tlie  path  which  leads  upward  to  the  ethereal  regions 
of  the  imagination. 

Prjor  (1061-1721)  in  his  lighter  pieces  shows  wit  of  a  less 
manly  kind.  His  serious  poems  have  great  facility  of  phrase 
and  melody. 

Dryden  was  a  man  of  high  endowments  as  a  poet  and 
thinker,  condemned  to  labor  for  a  corrupt  generation,  and 
he  has  received  from  posterity  no  higher  fame  than  that  of 
having  improved  English  prose  style  and  versification.  His 
poems  are  rather  essays  couched  in  vigorous  verse,  with  here 
and  there  passages  of  great  poetical  beauty.  His  "  Annus  Mira- 
bilis,'^  celebrating  with  great  animation  the  year  1666,  is  an 
effusion  of  historical  panegyric.  The  "  Absalom  and  Achi- 
tophel "  is  a  satire  on  the  unfortunate  Duke  of  Monmouth  and 
his  adviser  Shaftesbury.  "  The  Hind  and  Panther,"  full  of 
poetical  and  satirical  force,  was  an  argument  to  justify  the 
author's  recent  change  of  religion.  One  of  his  most  thoroughly 
sustained  poems  is  the  ''  Ode  on  Alexander's  Feast."  His  trans- 
lation of  the  ^neid,  as  imperfect  a  picture  of  the  original  as 
Pope's  translation  of  the  Iliad,  is  yet  full  of  vigor  and  one  of  his 
best  specimens  of  the  heroic  couplet,  a  measure  never  so  well 
written  in  English  as  by  Dryden. 

4.  The  Eighteenth  Century. — The  influence  of  the  18th 
century  on  prose  style  has  been  great  and  permanent,  and 
the  two  dissimilar  manners  of  writing  which  were  then  formed, 
have  contributed  to  all  that  is  distinctive  in  our  modern  form 
of  expression.  The  earlier  of  these  is  found  in  the  language  of 
Addison  and  Swift,  the  later  in  that  of  Johnson.  The  style 
of  Addison  and  his  friends  reproduced  those  genuine  idiomatic 
peculiarities  of  our  speech  which  had  been  received  into  the 
conversation  of  intelligent  men.  The  style  of  which  Johnson 
was  the  characteristic  example  abandons  in  part  the  native  and 
familiar  characteristics  of  the  Saxon  for  those  expressions  and 
forms  common  to  the  modern  European  tongues.  Large  use 
was  made  of  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  which,  in  addition  to 
the  effect  of  novelty,  gave  greater  impressiveness  and  pomp  to 
the  style. 

In  the  First  Generation,  named  from  Queen  Anne,  but  in- 
cluding also  the  reign  of  George  I.  (d.  1127),  the  drama 
scarcely  deserves  more  than  a  parenthesis.  Although  the 
moral  tone  had  improved,  it  was  still  not  high,  when  Gray's 
'*  Beggar's    Opera,"  and    Gibber's   "  Careless  Husband,"  were 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  503 

the  most  famous  works.  The  "Fair  Penitent"  has  been 
noticed  as  a  clever  plagiarism  from  Massinger  ;  iu  Addison's 
"  Cato  "  the  strict  rules  of  the  French  stage  were  preserved, 
but  its  stately  and  impressive  speeches  cannot  be  called 
dramatic.  The  "Revenge"  of  Young  had  more  of  tragic 
passion  ;  but  it  wanted  the  force  of  characterization  which 
seemed  to  have  been  buried  with  the  old  dramatists. 

The  heroic  measure,  as  it  was  now  used,  aimed  at  smoothness 
of  melody  and  pointedness  of  expression,  and  in  this  the  great 
master  was  Pope. 

In  the  poems  of  Pope  (1688-1744),  we  find  passages  beauti- 
fully poetical,  exquisite  thoughts,  vigorous  portraits  of  character, 
shrewd  observation  and  reflective  good  sense,  but  we  are  wafted 
into  no  bright  world  of  imagination,  rapt  in  no  dream  of  strong 
passion,  and  seldom  raised  into  any  high  region  of  moral  thought. 
Like  all  the  poets  of  his  day,  he  set  a  higher  value  on  skill  of 
execution  than  on  originality  of  conception,  and  systematically 
abstained  from  all  attempts  to  excite  imagination  or  feeling. 
The  taste  of  the  poet  and  of  his  times  is  most  clearly  shown  in 
his  "  Essay  on  Criticism,"  published  before  his  twenty-first  year. 
None  of  his  works  unites  more  happily,  regularity  of  plan,  shrewd- 
ness of  thought,  and  beauty  of  verse.  His  most  successful 
effort,  the  "  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  assumed  its  complete  shape  in 
his  twenty-sixth  year,  and  is  the  best  of  all  mock-heroic  poems. 
The  sharpest  wit,  the  keenest  dissection  of  the  folUes  of  fashion- 
able life,  the  finest  grace  of  diction  and  the  softest  flow  of 
melody,  come  appropriately  to  adorn  a  tale  in  which  we  learn 
how  a  fine  gentleman  stole  a  lock  of  a  lady's  hair.  In  the 
"  Epistle  of  Eloisa  to  Abelard,"  and  in  the  "  Elegy  on  an 
L^nfortunate  Lady,"  he  attempted  the  pathetic  not  altogether 
in  vain.  The  last  work  of  his  best  years  was  his  "  Translation 
of  the  Iliad;"  of  the  Odyssey  he  translated  only  half.  Both 
misrepresent  the  natural  and  simple  majesty  of  manner  which 
the  ancient  poet  never  lost ;  yet  if  we  could  forget  Homer,  we 
might  be  proud  of  them.  In  the  "  Dunciad,"  he  threw  away 
an  infinity  of  wit  upon  writers  who  would  not  otherwise  have 
been  remembered.  His  "  Essay  on  Man  "  contains  much  ex- 
quisite poetry  and  finely  solemn  thought  ;  it  abounds  in  striking 
passages  which,  by  their  felicities  of  fancy,  good  sense,  music, 
and  extraordinary  terseness  of  diction,  have  gained  a  place  iu 
the  memory  of  every  one. 

Among  the  philosophical  writers  none  holds  so  prominent  a 
place  as  Bishop  Berkeley  (1684-1753),  whose  refinement  of 
style  and  subtlety  of  thought  have  seldom  been  equalled.     His 


504  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

pliilosophical  Idealism  exercised  much  influence  on  the  courso 
of  metaphysical  inquiry. 

Lord  Shaftesbury's  brilliant  but  indistinct  treatises  have  also 
been  the  ccerm  of  many  discussions  in  ethics. 

Bolingbroke  wrote  with  great  liveliness,  but  with  equal  shal- 
lowness of  thought  and  knowledge. 

Daniel  Defoe  (1661-1731)  is  not  likely  to  be  forgotten  on 
account  of  one  of  his  many  novels,  "  Robinson  Crusoe."  His 
idiomatic  English  style  is  not  one  of  the  least  of  his  merits. 

Among  the  prose  writings  of  Swift  (1667-1774)  there  is 
none  that  is  not  a  master-piece  of  strong  Saxon-English,  and 
none  quite  destitute  of  his  keen  wit  or  cutting  sarcasm.  His 
satirical  romances  are  most  pungent  when  human  nature  is  his 
victim,  as  in  "  Gulliver's  Travels  ;"  and  not  less  amusing  in 
*'  The  Battle  of  the  Books,"  or  where  he  treats  of  church  disputes 
in  the  "  Tale  of  a  Tub."  The  burlesque  memoir  of  "  Martinus 
Scriblerus "  was  the  joint  production  of  Swift,  Pope,  and 
Arbuthnot.  It  contains  more  good  criticism  than  any  of  the 
serious  writings  of  the  generation,  and  it  abounds  in  the  most 
biting  strokes  of  wit.  Arbuthnot  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
sole  author  of  the  whimsical,  national  sath*e  called  the  "  History 
of  John  Bull,"  the  best  work  of  the  class  produced  in  that  day. 
The  "  Letters  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu,"  belong  to 
this  age. 

Of  all  the  popular  writers,  however,  that  adorned  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne  and  her  successor,  those  whose  influence  has  been  the 
greatest  and  most  salutary  are  the  Essayists,  among  whom  Joseph 
Addison  and  Richard  Steele  are  preeminently  distinguished. 

"  The  Tatler,"  began  in  Ireland  by  Steele,  aided  first  by 
Swift,  and  afterwards  by  Addison,  appeared  three  times  a  week 
from  1709  to  1711;  "  The  Spectator,"  in  which  Addison  took 
the  lead,  from  1711  to  1712;  and  "The  Guardian"  apart  of 
the  next  year.  Steele  (1676-1729)  had  his  merits  somewhat 
unfairly  clouded  by  the  fame  of  his  coadjutor.  The  extraordinary 
popularity  of  those  periodicals,  especially  the  "  Spectator,"  was 
creditable  to  the  reading  persons  of  the  community,  then  much 
fewer  than  now.  The  writers  discarded  from  their  papers  all 
party-spirit,  and  designed  to  make  them  the  vehicle  of  judicious 
teaching  in  morals,  manners,  and  literary  criticism.  Thus  they 
widened  the  circle  of  readers,  and  raised  the  standard  of  taste 
and  thinking. 

Of  some  of  the  more  serious  papers  of  the  "  Spectator," 
those  of  Addison  (1672-1719)  on  the  "Immortality  of  the 
Soul"  and  the  "  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination"  may  be  cited. 


E^TGLISII    LITERATURE.  505 

Among  the  theological  writers  of  the  Second  Generation  of 
the  18th  century  (the  reign  of  George  II.,  1721-60),  one  of 
the  most  famous  in  his  day,  though  not  the  most  meritorious, 
was  Bishop  Warburton  ;  Bishop  Butler  (d.  It 52)  wrote  his 
"  Analogy  of  Religion,  Natural  and  Kevealed,  to  the  Constitu- 
tion and  Course  of  Nature,"  a  work  of  extraordinary  force  of 
thouQ-iit:  and  there  is  much  hterary  merit  in  the  ^Titinors  of  the 
pious  Watts  and  the  devout  Doddridge.  The  increasing  zeal 
both  in  the  Church  of  England  and  among  the  Dissenters,  and 
the  more  cordial  recognition  of  the  importance  of  religion, 
greatly  affected  the  literature  of  the  times. 

Philosophy  had  also  its  distinguished  votaries.  The  philoso- 
phical works  of  Hume  (1111-76)  are  allowed  by  those  who 
dissent  most  strenuously  from  their  results,  to  have  constituted  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  the  science.  In  accepting  the  principles 
which  had  been  received  before  him,  and  showing  that  they 
led  to  no  conclusion  but  universal  doubt,  he  laid  bare  the  flaws 
in  the  system,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  subtle  speculations 
of  Kant,  and  the  more  cautious  systems  of  Reid  and  the  Scot- 
tish school. 

The  miscellaneous  literature  of  this,  the  age  of  Johnson, 
cannot  stand  comparison  with  that  of  the  preceding,  which  was 
headed  by  Addison. 

Samuel  Johnson  (1709-84),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  professional  authors  of  the  18th  century,  however,  belongs 
to  this  period.  Compelled  by  poverty  to  leave  his  education 
uncompleted,  he  sought  the  means  of  living  in  London,  where, 
for  a  long  time  unpatronized  and  obscure,  he  labored  with 
dogged  perseverance,  until  at  length  he  won  a  fame  which  must 
have  satisfied  the  most  grasping  ambition,  but  when,  as  he  says, 
"  most  of  those  whom  he  had  wished  to  please  had  sunk 
into  the  grave,  and  he  had  little  to  fear  from  censure  or 
praise."  That  the  reputation  of  his  writings  was  above 
their  deserts,  cannot  be  denied,  though  it  must  also  be  admitted 
that  the  literature  of  our  time  is  deficient  in  many  of  their 
excellences,  both  of  thought  and  expression.  They  are  the 
fruit  of  a  strong  and  original  mind,  working  with  imperfect 
knowledge  and  an  inadequate  scope  for  activity.  The  lan- 
guage of  Johnson  is  superior  to  his  matter  ;  he  has  striking 
force  of  diction,  and  many  of  his  sentences  roll  on  the  ear  like 
the  sound  of  the  distant  sea,  wliile  the  thoughts  they  convey 
impress  us  so  vividly  that  we  are  slow  to  scrutinize  them.  His 
great  merit  lies  in  the  two  departments  of  morals  and  criticism, 
but  everywhere  he  is  inconsistent  and  unequal.     His  Dictionary 

22 


606  EXGLISII    LITERATURE. 

occupied  him  for  eight  years,  but  it  is  of  little  value  now  to  the 
student  of  language,  being  poor  and  incorrect  in  etymology, 
and  unsatisfactory  though  acute  in  definition.  His  poems, 
which  are  of  Pope's  school,  would  scarcely  have  preserved  his 
name.  The  '*  Rambler  "  and  "  Rasselas  "  are  characteristic  of  his 
merits  and  defects.  The  "  Tour  to  the  Hebrides  "  is  one  of  the 
most  pleasant  and  easy  of  his  writings.  His  ''Lives  of  the 
Poets"  is  admirable  for  its  skill  of  narration,  but  it  is  alternately 
enlightened  and  unsound  in  criticism,  and  frequently  marred  by 
political  prejudices  and  personal  jealousies. 

Of  the  novels  of  the  time,  the  scries  begun  by  Richardson's 
(1G89-1761)  "  Pamela,"  "  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  and  "  Sir  Charles 
Grandison,"  have  a  vu'tuous  aim,  but  they  err  by  the  plainness 
with  which  they  describe  vice.  The  tediousness  and  over- 
wrought sentimentality  of  these  works  go  far  towards  dis- 
qualifying the  reader  from  appreciating  their  extraordinary  skill 
in  invention  and  in  the  portraiture  of  character. 

Fielding  (n01-'57)  unites  these  qualities  with  greater 
knowledge  of  the  world,  pungent  wit,  and  idiomatic  strength 
of  style.  His  mastery  in  the  art  of  fictitious  narrative  has 
never  been  excelled  ;  l3ut  his  living  pictures  of  familiar  life,  as 
well  as  the  whimsical  caricatures  of  Smollett,  antl  the  humorous 
fantasies  of  Sterne,  are  disfigured  by  faults  of  which  the  very 
smallest  are  coarseness  of  language  and  bareness  of  licentious 
description,  in  which  they  outdid  Richardson.  Not  only  is  their 
standard  of  morality  low,  but  they  display  indifference  to  the 
essential  distinctions  of  right  and  wrong,  in  regard  to  some  of 
the  cardinal  relations  of  society. 

The  drama  of  the  period  has  little  literary  importance.  In 
non-dramatic  poetry,  several  men  of  distinguished  genius  a}> 
peared,  and  changes  occurred  which  indicated  more  just  and 
comprehensive  views  of  the  art  than  those  that  had  been  preva- 
lent in  the  last  generation. 

Young  (1081-1765),  in  his  "Night  Thoughts,"  produced  a 
work  eloquent  rather  than  poetical,  dissertative  when  true 
poetry  would  have  been  imaginative,  but  suggesting  much  of 
imagery  and  feeling  as  well  as  religious  reflection. 

Resemljling  it  in  some  points,  but  with  more  force  of  imagina- 
tion, is  the  train  of  gloomy  scenes  which  appears  in  Blair's 
"  Grave."  In  Akenside's  "  Pleasures  of  Imagination,"  a  vivid 
fancy  and  an  alluring  pomp  of  language  are  lavished  on  a 
scries  of  pictures  illustrating  the  feelings  of  beauty  and  sub- 
limity; but,  theorizing  and  poetizing  by  turns,  the  poet  loses  his 
hold  of  the  reader. 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  607 

The  more  direct  and  effective  forms  of  poetry  now  came 
again  into  favor,  such  as  the  Scottish  pastoral  drama  of 
Ramsay,  and  Falconer's  "  Shipwreck."  But  the  most  decisive 
instance  of  the  growing  insight  into  the  true  functions  of  poetry  is 
furnished  by  Thomson's  (1700-'48)  ''  Seasons."  No  poet  has 
ever  been  more  inspired  by  the  love  of  external  nature,  or  felt 
with  more  keenness  and  delicacy  those  analogies  between  the 
mind  and  the  things  it  looks  upon,  which  are  the  fountains  of 
poetic  feeling.  The  faults  of  Thomson  are  triteness  of  thought 
when  he  becomes  argumentative,  and  a  prevalent  pomposity 
and  pedantry  of  'diction ;  though  his  later  work,  "  The 
Castle  of  Indolence,"  is  surprisingly  free  from  these  blemishes. 

But  the  age  was  an  unpoetical  one,  and  two  of  the  finest 
poetical  minds  of  the  nation  were  so  dwarfed  and  weakened  by 
the  ungenial  atmosphere  as  to  bequeath  to  posterity  nothing 
more  tlian  a  few  lyrical  fragments.  In  the  age  which  admired 
the  smooth  feebleness  of  Shcnstone-'s  pastorals  and  elegies,  and 
Avhich  closed  when  the  libels  of  Churchill  were  held  to  be  good 
examples  of  poetical  satire,  Gray  turned  aside  from  the  unre- 
quited labors  of  verse  to  idle  in  his  study,  and  Collins  lived  and 
died  almost  unknown.  Glray  (1716-71)  was  as  consummate  a 
poetical  artist  as  Pope.  His  fancy  was  less  lively,  but  his  sym- 
pathies were  warmer  and  more  expanded,  though  the  pohshed 
aptness  of  langua^ge  and  symmetry  of  construction  which  give 
so  classical  an  aspect  to  his  Odes,  bring  with  them  a  tinge  of 
classical  coldness.  The  "  Ode  on  Eton  College"  is  more  genu- 
inely lyrical  than  '*  The  Bards,"  and  the  "  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Churchyard  "  is  perhaps  faultless. 

The  Odes  of  Collins  (n20-'59)  have  more  of  the  fine  and 
spontaneous  enthusiasm  of  genius  than  any  other  poems  ever 
written  by  one  who  wrote  so  little.  We  close  his  tiny  volume 
with  the  same  disappointed  surprise  which  overcomes  us  when 
a  harmonious  piece  of  music  suddenly  ceases  unfinished.  His 
range  of  tones  is  very  wide,  and  the  delicacy  of  gradation  with 
which  he  passes  from  thought  to  thought  has  an  indescribable 
charm.  His  most  popular  poem,  "  The  Passions,"  conveys  no 
adequate  idea  of  some  of  his  most  marked  characteristics.  All 
can  understand  the  beauty  and  simplicity  of  his  odes  "To  Pity," 
''To  Simplicity,"  "To  Mercy;"  and  the  finely  woven  harmonies, 
and  the  sweetly  romantic  pictures  in  the  "  Ode  to  Evening," 
recall  the  youthful  poems  of  Milton. 

Between  the  period  just  reviewed  and  the  reign  of  George  III., 
or  the  Third  Generation  of  the  18th  century,  there  were  several 
connecting  links,   one  of   which  was   formed  by  a  group  of 


608  ENGLISH   LITERATUKE. 

historians,  whose  works  are  classical  monuments  of  English 
literature.  Tlie  publication  of  Hume's  **  History  of  England" 
began  in  1754.  Robertson's  **  History  of  Scotland  "  appeared 
in  1759,  followed  by  his  "Reign  of  Charles  V.,"  and  his 
"History  of  America;"  Gibbon's  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire"  was  completed  in  twelve  years  from  1776. 
The  narrative  of  Hume  is  told  with  great  clearness,  good 
sense  and  quiet  force  of  representation,  and  if  his  matter 
had  been  as  carefully  studied  as  his  manner,  if  his  social  and 
religious  theories  had  been  as  sound  as  his  theory  of  literary  art, 
his  history  would  still  hold  a  place  from  which  no  rival  could 
hope  to  degrade  it. 

The  style  of  Robertson  and  Gibbon  is  totally  unlike  that  of 
Hume.  They  want  his  seemingly  unconscious  ease,  his  dehcate 
tact,  and  his  calm,  yet  lively  simplicity.  Hume  tells  his  tale  to 
us  as  a  friend  to  friends  ;  his  successors  always  seem  to  hold 
that  they  are  teachers  and  we  pupils.  This  change  of  tone  had 
long  been  coming  on,  and  was  now  very  general  in  all  depart- 
ments of  prose.  Very  few  writers  of  the  last  thirty  years  of 
Johnson's  life  escaped  this  epidemic  desu*e  of  dictatorship. 
Robertson  (1722-93)  is  an  excellent  story-teller,  perspicuous, 
lively  and  interesting.  His  opinions  are  wisely  formed  and 
temperately  expressed,  his  disquisitions  able  and  instructive,  and 
his  research  so  accurate  that  he  is  still  a  valuable  historical 
authority. 

The  learning  of  Gibbon  (1737-94),  though  not  always  exact, 
was  remarkably  extensive,  and  sufiicient  to  make  him  a  trust- 
worthy guide,  unless  in  those  points  where  he  was  inclmed  to 
lead  astray.  There  is  a  patrician  haughtiness  in  the  stately 
march  of  his  narrative  and  in  the  air  of  careless  superiority  with 
which  he  treats  his  heroes  and  his  audience.  He  is  a  master  in 
the  art  of  pictures  and  narration,  nor  is  he  less  skillful  in  indirect 
insinuation,  which  is,  indeed,  his  favorite  mode  of  communicating 
his  own  opinions,  but  he  is  most  striking  in  those  passages  in  his 
history  of  the  church,  where  he  covertly  attacks  a  rehgion  which 
he  neither  believed  nor  understood. 

Other  historians  produced  works  useful  in  their  day,  but  now, 
for  the  most  part,  superseded;  and  in  various  other  departments, 
men  of  letters  actively  exerted  themselves. 

Johnson,  seated  at  last  in  his  easy-chair,  talked  for  twenty 
years,  the  oracle  of  the  literary  world,  and  Boswell,  soon  after 
his  death,  gave  to  the  world  the  clever  record  of  these  conver- 
sations, which  has  aided  to  secure  the  place  in  literature  he  had 
obtained  by  his  writings.     Goldsmith  (1728- 7 4),  had  he  never 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  509 

written  poems,  would  staild  among  the  classic  writers  of  English 
prose  from  the  few  trifles  on  which  he  was  able,  in  the  intervals 
of  hterary  drudgery,  to  exercise  his  powers  of  observation  and 
invention,  and  to  exhibit  his  warm  affections  and  purity  of  moral 
sentiment.  Such  is  his  inimitable  little  novel  "  The  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,"  and  that  good-natured  satire  on  society,  the 
"  Citizen  of  the  World." 

Among  the  novehsts,  Mackenzie  (1745-1831)  wrote  his 
"  Man  of  Feehng,"  not  unworthy  of  the  companionship  of  Gold- 
smith's masterpiece  ;  and  among  later  novelists,  Walpole, 
Moore,  Cumberland,  Mrs.  Inchbald  and  Charlotte  Smith,  Miss 
Burney  and  Mrs.  Radclifife  may  also  be  named. 

In  literary  criticism,  the  authoritative  book  of  the  day  was 
Johnson's  "  Lives  of  the  Poets.''  Percy's  "Reliques  of  Ancient 
English  Poetry"  (1165  )  was  a  delightful  compilation,  which, 
after  being  quite  neglected  for  many  years,  became  the  poetical 
text-book  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  the  poets  of  his  time. 
A  more  scientific  and  ambitious  effort  was  Warton's  (1129-90) 
''  History  of  English  Poetry,"  which  has  so  much  of  antiquarian 
learning,  poetical  taste  and  of  spirited  writing,  that  it  is  not 
only  an  indispensable  and  valuable  authority,  but  an  interesting 
book  to  the  mere  amateur.  With  many  errors  and  deficiencies, 
it  has  yet  little  chance  of  being  ever  entirely  superseded. 

In  parliamentary  eloquence,  before  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  we  have  tlie  commanding  addresses  of  the  elder  Pitt 
(Lord  Chatham),  and  at  the  close,  still  leading  the  senate,  are 
the  younger  Pitt,  Fox,  Sheridan  and  Burke.  Burke  (1730-97) 
must  be  remembered  not  only  for  his  speeches  but  for  his 
writings  on  political  and  social  questions,  as  a  great  thinker  of 
comprehensive  and  versatile  intellect,  and  extraordinary  power 
of  eloquence. 

The  letters  of  "  Junius,"  a  remarkable  series  of  papers, 
the  authorship  of  which  is  still  involved  in  mystery,  appeared 
in  a  London  daily  journal  from  1769  to  1772.  They  were 
remarkable  for  the  audacity  of  their  attacks  upon  the  govern 
ment,  the  court  and  persons  high  in  power,  and  from  theii 
extraordinary  abihty  and  point  they  produced  an  indelible  im- 
pression on  the  public  mind.  The  "  Letters  "  of  Walpole  are 
poignantly  satirical ;  those  of  Cowper  are  models  of  easy 
writing,  and  lessons  of  rare  dignity  and  purity  of  sentiment. 

In  the  history  of  philosophy,  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
was  a  very  important  epoch  ;  before  the  close  of  the  century, 
almost  all  of  those  works  had  appeared  which  have  had  the 
greatest  influence  on  more  recent  thinking.     These  works  may 


510  EXGLISn    LITERxVTCEE. 

be  divided  into  four  classes.  Under  the  first,  Philosophical 
Criticism,  may  be  classed  Burke's  treatise  "  On  the  Sublime  and 
Beautiful,"  Sir  Joshua  Ive3'nolds'  "Discourse  on  Painting," 
CampbL4i's  "Philosophy  of  PJietoric," -Karnes'  "  Elements  of 
Criticism,"  Blair's  "  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres," 
and  Home  Tooke's  "  Philosophy  of  Language." 

In  the  second  department,  Political  Economy,  Adam  Smith's 
great  work,  "  The  AVealth  of  Xations,"  stands  alone,  and  is  still 
acknowledged  as  the  standard  text-book  of  this  science. 

In  the  third  department.  Ethics,  are  Smith's  "  Theory  of 
Moral  Sentiment,"  Tucker's  "  Light  of  Nature,"  and  Paley's 
"  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy." 

In  the  fourth  or  Metaphysical  department,  we  have  only  to 
note  the  rise  of  the  Scottish  School,  under  Thomas  Reid 
(It  10-96),  who  combats  each  of  the  three  schools,  the  Sen- 
sualistic  evolved  from  Locke,  holding  that  our  ideas  are  all 
derived  from  sensation  ;  the  Idealistic,  as  proposed  by  Berkeley, 
which,  allowing  the  existence  of  mind,  denies  that  of  matter  ; 
and  the  Skeptical,  headed  by  Hume,  which  denies  that  we  can 
know  anything  at  all.  Reid  is  a  bold,  dry,  but  very  clear  and 
logical  writer,  a  sincere  lover  of  truth,  and  a  candid  and  honor- 
able disputant  ;  his  system  is  original  and  important  in  the 
history  of  philosophy. 

In  the  theological  literature  of  this  time,  are  found  Campbell's 
"  Essay  on  Miracles,"  Paley's  "  Evidences  of  Christianity  "  and 
"  Natural  Theology,"  and  Bishop  Watson's  "  Apology  for 
Christianity." 

Among  the  devout  teachers  of  religion,  was  John  Newton,  of 
Olney,  the  spiritual  guide  of  Cowper;  and  of  the  moral  writers, 
Hannah  More  and  Wilberforce  may  be  mentioned. 

The  only  tragedy  that  has  survived  from  these  last  forty 
years  of  the  18th  century,  is  the  "Douglas"  of  Home,  whose 
melody  and  romantic  pathos  lose  much  of  their  effect  from  its 
monotony  of  tone  and  feebleness  in  the  representation  of  charac- 
ter. Comedy  was  oftener  successful.  There  was  little  merit  in 
the  plays  of  the  elder  Colman  or  those  of  Mrs.  Cowley,  or  of 
Cumberland.  The  comedies  of  Goldsmith  abound  in  humor  and 
gaiety,  and  those  of  Sheridan  have  an  unhitermitted  fire  of  epi- 
grams, a  keen  insight  into  the  follies  and  weaknesses  of  society, 
and  great  ingenuity  in  inventing  whimsical  situations.  Of  the 
verse-writers  in  the  time  of  Johnson's  old  age,  Goldsmith  has 
alone  achieved  immortality.  "The  Traveller"  and  "  Tiie 
Deserted  Village "  cannot  be  forgotten  while  the  English 
tongue  is  remembered. 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE.  511 

The  fouudations  of  a  new  school  of  poetry  were  already  laid. 
Percy's  "Reliqiies,"  and  Macpbersou's  "  Fingal,"  attracted 
great  attention,  and  many  minor  poets  followed. 

The  short  career  of  the  unhappy  Chatterton  (It52-"I0)  held 
out  wonderful  promise  of  genius. 

Darwin,  in  his  "Botanic  Garden,"  went  back  to  the  mazes  of 
didactic  verse.  Beattie's  (lt35-1803)  "Minstrel"  is  the  out- 
pouring of  a  mind  exquisitely  poetical  in  feeling  ;  it  is  a  kind  of 
autobiography  or  analytic  narrative  of  the  early  growth  of  a 
poet's  mind  and  heart,  and  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  poems 
in  our  lauo-uao-e. 

Opening  with  Goldsmith,  our  period  closes  with  Cowper  and 
Burns.  The  unequalled  popularity  of  Cowper's  (1131-1800) 
poems  is  owing,  in  part,  to  the  rarity  of  good  religious  poety, 
and  also  to  their  genuine  force  and  originality.  He  unhesi- 
tatingly made  poetry  use,  always  when  it  was  convenient,  the 
familiar  forms  of  common  conversation,  and  he  showed  yet 
greater  boldness  by  seeking  to  interest  his  readers  in  the  scenes 
of  every-day  life.  In  spite  of  great  faults,  the  effect  of  his 
works  is  such  as  only  a  genuine  poet  could  have  produced,  nis 
translation  of  the  Iliad  has  the  simplicity  of  the  original,  though 
wanting  its  warlike  fervor,  and  portions  of  the  Odyssey  are  ren- 
dered with  exceeding  felicity  of  poetic  effect. 

Our  estimate  of  Cowper's  poems  is  heightened  by  our  love 
and  pity  for  the  poet,  writing  not  for  fame  but  for  consolation, 
and  uttering  from  the  depths  of  a  half-broken  heart  his  reverent 
homage  to  the  power  of  religious  truth.  Our  affection  is  not 
colder,  and  our  compassion  is  more  profound,  when  we  contem- 
plate the  agitated  and  erring  life  of  Robert  Burns  (1759-96), 
the  Scottish  peasant,  who  has  given  to  the  literature  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  race  some  of  its  most  precious  jewels,  although 
all  which  this  extraordinary  man  achieved  was  inadequate  to  the 
power  and  the  vast  variety  of  his  endowments.  It  is  on  his 
songs  that  his  fame  rests  most  firmly,  and  no  lyrics  in  any 
tongue  have  a  more  wonderful  union  of  thrilling  passion,  melt- 
ing tenderness,  concentrated  expressiveness  of  language,  and  apt 
and  natural  poetic  fancy.  But  neither  the  song  nor  the  higher 
kinds  of  lyrical  verse,  could  give  scope  to  the  qualities  he  has 
elsewhere  shown  ;  his  aptness  in  representing  the  phases  of 
human  character,  his  genial  breadth  and  keenness  of  humor,  and 
his  strength  of  creative  imagination,  indicate  that  if  born  under  a 
more  benignant  star,  he  might  have  been  a  second  Chaucer. 

t.   The  Nineteenth  Century. — In  the  illustrious  band  of 


512  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

poets  who  enriched  the  literature  of  England  during  the 
lirst  generation  of  the  present  century,  there  are  four  who 
have  gained  greater  forae  than  any  others,  and  exercised 
greater  iuiliience  on  their  contemporaries.  These  are  Cole- 
ridge, Wordsworth,  Scott  and  Byron,  who,  though  unlike, 
yet  in  respect  of  their  ruling  spirit  and  tendencies,  may  be 
classed  in  pairs  as  they  have  been  named;  and  all  whose  works 
call  for  exact  scrutiny  may  be  distributed  into  four  groups. 
In  the  first  of  them  stand  Thomas  Campbell  and  Robert 
Southey,  dissimilar  to  each  other,  and  differing  as  widely  from 
their  contemporaries.  Campbell  (1777-1844)  employed  an 
unusually  delicate  taste  in  elaborating  his  verses  both  in  diction 
and  melody.  His  "  Pleasures  of  Hope  '^  was  written  between 
youth  and  manhood,  and  "  Gertrude  of  Wyoming,"  the  latest 
of  his  productions  worthy  of  him,  appeared  soon  after  his 
thirtieth  year.  His  mind,  deficient  in  manly  vigor  of  thought, 
had  worked  itself  out  in  the  few  first  bursts  of  youthful  emotioh, 
but  no  one  has  clothed  with  more  of  romantic  sweetness  the 
feelings  and  fancies  which  people  the  fairy-land  of  early  dreams, 
or  thrown  around  the  enchanted  region  a  purer  atmosphere  of 
moral  contemplation. 

Southey  (1774-1843),  with  an  ethical  tone  higher  and 
sterner  than  Campbell's,  offers  in  other  features  a  marked  con- 
trast to  him.  He  is  careless  in  details,  and  indulges  no  poetical 
reveries  ;  he  scorns  sentimentalism,  and  throws  off  rapid 
sketches  of  human  action  with  great  pomp  of  imagery,  but  he 
seldom  touches  the  key  of  the  pathetic.  In  much  of  this  he  is 
the  man  of  his  age,  but  in  other  respects  he  is  above  it.  He  is 
the  only  poet  of  his  day  who  strove  to  emulate  the  great 
masters  of  epic  song,  and  to  give  his  works  external  symmetry 
of  plan.  He  alone  attempted  to  give  poetry  internal  union,  by 
making  it  the  representation  of  one  leading  idea ;  a  loftier  theory 
of  poetic  art  than  that  which  ruled  the  irregular  outbursts  of 
Scott  and  Byron.  But  the  aspiration  was  above  the  competency 
of  the  aspirer.  He  wanted  spontaneous  depth  of  sympathy ;  his 
emotion  has  the  measured  flow  of  the  artificial  canal,  not  tlie 
leaping  gush  of  the  river  in  its  self-worn  channel.  In  two  of  his 
three  best  poems,  he  has  founded  the  interest  on  supernatural 
agency  of  a  kind  which  cannot  command  even  momentary  belief, 
and  the  splendid  panoramas  of  "  Thalaba  the  Destroyer  "  pass 
away  like  tlie  shadows  of  a  magic  lantern.  In  the  "  Curse  of 
Kehama,"  he  strives  to  interest  us  in  the  monstrous  fables 
of  the  Hindoo  mvtholo2:v,  and  in  "  Roderick  the  Last  of 
the   Goths,"    the   story   contains   circumstances   that    deform 


KyGLISH    LITERATUEE.  513 

the  fairest  proof  the  author  gave  of  the  practicability  of  his 
poetic  theory. 

The  second  group  of  poets,  unless  Moore  find  a  place  in  it, 
will  contain  only  Scott  and  Byron,  who  were  in  succession  the 
most  popular  of  all,  and  owed  their  popularity  mainly  to  charac- 
teristics which  they  had  in  common.  They  are  distinctively  the 
poets  of  active  life.  They  portray  idealized  resemblances  of  the 
scenes  of  reality,  events  which  arise  out  of  the  universal  rela- 
tions of  society,  hopes,  fears  and  wishes  which  are  open  to  the 
consciousness  of  all  mankind.  The  originals  of  Scott  were  the 
romances  of  chivalry,  and  this  example  was  applied  by  Byron  to 
the  construction  of  narratives  founded  on  a  different  kind  of  sen- 
timent. Scott,  wearying  of  the  narrow  round  that  afforded 
him  no  scope  for  some  of  his  best  and  strongest  powers,  turned 
aside  to  lavish  them  on  his  prose  romances,  and  Byron,  as  his 
knowledge  grew  and  his  meditations  became  deeper,  rose  from 
Turkish  tales  to  the  later  cantos  of  "  Childe  Harold.'' 

Scott  (1771-1832),  in  his  poetical  narratives,  appealed  to 
national  sympathies  through  ennobling  historic  recollections. 
He  painted  the  externals  of  vscenery  and  manners  with  unrivalled 
picturesqueness,  and  embeUished  all  that  was  generous  and 
brave  in  the  world  of  chivalry  with  an  infectious  enthusiasm. 
"  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  a  romance  of  border  chivalry, 
has  a  more  consistent  unity  than  its  successors,  and  is  more 
faithful  to  the  ancient  models.  "  Marmion "  seeks  to  combine 
the  chivalrous  romance  with  the  metrical  chronicle.  "The 
Lady  of  the  Lake"  is  a  kind  of  romantic  pastoral,  and  "Roko- 
by  "  is  a  Waverley  novel  in  verse. 

The  moral  faults  of  the  poetry  of  Byron  (1788-1824)  became 
more  glaring  as  he  grew  older.  Starting  with  the  carelessness 
of  ill-trained  youth  in  regard  to  most  serious  truths,  he  provoked 
censure  without  scruple,  and  was  censured  not  without  caprice  ; 
thus  placed  in  a  dangerous  and  false  position,  he  hardened  him- 
self into  a  contempt  for  the  most  sacred  laws  of  society,  and 
although  the  closing  scenes  of  his  life  give  reason  for  a  belief 
that  purer  and  more  elevated  views  were  beginning  to  dawn 
upon  his  mind,  he  died  before  the  amendment  had  found  its  way 
into  his  writings.  He  endeavored  to  inculcate  lessons  that  are 
positively  bad ;  his  delinquency  did  not  consist  in  choosing  for 
representation  scenes  of  violent  passion  and  guilty  horror,  it  lay 
deeper  than  in  his  theatrical  fondness  for  identifying  himself 
with  his  misanthropes,  pirates,  and  seducers.  He  sinned  more 
grievously  still,  against  morality  as  against  possibility,  by  mixing 
up,  in  one  and  the  same  character,  the  utmost  extremes  of  vice 


514  EXGLISII    LITERATUKE. 

and  virtue,  generosity  and  vindictiveness,  of  lofty  lieroism  and 
actual  grossness.  But  with  other  and  great  faults,  he  far  ex- 
celled all  the  poets  of  his  time  in  impassioned  strength,  varying 
from  vehemence  to  pathos.  He  was  excelled  by  few  of  them 
in  his  fine  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and  his  combination  of  passion 
with  beauty,  standing  unapproachable  in  his  own  day,  has 
hardly  ever  been  surpassed. 

His  tales,  except  "  Parisina"  and  the  "  Prisoner  of  Chillon," 
rise  less  often  than  his  other  poems  into  that  flow  of  poetic  im- 
agery, prompted  by  the  loveliness  of  nature,  which  he  had  at- 
tempted in  the  two  first  cantos  of  "  Childe  Harold,"  and  poured 
fortli  with  added  fullness  of  thought  and  emotion  in  the  last  two. 
*'  Manfred,"  with  all  its  short-comings,  shows  perhaps  most  ade- 
quately his  poetic  temperament ;  and  his  tragedies,  though  not 
worthy  of  the  poet,  are  of  all  his  works  those  which  do  most 
honor  to  the  man. 

The  third  section  of  this  honored  file  of  poets  contains  the 
names  of  Coleridge  and  AVordsworth ;  they  are  characteristically 
the  poets  of  imagination,  of  reflection,  and  of  a  tone  of  sentiment 
that  owes  its  attraction  to  its  ideal  elevation.  Admired  and 
emulated  by  a  few  zealous  students,  Coleridge  became  the  poet- 
ical leader  from  the  very  beginning  of  his  age,  and  eflects  yet  wider 
have  since  been  worked  by  the  extended  study  of  Wordsworth. 

Coleridge  (1772-1834:)  is  the  most  original  of  the  poets  of 
his  very  original  time,  and  among  the  most  original  of  its  think- 
ers. His  most  frequent  tone  of  feeling  is  a  kind  of  romantic 
tenderness  or  melancholy,  often  solemnized  by  an  intense  access 
of  religious  awe.  This  fine  passion  is  breathed  out  most  finely 
when  it  is  associated  with  some  of  his  airy  glimpses  of  external 
nature,  and  his  power  of  suggestive  sketching  is  not  more  extra- 
ordinary than  his  immaculate  taste  and  nervous  precision  of 
language.  His  images  may  be  obscure,  from  the  moonlight 
haze  in  whicli  they  float,  but  they  are  rarely  so  through  faults 
of  diction.  It  is  disappointing  to  remember  that  this  gifted 
man  executed  little  more  than  fragments  ;  his  life  ebbed  away 
in  the  contemplation  of  undertakings  still  to  be  achieved,  the 
result  of  weakness  of  will  rather  than  of  indolence.  The  ro- 
mance of  "  Christabel,"  the  most  powerful  of  all  his  works,  and 
the  prompter  of  Scott  and  Byron,  was  thrown  aside  when 
scarce  begun,  and  stands  as  an  interrupted  vision  of  mysterious 
adventures  clothed  in  the  most  exquisite  fancies.  His  tragedy 
of  "  Remorse  "  is  full  of  poetic  pictures  ;  the  "  Ode  to  the  De- 
parting Year "  shows  his  force  of  thought  and  moral  earnest- 
ness ;  "  Khubla  Khan"  represents  in  its  gorgeous  incoherence 


e:sglisii  literatuke.  515 

bis  singular  power  of  lighting  up  landscapes  with  thrilling  fan- 
cies ;  and  ''The  Dark  Ladye"  is  one  of  the  most  tender  and 
romantic  love-poems  ever  written. 

The  most  obvious  feature  of  Wordsworth  (11*10-1850)  is  the 
intense  and  unwearied  delight  which  he  takes  in  all  the  shapes 
and  appearances  of  rural  and  mountain  scenery.  He  is  carried 
away  by  an  almost  passionate  rapture  when  he  broods  over  the 
grandeur  and  loveliness  of  the  earth  and  air  ;  his  verse  lingers 
with  fond  reluctance  to  depart  on  the  wild  flowers,  the  misty 
lake,  the  sound  of  the  wailing  blast,  or  the  gleam  of  sunshine 
breaking  through  the  passes  among  the  hills,  and  the  thoughts 
and  feelings  these  objects  suggest  flow  forth  with  an  enthusiasm 
of  expression  which  in  a  man  less  pious  and  rational  might  be 
interpreted  as  a  raising  of  the  inanimate  world  to  a  level  with 
human  dignity  and  intelligence.  The  tone  which  prevails  in  his 
contemplation  of  mortal  act  and  suflfering  is  a  serene  seriousness, 
on  wiiich  there  never  breaks  in  anything  rightly  to  be  called 
passion  ;  yet  it  often  rises  to  an  intensely  solemn  awe,  and  is 
not  less  often  relieved  by  touches  of  a  quiet  pathos.  Almost 
all  his  poems  may  be  called  poems  of  sentiment  and  reflection, 
and  his  own  ambition  was  that  of  being  worthy  to  be  honored 
as  a  philosophical  poet.  His  theory  that  the  poet's  function  is 
limited  to  an  exact  representation  of  the  real  and  the  natural, 
a  heresy  which  his  own  best  poems  triumphantly  refute,  often 
led  him  to  triviality  and  meanness  in  the  choice  both  of  subjects 
and  diction,  and  marred  the  beauty  of  many  otherwise  fine  poems. 
A  fascinating  airiness  and  delicacy  of  conception  prevail  in  these 
poems,  and  the  tender  sweetness  of  expression  is  often  wonder- 
fully touching.  They  were  the  effusions  of  early  manhood,  and 
the  imperfect  embodiments  of  a  strength  which  found  a  freer 
outlet  in  prose.  "Laodamia"  and  "Dion"  are  classical  gems 
Avithout  a  flaw  ;  many  of  the  sonnets  unite  original  thought  and 
poetic  vividness  with  a  perfection  hardly  to  be  surpassed  ;  above 
afl,  "The  Excursion''  rolls  on  its  thousands  of  blank  verse  lines 
with  the  soul-felt  harmony  of  a  divine  hymn  pealed  forth  from  a 
cathedral  organ.  We  forget  the  insignificance  characterizing 
the  plan,  which  embraces  nothing  but  a  three  days'  walk  among 
the  mountains,  and  we  refuse  to  be  aroused  from  our  trance  of 
meditative  pleasure  by  the  occasional  tediousness  of  dissertation. 
''The  Excursion"  abounds  in  verses  and  phrases  once  heard 
never  to  be  forgotten,  and  it  contains  trains  of  poetical  musing 
through  which  the  poet  moves  with  a  majestic  fullness  of  re- 
flection and  imagination  not  paralleled,  by  very  far,  in  anything 
^Ise  of  which  our  century  can  boast. 


516  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

"Wilson,  Shelley,  and  Keats  make  up  the  fourth  poetical 
group - 

The  principal  poems  of  Professor  Wilson  (1785-1854)  are  the 
"  Isle  of  Palms,"  a  romance  of  shipwreck  and  solitude,  full  of 
rich  pictures  and  delicate  pathos,  and  the  "  City  of  the  Plague," 
a  series  of  dramatic  scenes,  representing  with  great  depth  of 
emotion  a  domestic  tragedy  from  the  plague  of  London, 

Shelley  was  the  pure  apostle  of  a  noble  but  ideal  philan- 
thropy ;  yet  it  is  easy  to  separate  his  poetry  from  his  philo- 
sophy, which,  though  hostile  to  existing  conditions  of  society, 
is  so  ethereal,  so  imbued  with  love  for  everything  noble,  and  yet 
so  abstract  and  impracticable,  that  it  is  not  likely  to  do  much 
harm. 

Keats  poured  forthwith  great  power  the  dreams  of  nis  immature 
youth,  and  died  in  the  belief  that  the  radiant  forms  had  been 
seen  in  vain.  In  native  felicity  of  poetic  adornment  these  two 
were  the  first  minds  of  their  time,  but  the  inadequacy  of  their 
performance  to  their  poetic  faculties  shows  how  needful  to 
the  production  of  effective  poetry  is  a  substratum  of  solid 
thought,  of  practical  sense,  and  of  manly  and  extensive  sym- 
pathy. 

If  we  would  apprehend  the  fullness  and  firmness  of  the  powers 
of  Shelley  (1792-1822)  without  remaining  ignorant  of  his  weak- 
ness, we  might  study  the  lyrical  drama  of  "  Prometheus  Un- 
bound," a  marvellous  galaxy  of  dazzling  images  and  wildly 
touching  sentiments,  or  the  ''  Alastor,"  a  scene  in  which  the 
melancholy  quiet  of  solitude  is  visited  but  by  the  despairing 
poet  who  lies  down  to  die.  We  find  here,  instead  of  sympathy 
with  ordinary  and  universal  feelings,  warmth  for  the  abstract 
and  unreal,  or,  when  the  poet's  own  unrest  prompts,  as  in  the 
**  Stanzas  Written  in  Dejection  near  Naples,"  a  strain  of  lamen- 
tatiou  which  sounds  like  a  passionate  sigh.  Instead  of  clearness 
of  thinking,  we  find  an  indistinctness  which  sometimes  amounts 
to  the  unintelligible.  In  the  "Revolt  of  Islam,"  his  most  am- 
bitious poem,  it  is  often  diflicult  to  apprehend  even  the  outlines 
of  the  story. 

No  youthfid  poet  ever  exhibited  more  thorough  possession  of 
those  faculties  that  are  the  foundation  of  genius  than  Keats 
(179G-1820),  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  he  might  have 
been  had  he  lived  to  become  acquainted  with  himself  and  with 
mankind.  It  was  said  of  his  "Endymion"  most  truly,  that  no 
book  could  be  more  aptly  used  as  a  test  to  determine  whether  a 
reader  has  a  genuine  love  for  poetry.  His  works  have  no  in- 
terest of  story,  no  insight  into  human  nature,  no  clear  sequence 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  517 

of  thought ;  they  are  the  rapturous  voice  of  youthful  fancy, 
luxuriatiug  in  a  world  of  beautiful  unrealities. 

It  may  l)e  questioned  whether  Crabbe  and  Moore  are  entitled 
to  rank  with  the  poets  already  reviewed. 

Crabbe's  (1754-1832)  '' Metrical  Tales,"  describing  every- 
day life,  are  striking,  natural,  and  sometimes  very  touching,  but 
they  are  warmed  by  no  kindly  thoughts  and  elevated  by  no- 
thing of  ideality. 

Moore  (1780-1851),  one  of  the  most  popular  of  Enghsh 
poets,  will  long  be  remembered  for  his  songs,  so  melodious  and 
so  elegant  in  phrase.  His  fund  of  miagery  is  inexhaustible,  but 
oftener  ingenious  than  poetical.  His  Eastern  romances  in  "  La  11a 
Rookh,"  with  all  their  occasional  felicities,  are  not  powerful  po- 
etic narratives.  He  was  nowhere  so  successful  as  in  his  satirical 
effusions  of  comic  rhyme,  in  which  his  fanciful  ideas  are  prompted 
by  a  wit  so  gaily  sharp,  and  expressed  with  a  neatness  and 
pointedness  so  unusual,  that  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  these 
pieces  should  be  condemned  to  speedy  forgetfulness,  as  they 
must  be,  from  the  temporary  interest  of  their  topics. 

Among  the  works  of  the  numerous  minor  poets,  the  tragedies 
of  Joanna  Baillie,  with  all  their  faults  as  plays,  are  noble  ad- 
ditions to  the  literature,  and  the  closest  approach  made  in  re- 
cent times  to  the  merit  of  the  old  English  drama.  After  these 
may  be  named  the  stately  and  imposing  dramatic  poems  of  Mil- 
man,  Maturin's  impassioned  ''  Bertram,"  and  the  finely-conceived 
"Julian"  of  Miss  Mitford. 

Rogers  and  Bowles  have  given  us  much  of  pleasing  and 
reflective  sentiment,  accompanied  with  great  refinement  of 
taste. 

To  another  and  more  modern  school  belong  Procter  (Barry 
Cornwall)  and  Leigh  Hunt  ;  the  former  the  purer  in  taste,  the 
latter  more  oris^'inal  and  inventive. 

Some  of  the  lyrical  and  meditative  poems  of  Walter  Savage 
Landor  are  very  beautiful ;  his  longer  poems  sometimes  delight 
but  oftener  puzzle  us  by  their  obscurity  of  thought  and  want  of 
constructive  skill. 

The  poems  of  Mrs.  Hemans  breathe  a  singularly  attractive 
tone  of  romantic  and  melancholy  sweetness,  and  many  of  the 
ballads  and  songs  of  Hogg  and  Cunningham  will  not  soon  be 
forgotten. 

The  religious  poetry  of  the  time  contains  nothing  of  the  very 
first  order  except  a  few  pieces  from  authors  already  named. 
The  poems  of  Kirke  White  are  more  pleasing  than  original. 
Montgomery  has  written,  besides  many  other  poems,  not  a  few 


518  ENGLISH    LITEKATURE. 

meditative  and  devotional  pieces  among  the  best  in  the  Ian« 
guage.  Pollok's  "  Course  of  Time,"  is  the  immature  work  of  a 
man  of  genius  who  possessed  very  imperfect  cultivation.  It  is 
clumsy  in  plan  and  tediously  dissertative,  bat  it  has  passages  of 
genuine  poetry.  The  pleasing*  yei:ses  of  Bishop  Heber  and  the 
more  recent  eifusions  of  Keble  may  also  be  named. 

Previous  to  the  appearance  of  Scott's  novels  the  department 
of  prose  writing  had  undergone  an  elevating  process  in  the 
hands  of  Godwin,  Miss  Austen,  Miss  Porter  and  Miss  Edge- 
worth.  *' Waverley"  appeared  in  1814,  and  the  series  which 
followed  with  surprising  rapidity,  obtained  universal  and  unex- 
ampled popularity.  The  Waverley  Novels  are  not  merely  love 
stories  but  pictures  of  human  life,  animated  by  sentiments  which 
are  cheerful  and  correct,  and  they  exhibit  history  in  a  most 
effective  light  without  degrading  facts  or  falsifying  them  beyond 
the  lawful  stretch  of  poetical  embellishment.  These  novels  stand 
in  literary  value  as  far  above  all  other  prose  works  of  fiction,  as 
those  of  Fielding  stand  above  all  others  in  the  language  except 
these. 

The  novels  of  Lockhart  are  strong  in  the  representation  of 
tragic  passion.  AVilson,  in  his  "  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Scot- 
tish Life,"  shows  the  visionary  loveliness  and  pathos  which  ap- 
pear in  his  poems,  though  they  give  no  scope  to  those  powers 
of  sarcasm  and  humor  which  found  expression  elsewhere. 
Extremes  in  the  tone  of  thought  and  feeling  are  shown  in  the 
despondent  imagination  of  Mrs.  Shelley  and  the  coarse  and 
shrewd  humor  of  Gait.  To  this  time  belong  Hope's  ''  Anasta- 
sius,"  which  unites  reflectiveness  with  pathos,  and  the  delightful 
scenes  which  Miss  Mitford  has  constructed  by  embellishing  the 
facts  of  English  rural  life. 

A  most  curious  and  important  fact  in  the  literary  history  of 
the  age,  is  the  prominence  acquired  by  the  leading  Reviews  and 
Magazines.  Their  high  position  was  secured  and  their  power 
founded  beyond  the  possibility  of  overturn  by  the  earliest  of  the 
series,  the  Edinburgh  Review.  Commenced  in  1802,  it  was 
placed  immediately  under  the  editorship  of  Francis  Jeffrey,  who 
conducted  it  till  1S29.  In  the  earlier  part  of  its  history  there 
were  not  many  distinguished  men  of  letters  in  the  empire  wlio 
did  not  furnish  something  to  its  contents  ;  among  others  v/r-re 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  liord  Brougham,  Malthus,  Playfair,  Mackin- 
tosh and  Sydney  Smith.  Differences  of  political  opinion  led  to 
the  establishment  of  the  "London  Quarterly,"  which  advocated 
Tory  principles,  the  Edinburgh  being  the  organ  of  the  Whigs. 
Its  editors  were  first  Gifford  and  then  TiOckhart,  and  it  num- 


EXGLISH   LITEKxVTUIlE.  519 

bered  among  its  contributors  many  of  the  most  famous  men 
of  the  tune.  The  Westminster  Review  was  established  in  1825 
as  the  organ  of  Jeremy  Beiitham  and  his  disciples. 

"Blackwood's  Ma2,-azine,"  be2,'un  1817,  has  contained  articles 
of  the  highest  literary  merit,  it  was  the  unflinching  and  idol- 
atrous advocate  of  Wordsworth,  and  some  of  its  writers  were  the 
first  translators  of  German  poetry  and  the  most  active  intro- 
ducers of  German  taste  and  laws  in  poetical  criticism. 

The  best  efforts  in  literary  criticism — the  most  brilliant  depart- 
ment of  recent  literatm'e,  have  been  with  few  exceptions  Essays 
in  the  periodicals.  Among  the  essayists  the  name  of  Francis 
Jeffrey  (1773-1850)  stands  highest.  In  his  Essays  selected  for 
republication  we  find  hardly  any  branch  of  general  knowledge 
untouched,  and  while  he  treated  none  without  throwing  on  them 
some  brilliant  ray  of  light,  he  contributed  to  many  of  them 
truths  alike  valuable  and  original.  His  criticisms  on  Poetry  are 
flowing  and  spirited,  glittering  with  a  gay  wit  and  an  ever- 
ready  fancy,  and  often  blossoming  into  exquisite  felicities  of  dic- 
tion. While  Macaulay  uses  poets  and  their  works  as  hints  for 
constructing  picturesque  dissertations  on  man  and  society,  and 
while  poetical  reading  prompts  to  Wilson  enthusiastic  bursts  of 
original  poetry,  Jeffrey,  fervid  in  his  admiration  of  genius,  but 
conscientiously  stern  in  his  respect  for  art,  tries  poetry  by  its 
own  laws,  and  his  writings  are  invaluable  to  those  who  desu'e  to 
learn  the  principles  of  poetical  criticism,  A  high  place  among 
the  critical  essayists  must  also  be  assigned  to  William  Ilazlitt, 
who  in  his  lectures  and  elsewhere  did  manful  service  towards 
reviving  the  study  of  ancient  poetry,  and  who  prompts  to  study 
and  speculation  all,  and  not  the  least  those  who  hesitate  to 
accept  his  critical  opinions. 

The  writings  of  Christopher  North  (Professor  Wilson)  con- 
tam  more  of  spontaneous  poetry  than  was  ever  before  couched 
in  prose,  more  of  original  reflection  than  was  ever  before  linked 
with  so  unrestrained  a  revelry  of  the  imagination,  and  an 
alternation  not  less  unexampled  of  the  quaintest  humor  and 
the  most  practical  shrewdness  with  tender  and  passionate 
emotion. 

The  Amtings  of  Charles  Lamb  (1775-1835)  it  Is  impossible 
to  describe  intelligibly  to  those  who  have  not  read  them.  His 
critical  remarks  spring  from  wonderfully  fine  poetical  feeling 
and  express  opinions  indicatmg  at  once  force  and  harmonious- 
ness  of  thought.  Some  of  his  scenes  are  in  sentiment,  imagery 
and  style  the  most  anomalous  medleys  by  wliicli  readers  were 
ever  alternately  perplexed  and  amused,  moved  and  delighted. 


520  EXGLISH    LITEKATURE. 

!N'o  man  of  the  time  influenced  social  science  so  much  as 
Jeremy  Bentham  (1748-1832).  Of  his  immediate  pupils 
James 'Mill  is  the  ablest.  Cobbett,  the  most  vigorous  and 
idiomatic  writer  of  English  who  has  appeared  in  our  time,  in  the 
course  of  his  long  life  advocated  all  varieties  of  political  principle. 
In  political  science  we  have  the  accurate  McCulloch  ;  Malthus, 
known  through  his  Theory  of  Population ;  and  Kicardo,  the  most 
original  thinker  in  the  science  since  Adam  Smitli.  In  history  we 
have  Turner,  Palgrave  and  Lingard,  Hallam,  Roscoe  and 
Southey  ;  Porson  in  Classical  learning;  and  in  Practical  The- 
ology, Hall,  Foster  and  Chalmers. 

Foster  (1770-1843)  had  originality  and  a  wider  grasp  of 
mind  than  the  other  two.  Hall  (1761-1831)  is  more  eloquent, 
but  in  oratorical  power  Chalmers  (1780-1847)  was  one  of  the 
great  men  of  our  century,  which  has  produced  few  comparable 
to  him  in  original  keenness  of  intuition,  and  who  combined 
so  much  power  of  thought  with  so  much  power  of  impressive 
communication. 

In  Philosophy,  Dugald   Stewart  (1753-1828)  is  one  of  the 
most  attractive  writers.     Thomas  Brown  (1778-1820), his  suc- 
cessor in  the  chair  of  Edinburgh,  exhibited  a  subtletv  of  thought 
hardly  ever  exceeded  in  the  history  of  philosophy  ;  probably  no 
writings  on  Mental  Philosophy  were  ever  so  popular. 

Equally  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  annals  of  their  era  are  those 
dissertations  on  the  History  of  Philosophy  contributed  to  the 
Eucyclop£edia  Britannica  by  Playfair,  Leslie  and  Mackintosh,  and 
a  system  of  Ethics  by  Bentham.  Among  the  speculations  in 
Mental  Philosophy  must  also  be  placed  a  group  of  interesting 
treatises  on  the  *'  Theory  of  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,"  a 
matter  deeply  important  to  poetry  and  the  other  Fine  Arts, 
represented  by  Alison's  essays  on  Taste,  Jeffrey's  on  Beauty, 
and  by  contributions  from  Stewart,  Thomas  Brown  and  Payne 
Knight.  Toward  the  close  of  the  period,  the  novel  science  of 
Phrenology  was  introduced,  and  new  attention  was  paid  to  the 
study  of  German  Metaphysics  and  the  doctrines  of  the  Aristo- 
telian logic. 

Our  estimate  of  the  intellectual  character  of  the  Generation 
in  which  we  live,  must  be  formed  with  the  hesitation  becoming 
those  who,  themselves  imbued  with  its  spirit,  are  not  impartial 
judges  of  the  value  or  the  ultimate  tendency  of  its  exertions. 
The  only  names  to  which  allusion  can  be  made,  will  be  of  those 
who  have  acquired  extensive  fame,  or  who  have  achieved  results 
from  which  permanent  effects  cannot  but  follow. 

The   want  of  originality  is  very  obvious  in  the  poetry  of 


EXGLISn    LITERATURE.  621 

this  age.  Poems  were  never  produced  by  so  large  a  number  of 
writers  as  within  the  last  thirty  years  ;  but  seldom  have  so  few 
appeared  which  rise  sufficiently  above  mediocrity  to  have  a 
chance  of  surviving.  In  lyrical  and  sentimental  verse  the  stock 
has  been  particularly  large. 

Among  the  names  most  worthy  of  remembrance,  Henry 
Taylor  deserves  notice  for  the  fine  meditativeuess  and  well- 
balanced  judgment  shown  in  his  dramas  and  prose  essays  ; 
Browning,  for  the  strength  of  thought  which  struggles  through 
the  obscurity  of  all  his  poems,  and  Mrs.  Browning  for  similar 
merits  accompanied  with  greater  force  of  imagination.  Sir 
Edward  Lytton  Bulwer  deserves  honorable  mention  for  his  high 
sense  of  the  functions  of  poetic  art ;  for  the  skill  with  which  his 
dramas  are  constructed,  and  for  the  overflowing  picturesqueness 
which  fills  his  "  King  Arthur."  Elliott,  the  Corn-Law  Rhymer, 
is  vigorous  in  conception,  and  Hood  has  a  remarkable  union  of 
grotesque  humor  with  depth  of  serious  feeling.  Tennyson,  the 
only  very  brilliant  poet  of  our  generation,  is  entitled  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  poets  of  the  last.  His  works  constitute  a  link 
in  that  series  of  poetical  changes  which  had  its  first  step  in 
Wordsworth,  its  second  in  Shellev.  This  chana:e  consists  in  the 
increasing  predominance  of  the  lyrical  and  didactic  elements 
over  the  epic  and  dramatic,  a  progress  not  promising  to  lead  to 
poetic  greatness.  The  mind  of  Tennyson  is  exquisitely  poetical; 
his  diction  is  often  felicitous  in  the  extreme,  and  his  imagery  is 
fascinating  for  its  natural  and  suggestive  aptness,  and  marked  by 
strong  originality.  But  he  is  often  led  astray  by  an  over  sub- 
tlety of  thought,  which  gives  birth  to  analogies  as  far  fetched 
as  the  most  unnatural  conceits  of  the  1*1  th  century  ;  yet  there 
often  breaks  through  all  a  gleam  of  romantic  fancy  as  bright, 
or  a  touch  of  tender  emotion  as  irresistible  as  anything  in  the 
whole  range  of  lyric  pcetry.  His  poetical  eminence  rests  most 
surely  on  his  smaller  poems;  but,  perhaps,  nothing  that  he  has 
written  is  more  interesting  than  the  series  of  elegiac  musino;s 
under  the  significant  title,  "  In  Memoriam." 

Of  the  Scotch  poets,  James  Hogg  (d.  1835)  is  distinguished 
for  the  beauty  and  creative  power  of  his  fairy  tales,  and  Allan 
Cunningham  (d.  1842)  for  the  fervor,  simplicity,  and  natural 
grace  of  his  songs.  Edward  Ptobert  Bulwer  (Owen  Meredith), 
Alexander  Smith,  Gerald  Massey,  Matthew  and  Edwin 
Arnold,  are  rising  young  poets  of  the  present  day;  and  of  the 
living  English  poetesses  are  Mrs.  Norton,  Mrs.  Blackwood,  Mrs. 
Crosland,  Mary  Howitt,  Eliza  Cook,  and  Adelaide  Procter. 

Among  the  earlier  novels  of  the  time,  those  of  Bulwer  bear 


522  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

more  decidedly  tliau  the  others  the  stamp  of  native  genius. 
Though  not  always  morally  instructive,  they  have  great  force 
of  serious  passion,  and  show  unusual  skill  of  design.  In  some 
of  his  later  works  he  rises  into  a  much  higher  sphere  of  ethical 
contemplation.  The  novels  of  Theodore  Hook,  sparkling  as 
thev  are,  have  no  substance  to  endure  Ions*  continuance,  nor  is 
there  much  promise  of  life  in  the  showy  and  fluent  tales  of 
James,  the  sea-stories  of  Marryat,  or  the  gay  scenes  of  Lever. 
The  novels  and  .sketches  of  Mrs.  Marsh  and  Mrs.  Hall  are 
pleasing  and  tastcfid  ;  and  those  of  Charlotte  Bronte,  glowing 
and  earnest  in  style,  and  graphic  in  delineation  ;  ]Mrs.  Trollope's 
portraits  of  character  are  rough  and  clever  caricatures.  In 
describing  the  lower  departments  of  Irish  life,  Banini  is  the  most 
original,  Grifiin  weaker,  and  Carleton  better  than  either.  The 
novels  of  Disraeli  are  remarkable  for  their  brilliant  sketches  of 
English  life  and  their  embodiment  of  political  and  social  theo- 
ries. Miss  Martineau's  stories  are  full  of  the  writer's  clearness 
and  sagacity.  Kingsley,  the  head  of  the  Christian  socialistic 
school,  is  the  author  of  many  romances,  and  the  eloquent 
preacher  of  a  more  earnest  and  practical  Christianity.  The 
narrative  sketches  of  Douglas  Jerrold  deserve  a  place  among 
the  speculative  fictions  of  the  day. 

Among  those  contemporary  writers  who  aim  at  making  the 
novel  illustrate  questions  that  agitate  society  most  powerfully, 
are  the  founders  of  a  new  school  of  novelists,  Thackeray  and 
Dickens.  The  former  has  given  his  pictures  of  society  all  that 
character  they  could  receive  from  extraordinary  skill  of  mental 
analysis,  acute  observation,  and  strength  of  sarcastic  irony,  but 
he  has  never  been  able  to  excite  continuous  and  lively  sympathy 
either  by  interesting  incidents  or  by  deep  passion.  Dickens  has 
done  more  than  all  which  Thackeray  has  left  unattempted  ; 
while  his  painting  of  character  is  as  vigorous  and  natural,  his 
power  of  exciting  emotion  ranges  with  equal  success  from 
horror  sometimes  too  intense,  to  melting  pathos,  and  thence  to  a 
breadth  of  humor  which  degenerates  into  caricature.  He 
cannot  soar  into  the  higher  worlds  of  imagination,  but  he 
becomes  strong,  inventive,  and  affecting  the  moment  his  foot 
touches  the  firm  ground  of  reality,  and  nowhere  is  he  more  at 
ease,  more  sliarply  observant,  or  more  warmly  sympathetic,  than 
in  scenes  whose  meanness  miglit  have  disgusted,  or  whose  moral 
foulness  might  have  appalled.  Of  the  later  novelists,  the  names 
of  Miss  Muloch,  Mary  Evans,  and  Charles  Keade,  may  be  men- 
tioned as  having  acquired  a  wide  popularity. 

In  the  art  of  criticism  only  one  great  work  has  appeared  in  the 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE.  523 

language  during  the  century,  Ilallam's  (d.  1859)  "  Introduc- 
tion to  tlie  Literature  of  Europe  in  the  15th,  16th,  and  ITth 
Centuries,"  which  has  at  once  taken  its  place  as  a  chissical 
standard.  Amons:  the  frao-ments  of  criticism,  the  most  valuable 
are  those  of  De  Quincey  (d.  1860.)  The  essays  of  Macaulay 
(d.  1860)  are  the  most  impressive  of  all  the  periodical  papers 
of  our  century.  In  his  great  work,  the  "  History  of  England," 
he  has  shown  that  history  may  be  written  as  it  never  was 
written  before;  telling  the  national  story  with  accuracy  and 
force,  making  it  as  lively  as  a  novel  through  touches  of  indi- 
vidual interest,  and  teaching  precious  truths  with  fascinating 
eloquence,  whether  by  incidental  hints  or  in  elaborate  disserta- 
tions. With  him  no  comparison  can  be  challenged  by  any 
English  historian  of  our  times,  unless  it  may  be  Alison,  whose 
"  History  of  Europe  "  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  works 
of  our  generation.  Among  the  most  noted  recent  publications 
are  Buckle's  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Civilization," 
Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species,"  and  Carlyle's  "  Frederic  the 
Great." 

In  Carlyle,  a  generous  sentiment  alternates  with  despondent 
gloom  and  passionate  restlessness  and  inconsistency.  But  it  is 
impossible  to  hear  without  a  deep  sense  of  original  power,  the 
oracular  voices  that  issue  from  the  cell  ;  enigmatical,  like  the 
ancient  responses,  and  like  them  illuminating  doul)tful  vaticina- 
tion with  flashes  of  wild  and  half  poetic  fantasy.  His  language 
and  thoughts  alike  set  aside  hereditary  rules,  and  are  com- 
pounded of  elements,  English  and  German,  and  elements 
predominant  over  all,  which  no  name  would  fit  except  that  of 
the  author.  Among  the  numerous  contributors  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  day,  may  be  mentioned  the  names  of  Wilham  and 
Mary  Howitt,  Isaac  Taylor,  Helps,  and  the  brothers  Hare. 
In  art-criticism  we  have  the  brilliant  and  paradoxical  Rusk  in 
and  the  accomplished  Mrs.  Jameson  (d.  1860). 

Within  the  last  twenty  years  periodicals  have  undergone 
mighty  revolutions,  and  newspapers  have  made  remarkable  ad- 
vancement in  ability  of  thought  and  writing,  and  in  the  extent 
of  their  influence  on  the  public  mind.  By  far  the  most  distin- 
guished writer  in  this  department  is  Albany  Fonblanque.  The 
multiplication  of  reviews,  encyclopaedias,  cheap  books  and  other 
means  for  diffusing  knowledge,  is  unprecedented.  Anglo-Saxon 
learning  has  been  for  the  first  time  cultivated,  and  the  litera- 
ture and  antiquities  both  of  that  period  and  of  the  earliest 
times  after  the  Conquest,  have  had  much  new  light  thrown  on 
them.     In  history,  Niebuhr's  masterly  researches  have  commu- 


Of 


524  ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

nicated  their  spirit  to  the  Roman  History  of  Arnold  ;  the 
history  of  Greece  has  assumed  a  new  aspect  in  the  hands  of 
Thirlwull  and  Grote,  and  that  of  Grecian  Uterature  has  been  iu 
part  excellently  related  by  Mure  (d.  1860).  Modern  history  has 
likewise  been  cultivated  with  much  assiduity,  and  several  works 
of  great  literary  merit  have  appeared,  which  are  valuable  as 
storehouses  of  research.  A  large  number  of  books  of  travel 
have  gained  great  popularity  for  their  authors,  such  as  Laing 
]  lead,  Warburton,  and  Kinglake,  and  among  the  scientific  ex- 
plorers are  Layard,  Livingstone,  and  Rawlinson. 

The  spirit  of  philosophical  inquiry  and  discovery  is  increasmg 
in  England,  and  is  everywhere  accompanied  by  a  growing  tend- 
ency to  popularize  all  branches  of  science,  and  to  bring  them 
before  the  general  mind  in  an  attractive  form. 

The  physical  sciences  have  made  marvellous  advances  ; 
many  brilliant  discoveries  have  been  made  during  the  present 
generation,  and  many  scientific  men  have  brought  much  power 
of  mind  to  bear  on  questions  lying  apart  from  their  principal 
studies  ;  among  them  are  Sir  David  Brewster,  Sir  John 
Herschel,  Sir  John  Playfair,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Hugh  Miller, 
Buckland,  and  Professor  Whewell.  In  political  economy,  some 
of  Chalmers'  essays  and  many  of  the  labors  of  McCuUocli  be- 
long to  our  period.  Later  came  Whately,  Senior,  and  John 
Mill,  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  original  minds  of  the  19th 
century.  The  pure  sciences  of  mind  have  been  enriched  by 
important  accessions  ;  logic  has  been  vigorously  cultivated  in  two 
departments  ;  on  the  one  hand  by  Mill  and  Whewell,  the  for- 
mer following  the  tendencies  of  Locke  and  Hobbes,  the  latter 
that  of  the  German  school  ;  on  the  other  hand.  Archbishop 
Whately  has  expounded  the  Aristotelian  system  with  clear- 
ness and  sagacity,  and  De  Morgan  has  attempted  to  supply 
certain  deficiencies  in  the  old  analysis.  But  by  far  the  great- 
est metaphysician  who  has  appeared  in  the  British  empire  dur- 
ing the  present  century,  is  Sir  William  Hamilton.  In  his 
union  of  powerful  thinking  with  profound  and  varied  erudition, 
he  stands  higher,  perhaps,  than  any  other  man  whose  name  is 
preserved  in  the  annals  of  modern  speculation. 


AMEEICAK  LITEEATUEE. 

The  Colonial  Period. — 1.  The  seventeenth  century.  George  Sandys  ;  The  Bay  Psahn 
Book  ;  Anne  Bradstreet,  John  Eliot  and  Cotton  Mather. — 2.  From  1700  to  1770 :  Jona- 
than Edwards,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Cadwallader  Colden. 

First  American  Period  from  1771  to  1S20. — 1.  Statesmen  and  political  writers : 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Hamilton.  The  Federalist:  Jay,  Madison,  Marshall,  Fisher  Amea 
and  others. — 2.  The  Poets  :  Freneau,  Trumbull,  Hopkinson,  Barlow,  Clifton  and 
Dwight. — 3.  Writers  in  other  departments:  Bellamy,  Hopkins,  Dwight  and  Bishop 
White.  Rush,  McClurg,  Lindley  Murray,  Charles  Brockdea  Brown.  Ramsay,  Graydon. 
Count  Rumford,  Wirt,  Ledyard,  Pinkney  and  Pike. 

Second  American  Period  from  1S20  to  1S60. — 1.  History,  Biography,  and  Travels: 
Bancroft,  Prescott,  Motley,  Godwin,  Ticknor,  Schoolcraft,  Hildreth,  Sparks,  Irving, 
Headley,  Stephens,  Kane,  Squier,  Perry,  Lynch,  Taylor,  and  others. — 2.  Oratory  : 
Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Benton,  Everett,  and  others. — 3.  Fiction  :  Cooper,  Irving, 
Willis,  Hawthorne,  Poe,  Simms,  Mrs.  Stowe,  and  others. — i.  Poetry :  Bryant,  Dana, 
Halleck,  Longfellow,  Willis,  Lowell,  Allston,  Hillhouse,  Drake,  Whittier,  Hoffman,  and 
others. — 5.  Miscellaneous  writings :  Emerson,  Margaret  Fuller,  Whipple,  Tuckerman, 
Ripley,  Curtis,  Briggs,  Prentice  and  others. — 6.  Encyclopsedias,  Dictionaries,  and  Educa- 
tional Books.  The  Encyclopaedia  Americana.  The  New  American  Cyclopaedia.  AUibone, 
Griswold,  Duyckinck,  Webster,  Worcester,  Anthon,  J'elton,  Barnard,  and  others. — 7. 
Theology,  Philosophy,  Economy,  and  Jurisprudence  :  Stuart,  Robinson,  Wayland, 
Barnes,  Channing,  Parker.  Tappan,  Henry,  Hickok,  Haven.  Caiey,  Kent,  Wheaton, 
Story,  Livingston,  Bouvier. — S.  Natural  Sciences  :  Franklin,  Morse,  Fulton,  Silliman, 
Dana,  Hitchcock,  Rogers,  Bowditch,  Peirce,  Bache,  Holbrook,  Audubon,  Morton,  Glid- 
don,  Maury,  and  others. — 9.  Foreign  writers :  Paine,  Witherspoon,  Rowson,  Priestley, 
Wilson,  Agassiz,  Guyot,  Mrs.  Robinson,  Gurowski,  and  others. — 10.  Newspapers  and 
Periodicals. 

The  Colonial  Period  (1640-1T10.) 

1.  The  Seventeenth  Century. — Of  all  the  nations  which  have 
sprung  into  existence  through  the  medium  of  European  coloniza- 
tion, since  the  discovery  of  America,  the  United  States  is  the  only 
one  having  a  literature  of  its  own  creation,  and  containing  origi- 
nal works  of  a  high  order.  Its  earliest  productions,  however,  are 
of  Uttle  value ;  they  belong  not  to  a  period  of  literary  leisure,  but 
to  one  of  trial  and  danger,  when  the  colonist  was  forced  to  contend 
with  a  savage  enemy,  a  rude  soil,  and  all  the  privations  of 
pioneer  life.  It  was  not  until  the  spiric  of  freedom  began  to 
influence  the  national  character,  that  the  hterature  of  the  colo- 
nies assumed  a  distinctive  form,  although  its  earliest  productions 
are  not  without  value  as  marking  its  subsequent  development, 

525 


526  AMEKICAN  LITERATURE. 

Among  the  bold  spii'its  who,  with  Captain  John  Smith,  braved 
the  pestilential  swamps  and  wily  Indians  of  Virginia,  there  were 
some  lovers  of  hterature,  the  most  prominent  of  whom  was 
George  Sandys,  who  translated  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses  "  on  the 
banks  of  James  River.  The  work,  published  in  London  in  1620, 
was  dedicated  to  Charles  I.  and  received  the  commendations  of 
Pope  and  Dryden.  The  Pm-itans,  too,  carried  a  love  of  letters 
with  them  to  the  shores  of  Kew  England,  and  their  literary  pro- 
ductions, like  their  colony,  took  a  far  more  lasting  root  than  did 
those  of  their  more  southern  brethren.  The  intellect  of  the  colonies 
first  developed  itself  in  a  theological  form,  which  was  the  natural 
consequence  of  emigration,  induced  by  difference  of  religious  opin- 
ion, the  free  scope  aiforded  for  discussion,  and  the  variety  of  creeds 
represented  by  the  different  races  who  thus  met  on  a  common  soil. 
The  clergy,  also,  were  the  best  educated  and  the  most  influen- 
tial class,  and  the  colonial  era  therefore  boasted  chiefly  a  theo- 
logical literature,  though  for  the  most  part  controversial  and  fugi- 
tive. While  there  is  no  want  of  learning  or  reasoning  power  in  the 
tracts  of  many  of  the  theologians  of  that  day,  they  are  now  chiefly 
referred  to  by  the  antiquarian  or  the  curious  student  of  divinity. 

The  first  book  printed  in  the  colonies  was  the  "Bay  Psalm 
Book,"  which  appeared  in  1640  ;  it  was  reprinted  in  Eng- 
land, where  it  passed  through  seventy  editions,  and  retained 
its  popularity  for  more  than  a  century,  although  it  was  not 
strictly  original,  and  was  devoid  of  literary  merit. 

This  was  followed  by  a  volume  of  original  poems,  by  Mrs.  Anne 
Bradstreet  (d.  1672)  ;  though  not  above  mediocrity,  these  effu- 
sions are  chaste  m  language  and  not  altogether  insipid  in  ideas.  A 
few  years  later,  John  Eliot  (1604-90)  the  famous  Apostle  to  the 
Indians,  pubhshed  a  version  of  the  Psalms  and  of  the  Old  and 
Isew  Testaments  in  the  Indian  tongue,  which  was  the  first  Bible 
printed  in  America.  The  next  production  of  value  was  a  "  Con- 
cordance of  the  Scriptures,"  by  John  Newman  (d.  1663),  com- 
piled by  the  light  of  pine  knots  in  one  of  the  frontier  settlements 
of  New  England  ;  the  first  work  of  its  kind,  and  for  more  than 
a  century  the  most  perfect.  Cotton  Mather  (d.  1728)  was  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age,  and  one  of  its  representative 
writers.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Magnalia  Christi  Ame- 
ricana," an  ecclesiastical  history  of  New  England,  from  1620 
to  1698,  including  the  civil  history  of  the  times,  several  bio- 
graphies, and  an  account  of  the  Indian  wars,  and  of  New  Eng- 
land witchcraft.  EMot  and  Mather  were  the  most  prominent 
colonial  writers  down  to  1700. 

2    FROii  1700  TO  1770.— From  the  year  1700  to  the  break- 


AMEEICAiN-  LITERATUEE.  527 

ing  out  of  tlie  RevoliitioD,  it  was  the  custom  of  many  of  the 
colouists  to  send  their  sons  to  England  to  be  educated.  Yale 
College  and  other  institutions  of  learning  were  established  at 
home,  from  which  many  eminent  scholars  graduated,  and, 
although  it  was  the  fashion  of  the  day  to  imitate  the  writers  of 
the  time  of  Queen  Anne  and  the  two  G-eorges,  the  productions 
of  this  age  exhibit  a  manly  vigor  of  thought,  and  mark  a 
transition  from  the  theological  to  the  more  purely  literary  era  of 
American  authorship. 

Jonathan  Edwards  (lT03-'85)  was  the  first  native  wi'iter  who 
gave  unequivocal  evidence  of  great  reasoning  power  and  origin- 
ality of  thought;  he  may  not  unworthily  be  styled  the  first  man 
of  the  world  during  the  second  quarter  of  the  18th  century,  and 
as  a  theologian,  Dr.  Chalmers  and  Robert  Hall  declare  him  to 
have  been  the  greatest  in  all  Christian  a":es.  Of  the  works  of 
Edwards,  consisting  of  diaries,  discourses,  and  treatises,  that 
on  "  The  Will  "  is  the  most  celebrated. 

Benjamin  Eranklm  (1706-90)  was  equally  illustrious  in 
statesmanship  and  philosophy.  The  style  of  his  poUtical  and 
philosophical  wTitings  is  admii-able  for  its  simplicity,  clearness, 
precision,  and  condensation  ;  and  that  of  his  letters  and  essays 
has  all  the  wit  and  elegance  that  characterize  the  best  writers 
of  Queen  Anne's  time.  His  autobiography  is  one  of  the  most 
pleasing  compositions  in  the  English  language,  and  his  moral 
writings  have  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  character  of  the 
American  people. 

Erom  the  early  youth  of  Franklin  until  about  the  year  1770, 
general  literature  received  much  attention,  and  numerous  pro- 
ductions of  merit  both  in  prose  and  verse  appeared,  which,  if 
not  decidedly  great,  were  interesting  for  the  progress  they  dis- 
played. Many  practical  minds  devoted  themselves  to  colonial 
history,  and  their  labors  have  been  of  great  value  to  subsequent 
historians.  Among  these  historical  writings,  those  of  Cadwal- 
lader  Colden  (1688-1776)  take  the  first  rank.  As  we  ap- 
proach the  exciting  dawn  of  the  Revolution,  the  growing 
independence  of  thought  becomes  more  and  more  manifest. 


First  Americax  Period  (1770-1820). 

1.  Statesmex  an'd  Political  Writers. — Among  the  causes 
which  rapidly  developed  Uterature  and  eloquence  in  the  colonies, 
the  most  important  were  the  oppressions  of  the  mother  country, 


528  AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 

at  first  silently  endured,  then  met  with  murmurs  of  dissatisfac- 
tion, and  finally  with  manful  and  boldly-expressed  opposition. 
Speeches  and  pamphlets  were  the  weapons  of  attack,  and 
treating  as  they  did  upon  subjects  afiecting  the  individual 
liberty  of  every  citizen,  they  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
public  mind,  and  went  far  towards  severing  that  mental  reliance 
upon  Europe,  which  American  authorship  is  now  so  rapidly  con- 
summating. The  conventionalism  of  European  literature  was 
cast  aside,  and  the  first  fruits  of  native  genius  appeared.  The 
public  documents  of  the  principal  statesmen  of  the  age  of  the 
Revolution  were  declared  by  Lord  Chatham  to  equal  the  finest 
specimens  of  Greek  or  Roman  wisdom.  The  historical  cor- 
respondence of  this  period  constitutes  a  remarkable  portion  of 
American  literature,  and  is  valuable  not  only  for  its  high  quali- 
ties of  wisdom  and  patriotism,  but  for  its  graces  of  expression 
and  felicitous  illustration.  The  letters  of  Washington,  Adams, 
Jefi'erson,  Franklin,  Jay,  Morris,  Hamilton,  and  many  of  their 
compatriots  possess  a  permanent  literary  value  aside  from  that 
which  they  derive  from  their  authorship  and  the  gravity  of  their 
subjects. 

The  speeches  of  many  of  the  great  orators  of  the  age  of  the 
Revolution  are  not  preserved,  and  are  known  only  by  tradition. 
Of  the  eloquence  of  Otis,  which  was  described  as  "  flames  of 
fire,"  there  are  but  a  few  meagre  reports  ;  the  passionate  appeals 
of  Patrick  Henry  and  of  the  elder  Adams,  which  "  moved  the 
hearers  from  their  seats,"  and  the  resistless  declamation  of 
Pinkney  and  Rutledge,  are  preserved  only  in  the  history  of  the 
effects  which  these  orators  produced. 

The  writings  of  Washington  (lt32-'99),  produced  chiefly  in 
the  camp  surrounded  by  the  din  of  arms,  are  remarkable  for 
clearness  of  expression,  force  of  language,  and  a  tone  of  lofty 
patriotism.  They  aro  second  to  none  of  similar  character  in 
any  nation,  and  they  display  powers  which,  had  they  been  devoted 
to  literature,  would  have  achieved  a  position  of  no  secondary 
character. 

Jefferson  (1743-1826)  early  published  a  '' Summary  View 
of  the  Rights  of  British  America,"  which  passed  through 
several  editions  in  London,  under  the  supervision  of  Burke.  His 
*' Notes  on  Virginia"  is  siill  a  standard  work,  and  his  varied 
and  extensive  correspondence  is  a  valuable  contribution  to 
American  political  history. 

Hamilton  (1757-1801)  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
men  of  the  time,  and  to  his  profound  sagacity  the  country 
was  chiefly  indebted  for  a  regulated  currency  and  an  estab- 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  529 

lished  credit  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  During  a 
life  of  varied  and  absorbing  occupation  as  a  soldier,  lawyer 
and  statesman,  he  found  time  to  record  his  principles,  and 
his  writings,  full  of  energy  and  sound  sense,  are  noble  in  tone, 
and  deep  in  ^^^sdom  and  insight.  '"The  Federalist,"  a  joint 
production  of  Hamilton,  Madison,  and  Jay,  exhibits  a  pro- 
fundity of  research  and  an  acuteness  of  understanding  which 
would  do  honor  to  tlie  most  illustrious  statesmen  of  any  age. 
The  name  of  Madison  (1T51-1836)  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
minent in  the  history  of  the  country,  and  his  writings,  chiefly  on 
political,  constitutional,  and  historical  subjects,  are  of  extra- 
ordinary value  to  the  student  in  history  and  political  philosophy. 

Marshall  (1755-1835)  was  for  thirty-five  years  chief-justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  ;  a  court,  the  powers 
of  which  are  greater  than  were  ever  before  confided  to  a 
judicial  tribunal.  Determining,  without  appeal,  its  own  juris- 
diction and  that  of  the  legislative  and  executive,  this  court  is 
not  merely  the  highest  estate  in  the  country,  but  it  settles  and 
continually  moulds  the  constitution  of  the  government.  To  the 
duties  of  his  office,  Judge  Marshall  brought  a  quickness  of  con- 
ception commensurate  with  their  difficulty,  and  the  spirit  and 
strength  of  one  capable  of  ministering  to  the  development  of  a 
nation.  The  vessel  of  state,  it  has  been  said,  was  launched  by 
the  patriotism  of  many  ;  the  chart  of  her  course  was  designed 
chiefly  by  Hamilton  ;  but  when  the  voyage  was  begun,  the  eye 
that  observed,  the  head  that  reckoned,  and  the  hand  that  com- 
pelled the  ship  to  keep  her  course  amid  tempests  without,  and 
threats  of  mutiny  within,  were  those  of  the  great  chief-justice, 
whom  posterity  will  reverence  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
nation.  Marshall's  "Life  of  Washington"  is  a  faithful  and 
conscientious  narrative,  w^ritten  in  a  clear,  unpretending  style, 
and  possesses  much  Uterary  merit. 

Fisher  Ames  (1758-1808),  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  federal 
party  during  the  administration  of  Washington,  was  equally  ad- 
mired for  his  learning  and  eloquence  ;  although,  owing  to  the 
temporary  interest  of  many  of  the  subjects  on  which  he  wrote, 
his  reputation  has  somewhat  declined. 

Among  other  writers  and  orators  of  the  age  of  the  devolu- 
tion were  Warren,  Adams,  and  Otis,  Patrick  Henry,  Rutledge, 
Livingston,  Drayton,  Quincy,  Dickinson,  and  numerous  firm  and 
gifted  men,  who,  by  their  logical  and  earnest  appeals  roused  the 
country  to  the  assertion  of  its  rights  and  gave  a  wise  direo 
tion  to  the  power  they  thus  evoked. 

23 


530  AMEEICAX   LITERATURE. 

2.  The  Poets. — One  of  the  most  distiuguislied  poets  of  the 
Age  of  the  RevoUition  was  Fhihp  Freiieau  (1T52-1832). 
Although  many  of  his  compositions,  which  had  great  pohtical 
eifect  at  the  time  they  were  written,  have  little  merit,  or  relate  to 
forgotten  events,  enough  remains  to  show  that  he  was  not  want- 
ing in  genius  and  enthusiasm. 

John  Trumbull  (1750-1831)  was  the  author  of  "McFingal," 
a  humorous  poem  in  the  style  of  Butler's  Hudibras,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  render  ludicrous  the  zeal  and  logic  of  the  tories. 
There  is  no  contemporaneous  record  which  supplies  so  vivid  a  re- 
presentation of  the  manners  of  the  age,  and  the  habits  and 
modes  of  thinking  that  then  prevailed.  The  popularity  of  McFiu- 
gal  was  extraordinary,  and  it  had  an  important  influence  on  the 
great  events  of  the  time.  Trumbull  was  a  tutor  in  Yale  College, 
and  attemjited  to  introduce  an  improved  course  of  study  and  disci- 
pline into  the  institution,  which  met  with  much  opposition.  His 
most  finished  poem,  ''  The  Progress  of  Dullness,"  was  hardly  less 
serviceable  to  the  cause  of  education,  than  his  McFingal  was  to 
that  of  liberty.  Francis  Hopkinson  (1138-91),  another  wit  of 
the  Revolution,  may  be  ranked  beside  Trumbull  for  his  efficiency 
in  the  national  cause. 

Joel  Barlow  (1755-1812)  as  an  author  was  among  the 'first 
of  his  time.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Columbiad,"  an  epic 
poem  which,  with  many  faults,  has  occasional  bursts  of  patriot- 
ism and  true  eloquence,  which  should  preserve  it  from  oblivion. 
His  pleasing  poem  celebrating  ''  Hasty  Pudding"  has  gained  a 
more  extensive  popularity.  The  few  songs  of  William  Clifton 
(1772-99),  a  more  original  and  vigorous  poet,  are  imbued  with 
the  true  spu'it  of  lyric  poetry. 

Timothy  Dwight  (1752-1819)  was  the  author  of  "Green- 
field Hill,"  the  "  Conquest  of  Canaan,"  an  epic  poem,  and  several 
other  productions  ;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  merits  as  a 
theologian,  in  which  department  he  had  few  if  any  equals.  Many 
other  names  might  be  cited,  but  none  of  commanding  excellence. 

3.  Writers  in  other  Departments. — Although  in  the  period 
immediately  succeeding  the  Revolution  there  was  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  political  discussion,  not  a  few  writers  found  exercise  in 
other  departments.  Theology  had  its  able  exi30unders  in  Bel- 
lamy, Hopkins,  Dwight  and  Bishop  White.  Barton  merits 
especial  notice  for  his  work  on  botany,  and  for  his  ethnological 
investigations  concerning  the  Indian  race,  and  Drs.  Rush  and 
jSIcClurg  were  eminent  in  various  departments  of  medical  science. 
In  1795,  Lindley  Murray  (1745-182G)  published  his  Englisli 


AilERICAX   LITERATURE.  531 

Grammar,  which  for  a  long  tune  held  its  place  as  the  best  work 
of  the  kind  iu  the  language. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  during  this  period 
very  few  writers  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  literature. 
Charles  Brockden  Brown  (1771-1810)  was  the  first  purely  pro- 
fessional author.  His  chief  productions  are  two  works  of  fiction, 
*' Wieland"  and  ''  Arthur  Mervyn,"  which  from  their  merit,  and 
as  the  first  of  American  creations  in  the  world  of  romance,  were 
favorably  received,  and  early  attracted  attention  in  England, 

One  of  the  earliest  laborers  in  the  field  of  historv  was  David 
Ramsay  (1749-1815),  and  his  numerous  works  are  monuments 
of  his  unwearied  research  and  patient  labor  for  the  public  good 
and  the  honor  of  his  country.  Graydon's  (1742-1818)  "  Memoirs 
of  his  own  Times,  with  lleminiscences  of  Men  and  Events  of 
the  Revolution,"  illustrates  the  most  interesting  and  important 
period  of  our  history,  and  combines  the  various  excellences  of 
style,  scholarship,  and  impartiality. 

Benjamin  Thompson  (1753-1814),  better  known  by  his  title 
of  Count  Rumford,  acquired  an  extensive  reputation  in  the  scien- 
tific world  for  his  various  philosophical  improvements  in  private 
and  political  economy.  William  Wirt  was  the  author  of  the 
^'  Letters  of  the  British  Spy,"  which  derives  its  interest  from  its 
descriptions,  and  notices  of  individuals.  His  "  Life  of  Patrick 
Henry  "  is  a  finished  piece  of  biography,  surpassed  by  few  works 
of  its  kind  iu  elegance  of  style  and  force  of  narrative. 

John  Ledyard  (1751-88),  who  died  in  Egypt  while  preparing 
for  the  exploration  of  Central  Africa,  was  the  first  important 
contributor  to  the  literature  of  travel,  in  America,  and  his  jour- 
nals, abounding  in  pleasing  description  and  truthful  narratives, 
have  become  classic  in  this  department  of  letters.  A  captivat- 
ing book  of  travels  in  France,  by  Lieut.  Pinkney,  which  appeared 
in  1809,  created  such  a  sensation  in  England,  that  Leigh  Hunt 
tells  us  it  set  all  the  idle  world  going  to  France.  Zebulon  Pike, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  government,  published  the  first  book 
ever  written  on  the  country  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 


Secoxd  Americax  Period  (1820-1860). 

1.  History,  Biography  and  Travels. — From  the  year  1820, 
American  literature  may  be  considered  as  fairly  launched  upon 
its  national  career.  The  early  laborers  in  the  field  had  unmense 
difficulties  to  encounter  from  ridicule  abroad  and  want  of  appreci- 


532  AMERICAN    LITER ATU HE. 

atioa  at  home  ;  but  tliey  at  last  succeeded  in  dispelling  all  doubts 
as  to  tlie  capability  of  the  American  mind  for  the  exercise  of 
original  power,  and  to  some  extent  diverted  public  thought  from 
Europe  as  an  exclusive  source  of  mental  supplies.  The  era 
we  are  now  to  consider  will  be  found  prolific  in  works  of  merit, 
and  the  expansion  of  mind  will  be  seen  to  have  kept  pace  with 
the  political,  social  and  commercial  progress  of  the  nation.  No 
subject  of  human  knowledge  has  been  overlooked  ;  many  Euro- 
pean works  have  been  elucidated  by  the  fresh  light  of  the 
American  mind  ;  a  new  style  of  thought  has  been  developed  ; 
new  scenes  have  been  opened  to  the  world,  and  Europe  is  receiv- 
ing compensation  in  kind  for  the  intellectual  treasures  she  has 
heretofore  sent  to  America. 

The  marvellous  growth  of  the  United  States,  its  relations 
to  the  past  and  future,  and  to  the  great  problem  of  hu- 
manity, render  its  history  one  of  the  most  suggestive  epi- 
sodes in  the  annals  of  the  world,  and  give  to  it  a  universal 
as  well  as  a  special  dignity.  Justly  interpreted,  it  is  the  prac- 
tical demonstration  of  principles  which  the  noblest  spirits  of 
England  advocated  with  their  pens,  and  often  sealed  with  their 
blood.  The  early  colonists  were  famihar  with  the  responsibihties 
and  progressive  tendency  of  liberal  institutions,  and  in  achieving 
the  Revolution  they  only  carried  out  what  had  long  existed  in  idea, 
and  actualized  the  views  of  Sidney  and  his  illustrious  compeers. 
Through  tliis  intimate  relation  with  the  past  of  the  Old  World, 
and  as  initiative  to  its  future  self-enfranchisement,  our  history 
daily  unfolds  new  meaning  and  increases  in  importance  and 
interest.  It  is  only  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  how- 
ever, that  this  theme  has  found  any  adequate  illustration. 
Before  that  time  the  labors  of  American  historians  had  been 
chiefly  confined  to  the  collection  of  materials,  the  unadorned 
record  of  facts  which  rarely  derived  any  charm  from  the  graces 
of  style  or  the  resources  of  philosophy. 

The  most  successful  attempt  to  reduce  the  chaotic  but  rich 
materials  of  American  history  to  order,  beauty  and  moral  signi- 
ficance, has  been  made  by  Bancroft,  who  has  brought  to  the 
work  not  only  talent  and  scholarship  of  high  order,  but  an  ear- 
nest sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  the  age  he  was  to  illustrate.  In 
sentiment  and  principle  his  history  is  thoroughly  American, 
although  in  its  style  and  philosophy  it  has  that  broad  and  eclectic 
spirit  appropriate  to  the  general  interest  of  the  subject,  and  the 
enlightened  sympathies  of  the  age.  Unwearied  and  patient  in  re- 
search, discriminating  and  judicious  in  the  choice  of  authorities, 
and  possessed  of  all  the  qualities  required  to  fuse  into  a  vital 


AMERICAN   LITEKATUPvE.  533 

unity  the  narrative  thus  carefully  gleaned,  Bancroft  has  written 
the  most  accurate  and  philosoj^hical  account  that  has  been  given 
of  the  United  States. 

The  works  of  Prescott(1796-1858)are  among  the  finest  models 
of  historical  composition,  and  they  breathe  freely  the  spirit  of  our 
liberal  institutions.  His  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella," 
of  the  "  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  and  the  "  Conquest  of  Peru," 
unite  all  the  fascination  of  romantic  fiction  with  the  grave  in- 
terest of  authentic  events.  The  picturesque  and  romantic  char- 
acter of  his  subjects,  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  his  style,  the 
dramatic  interest  of  his  narrative,  and  the  careful  research  which 
renders  his  works  as  valuable  for  their  accuracy  as  they  are 
attractive  for  their  style,  have  given  Prescott's  histories  a  brilUant 
and  extensive  reputation  ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  deep  regret  that 
his  last  and  crowning  work,  "  The  History  of  Philip  II.,"  should 
remain  uncompleted.  Another  important  contribution  to  the 
literature  of  the  country,  is  Motley's  "  History  of  the  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic,"  a  work  distinguished  for  its  historical  accuracy, 
philosophical  breadth  of  treatment,  and  clearness  and  vigor  of 
style.  The  narrative  proceeds  with  a  steady  and  easy  flow,  and 
the  scenes  it  traces  are  portrayed  with  the  hand  of  a  master  ; 
while  the  whole  work  is  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  humanity  and  a 
genuine  sympathy  with  liberty.  The  most  important  recent 
historical  publication  is  the  first  volume  of  Parke  Godwin's 
**  History  of  France,"  remarkable  for  its  combination  of  deep 
research,  picturesqueness  of  style,  comprehensiveness  and  liberality 
of  spirit  ;  it  is  destined  to  take  its  rank  among  the  great  histo- 
rical works  of  the  age. 

Ticknor's  *'  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  as  an  intellectual 
achievement,  ranks  with  the  best  productions  of  its  kind,  and 
is  everywhere  regarded  by  scholars  as  a  standard  authority. 
It  is  thoroughly  penetrated  with  the  true  Castilian  spirit,  and 
is  a  complete  record  of  Sj^anish  civilization,  both  social  and 
intellectual,  equally  interesting  to  the  general  reader  and 
to  the  student  of  civil  history.  It  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages. 

Henry  R.  Schoolcraft  has  devoted  much  time  to  researches 
among  the  Indian  tribes  of  Xorth  America,  and  embodied 
the  result  of  his  labors  in  many  volumes,  containing  their 
traditions,  and  the  most  interesting  facts  of  their  history.  Cat- 
lin's  "  Notes  on  the  Manners,  Customs,  and  Conditions  of  the 
North  American  Indians,"  though  without  literary  pretensions 
or  literary  merit,  fills  an  important  place  in  ethnological  litera- 
ture.    Another  work  of  a  more  historical  character  is  "  The 


534  AMEEICAN   LITEEATUFvE. 

History  of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  North  America,"  the  joint  pro- 
duction of  Hall  and  McKinney.  Bradford's  "  American  Anti- 
quities and  Researches  into  the  Origin  of  the  Red  Race,"  is  also 
an  able  and  instructive  work.  In  Hildreth's  "  History  of  the 
"United  States,"  rhetorical  grace  and  effect  give  way  to  a  plahi 
narrative  confined  to  facts  gleaned  with  great  care  and  conscien- 
tiousness. The  "  Field-Book  of  the  Revolution,"  by  Lossing, 
who  has  visited  all  the  scenes  of  that  memorable  war,  and  de- 
lineated them  with  pen  and  pencil,  is  a  work  which  finds  its  way 
to  all  the  school  hbraries  of  the  country.  Cooper's  "  Xaval 
History  of  the  United  States  "  abounds  in  picturesque  and  thrill- 
ing descriptions  of  naval  warfare,  and  is  one  of  the  most  charac- 
teristic histories,  both  in  regard  to  style  and  subject,  yet  pro- 
duced in  America. 

S.  G.  Goodrich  (1T93-1860),  who,  under  the  name  of  Peter 
Parley,  has  acquired  an  extensive  popularity  in  England  and 
the  United  States,  was  the  pioneer  in  the  important  reform 
of  rendering  historical  school  books  attractive,  and  his  numerous 
works  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  Uterature  designed  for 
the  young.  Two  other  able  writers  in  this  department  are 
John  S.  C.  and  Jacob  Abbott. 

Among  the  numerous  local  and  special  histories,  valuable  for 
their  correctness  and  literary  merit,  are  Brodhead's  "  History  of 
jS^ew  York,"  Palfrey's  and  Elliott's  Histories  of  Xew  England, 
Trumbull's  "  History  of  Connecticut,"  Hawks's  "  History 
of  North  Carolina,"  and  Dr.   Francis's  "  Historical  Sketches." 

To  the  department  of  Biography,  Jared  Sparks  has  made  many 
valuable  contributions.  Washington  Irving's  "  Life  and  Voy- 
ages of  Columbus  "  and  "  Life  of  Washington  "  have  gained  a  po- 
pularity as  extensive  as  the  fame  of  this  charming  writer.  Mrs. 
Kirkland  has  also  written  a  popular  "  Life  of  Washington."  The 
biographies  and  histories  of  J.  T.  Headley  are  remarkable  for  a 
vivacity  and  energy,  which  have  given  them  great  popularity.  The 
"Biographical  and  Historical  Studies"  of  G.  W.  Greene,  Ran- 
dall's "  Life  of  Jefferson,"  Barton's  Biographies  of  Aaron  Burr 
and  other  celebrated  men,  Mrs.  Ellet's  "  Women  of  the  Revolu- 
tion" and  "Women  Artists  in  all  Ages,"  and  Mrs.  Hale's 
*'  Sketclies  of  Distinguished  Women  in  all  Ages,"  are  among  the 
numerous  works  belonging  to  this  department. 

The  restlessness  of  the  American  character  finds  a  mode  of 
expression  in  the  love  of  travel  and  adventure,  and  within  the  last 
thirtv  vears  no  nation  has  contributed  to  literature  more  interest- 
ing  books  of  travel  than  the  United  States.  Flint's  "  AVander- 
ings  in  the  A'alley  of  the  Mississippi,"  Schoolcraft's  "  Discoveries 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  635 

and  Adventures  in  the  iS'orthwest/'  Irviug's  "Astoria  "  and  Fre- 
mont's Reports  are  instructive  and  entertaining  accounts  of  the 
West.  The  "  Incidents  of  Travel"  of  John  L.  Stephens  (1805-'52) 
has  had  remarkable  success  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  this  country. 
The  adventurous  Arctic  explorations  of  E.  K.  Kane  (1822-57) 
have  ehcited  universal  admiration  for  the  interest  of  their  de- 
scriptions and  for  the  heroism  and  indomitable  energy  of  the 
writer.  These  narratives  have  been  followed  by  those  of  Hayes 
in  the  same  field  of  adventure.  The  scientific  explorations  of 
E.  G.  Squier  have  thrown  new  light  on  the  antiquities  and  eth- 
nology of  the  aborigmal  tribes  of  America.  Wilkes's  *'  Narrative 
of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,"  and  Perry's  "  Narra- 
tive of  an  Exi^edition  to  Japan,"  are  full  of  scientific  and  general 
information.  Lynch's  "  Exploration  of  the  Dead  Sea,"  and  Hern- 
don's  "  Valley  of  the  Amazon"  belong  to  the  same  class.  Bart- 
lett's  "  Explorations  in  Texas,  and  New  Mexico,"  is  interesting 
from  the  accuracy  of  its  descriptions,  and  the  novelty  of  the  scenes 
it  describes.  Among  the  numerous  other  entertaining  books  of 
travel  in  foreign  countries  are  those  of  Bayard  Taylor,  who  has 
left  few  parts  of  the  world  un visited,  Dana's  "  Two  Years  before 
the  Mast,"  Curtis's  "  Nile  Notes,"  Norman's  "  Cities  of  Yuca- 
tan," Dix's  "  Winter  in  Madeh'a,"  Brace's  "  Hungary"  "  Home 
Life  in  Germany"  and  "Norse  Folk,"  Olmsted's  "Travels  in 
the  Seaboard  Slave  States,"  and  other  works  ;  Koss  Browne's 
"Notes,"  Prime's  "Boat" and  "Tent Life,"  "Letters of L'enceus;" 
Slidell's  "  Year  in  Spain,"  Willis's  "  Pencillings  by  the  Way," 
Hillard's  "  Six  Months  in  Italy,"  and  "  Letters,"  "  Memories," 
and  "Souvenirs,"  by  Catharine  M.  Sedgwick,  Sarah  llaight, 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  Grace  Greenwood,  and  Octavia  Walton 
Le  Yert. 

2.  Oratory, — The  public  speeches  of  a  nation's  chief  legisla- 
tors are  shining  landmarks  of  its  policy  and  lucid  developments 
of  the  character  and  genius  of  its  institutions.  Of  the  statesmen 
of  the  present  century,  the  most  eminent  are  Webster,  Clay,  and 
Calhoun.  Daniel  Webster  (1782-1852)  is  acknowledged  to  be 
one  of  the  greatest  men  America  has  produced.  His  speeches 
and  forensic  arguments  constitute  a  characteristic  as  well  as  an 
intrinsically  valuable  and  interesting  portion  of  our  native  htera- 
ture,  and  some  of  his  orations  on  particular  occasions  are  every- 
where recognized  as  among  the  greatest  instances  of  genius  in 
this  branch  of  letters  to  be  met  with  in  modern  times.  The 
style  of  Webster  is  remarkable  for  its  clearness  and  impressivc- 
ness,  and  rises  occasionally  to  absolute  grandeur.     His  dignity 


536  AMERICAN   LITER ATTRE. 

of  expression,  breadth,  and  force  of  thought  realize  the  ideal  of  a 
republican  statesman  ;  his  writings,  independent  of  their  literary 
merit,  are  inraluable  for  the  nationality  of  their  tone  and  spirit. 

The  speeches  of  Henry  Clay  (1771-1852)  are  distiuguished 
by  a  sincerity  and  warmth  which  were  characteristic  of  the  man, 
who  united  the  gentlest  affections  with  the  pride  of  the 
haughtiest  manhood.  His  style  of  oratory,  full,  flowing  and 
sensuous,  was  modulated  by  a  Toice  of  sustained  power  and 
sweetness  and  a  heart  of  chivalrous  courtesy,  and  his  eloquence 
reached  the  heart  of  the  whole  nation. 

The  style  of  John  C.  Calhoun  (1782-1850)  was  terse  and  con- 
densed, and  his  eloquence,  though  sometimes  impassioned,  was 
always  severe.  He  had  great  skill  as  a  dialectician  and  remark- 
able power  of  analysis,  and  his  works  will  have  permanent  place 
in  American  literature.  The  writings  and  speeches  of  John 
Quincy  Adams  (1769-1848),  are  distiuguished  by  universaHty  of 
knowledge  and  independence  of  judgment,  and  they  are  reposito- 
ries of  rich  materials  for  the  historian  and  political  philosopher. 
Benton's  (1783-1858)  "  Thirty  Years' View"  of  the  working  of 
the  American  government  is  a  succession  of  historical  pictures 
which  will  increase  in  value  as  the  scenes  they  portray  become 
more  distant.  Edward  Everett,  as  an  orator,  has  few  living  equals, 
and  his  occasional  addresses  and  orations  have  become  peraianent 
memorials  of  many  important  occasions  of  public  interest.  Of 
the  numerous  other  orators,  eminent  as  rhetoricians  or  debaters, 
a  few  only  can  be  named  ;  among  them  are  Legare,  Randolph, 
Choate,  Sumner,  Phillips,  Preston,  and  Prentiss. 

3.  Fiction. — Romantic  fiction  found  its  first  national  de- 
velopment in  the  writings  of  James  Fenimore  Cooper  (1789- 
1851),  and  through  his  works  American  literature  first  be- 
came widely  known  m  Europe.  HLs  nautical  and  Indian  tales  ; 
his  delineations  of  the  American  mind  in  its  adventurous  cha- 
racter, and  his  vivid  pictures  of  the  aborigines,  and  of  forest  and 
frontier  life,  from  their  freshness,  power,  and  novelty,  attracted 
universal  attention,  and  were  translated  into  the  principal 
European  languages  as  soon  as  they  appeared.  "  Tlie  Spy," 
"  The  Pioneers,"  "  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  and  numerous 
other  productions  of  Cooper,  must  hold  a  lasting  place  in  English 
literatui'e. 

The  genial  and  refined  humor  of  Washington  Irving  (1783- 
1859),  his  lively  fancy  and  poetic  imagination,  have  made  his 
name  a  favorite  wherever  the  English  language  is  known.  He 
depicts  a  great  variety  of  scenes  and  characters  with  singular 


AMEKICAX   LITER AIX'KE.  537 

skill  and  felicity,  and  bis  style  has  all  the  ease  and  gi'ace,  the 
purity  and  charm  that  distinguish  that  of  Goldsmith,  with 
whom  he  may  justly  be  compared.  "  The  Sketch  Book,''  and 
"  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York,"  are  among  the  most 
admired  of  his  earher  writings,  and  his  later  works  have  more 
than  sustained  his  early  fame. 

The  tales  and  prose  sketches  of  X.  P.  Willis  are  characterized 
by  genial  wit,  and  a  delicate  rather  than  a  powerful  imagina- 
tion, while  beneath  his  brilliant  audacities  of  phrase  there  is  a 
current  of  original  thought  and  genuine  feeling.  Commanding 
all  the  resources  of  passion,  while  he  is  at  the  same  time  master 
of  all  the  effects  of  manner,  in  the  power  of  ingenious  and  subtle 
comment  on  passing  events,  of  sketching  the  lights  and  shadows 
which  flit  over  the  surface  of  society,  of  playful  and  felicitous 
portraiture  of  individual  traits,  and  of  investing  his  descriptions 
with  the  glow  of  vitality,  this  wi'iter  is  unsurpassed. 

Hawthorne  is  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  of  his  psychological 
insight,  his  power  of  intense  characterization,  and  for  his 
mastery  of  the  spiritual  and  the  supernatural.  His  genius  is 
most  at  home  when  delineating  the  darker  passages  of  hfe,  and 
the  emotions  of  guilt  and  pain.  He  does  not  feel  the  necessity 
of  time  or  space  to  realize  his  spells,  and  the  early  history  of 
New  England  and  its  stern  people  have  found  no  more  vivid  illus- 
tration than  his  pages  afford.  The  style  of  Hawthorne  is  the 
pure  colorless  medium  of  his  thought  ;  the  plain  current  of  his 
language  is  always  equable,  full  and  unvarying,  whether  in  the 
company  of  playful  children,  among  the  ancestral  associations 
of  family  or  history,  or  in  grappUug  with  the  mysteries  and  ter- 
rors of  the  supernatural  world.  "The  Scarlet  Letter"  is  a 
psychological  romance,  a  study  of  character  in  which  the  human 
heart  is  anatomized  with  striking  poetic  and  dramatic  power. 
"The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables"  is  a  tale  of  retribution  and 
expiation,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  Salem  witchcraft.  "  The 
Marble  Faun  "  is  the  most  elaborate  and  powerfully  drawn  of 
his  later  works. 

Edgar  A.  Poe  (1811-'49)  acquired  much  reputation  as  a 
writer  of  tales,  and  many  of  his  productions  exhibit  extra- 
ordinary metaphysical  acuteuess,  and  an  imagination  that 
delights  to  dwell  in  the  shadowy  confines  of  human  experience, 
among  the  abodes  of  crime  and  horror.  A  subtle  power  of 
analysis,  a  minuteness  of  detail,  a  refinement  of  reasoning  in 
the  anatomy  of  mystery,  give  to  his  most  improbable  inventions 
a  wonderful  reality. 

Of  the  numerous  writings  of  William  Gilmore  Simms,  historical 

23* 


538  AMERICAN    LITERATURE. 

or  imaginative  romances  form  no  inconsiderable  part.  As  a 
novelist  he  is  vigorous  in  delineation,  dramatic  in  action,  poetic 
in  description,  and  skilled  in  the  art  of  story-telling.  His  pictures 
of  Southern  border  scenery  and  life  are  vivid  and  natural. 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  was  well  known  as  a  writer  before  the 
appearance  of  the  work  which  has  given  her  a  world-wide  repu- 
tation. Xo  work  of  fiction  of  any  age  ever  attained  so  immediate 
and  extensive  a  popularity  as  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  ;"  before 
the  close  of  the  first  year  after  its  publication  it  had  been 
translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe  ;  many  millions  of 
copies  had  been  sold,  and  it  had  been  dramatized  in  twenty 
different  forms,  and  performed  in  every  capital  of  Europe. 

Besides  the  authors  already  named  there  is  a  crowd  of  others 
of  various  and  high  degrees  of  merit  and  reputation  ;  but  whose 
traits  are  chiefly  analogous  to  those  already  described.  Paul- 
ding, in  ''Westward  Ho"  and  "The  Dutchman's  Fireside," 
has  drawn  achnirable  pictures  of  colonial  life  ;  Dana,  in  "  The 
Idle  Man,"  has  two  or  three  remarkable  tales  ;  Flint,  Hall, 
and  Webber  have  written  graphic  and  spirited  tales  of  western 
life.  Kennedy  has  described  Virginia  life  in  olden  times,  in 
"  Swallow  Barn  ;"  and  Fay  has  described  "  Life  in  New 
York  ;"  Hofiman  has  embodied  the  early  history  of  New  York 
ill  a  romantic  form,  and  Dr.  Bird  that  of  Mexico.  William 
Ware's '' Probus"  and  ''Letters  from  Palmyra,"  are  classical 
romances,  and  Judd's  "  Margaret"  is  a  tragic  story  of  New 
England  life.  Cornelius  Mathews  has  chosen  new  subjects,  and 
treated  them  in  an  original  way  ;  John  Neal  has  written  many 
novels  full  of  power  and  incident  ;  and  George  Wood,  in  his 
"  Peter  Schlemihl,"  has  satirized  the  follies  of  the  day.  The 
"  Hyperion"  and  "Kavanagh"  of  Longfellow  establish  his  suc- 
cess as  a  writer  of  fiction  ;  and  in  adventurous  description,  the 
"  Omoo"  and  "Typee"  of  Melville,  and  the  "Kaloolah"  and 
"  Berber"  of  Mayo  have  gained  an  extensive  popularity. 

This  department  of  literature  has  been  ably  represented  by 
the  women  of  the  United  States,  and  their  contributions  form 
an  important  part  of  our  national  literature.  Catharine  M.  Sedg- 
wick has  written  the  most  pleasing  and  graphic  tales  of  New 
Eno^land  life.  Lvdia  M.  Child  is  the  author  of  several  fictions, 
as  well  as  other  prose  works,  which  evince  great  vigor,  beauty, 
and  grace.  Afaria  J.  Mcintosh  has  written  many  charming  tales  ; 
the  "  New  Home  "  of  Mrs.  Kirkland,  an  admirable  picture  of 
frontier  life,  was  brilliantly  successful,  and  will  be  permanently 
valuable  as  representing  scenes  most  familiar  to  the  early  set- 
tlers of  the  western  States.     The  works  of  the  Misses  Warner 


AMERICAN   LITEKATURE.  530 

are  equally  popular  in  England  and  the  United  States.  Among 
numerous  other  names  are  those  of  Eliza  Leslie,  Lydia  H. 
Sigourney,  Caroline  Oilman,  E.  Oakes  Smith,  Alice  and  Fhebe 
Gary,  Elizabeth  F.  EUet,  Sarah  J.  Hale,  Emma  Willard,  Caro- 
line Lee  Hentz,  Alice  B.  Neal,  Caroline  Chesebro,  Emma 
Southworth,  Ann  S.  Stephens,  Maria  Cummings,  Anna 
Mowatt  Ritchie,  Rose  Terry,  Harriet  E.  Prescott,  Augusta  J. 
Evans,  Catharine  A.  Warfield,  and  the  writers  under  the  as- 
sumed names  of  Fanny  Forrester,  Grace  Greenwood,  Fanny 
Fern,  Marion  Harland,  and  Mary  Forrest,  besides  many  anony- 
mous writers. 

4.  Poetry, — America  has  as  yet  produced  no  great  epic  poet, 
although  the  existence  of  a  high  degree  of  poetical  talent  can- 
not be  denied.  Carrying  the  same  enthusiasm  into  the  world  of 
fancy  that  h.e  does  into  the  world  of  fact,  the  American  finds  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  poetic  faculty  a  pleasant  rehef  from  the 
absorbing  pursuits  of  daily  life  ;  hence,  while  poetry  is  some- 
times cultivated  as  an  art,  it  is  oftener  resorted  to  as  a  pastime; 
the  number  of  writers  is  more  numerous  here  than  in  any  other 
country,  and  the  facility  of  poetical  expression  more  universal. 
Wilham  C.  Bryant  is  recognized  as  the  best  representative  of 
American  poetry.  He  is  extremely  felicitous  in  the  use  of 
native  materials,  and  he  has  a  profound  love  of  nature  and  of 
freedom  united  with  great  artistic  skill.  He  is  eminently  a  con- 
templative poet ;  in  his  writings  there  is  a  remarkable  absence 
of  those  bursts  of  tenderness  and  passion  which  constitute  the 
essence  of  a  large  portion  of  modern  verse.  His  strength  lies  in 
his  descriptive  power,  in  his  serene  and  elevated  philosophy,  and 
in  his  noble  simplicity  of  language.  Richard  H.  Dana  is  the 
most  psychological  of  the  American  poets  ;  the  tragic  and 
remorseful  elements  of  humanity  exert  a  powerful  influence 
over  his  imagination,  while  the  mysteries  and  aspirations  of  the 
human  soul  ^1  and  elevate  his  mind.  His  verse  is  sometimes 
abnipt,  but  never  feeble.  The  poems  of  Fitz  Greene  Halleck 
are  spirited  and  warm  with  emotion,  or  sparkling  with  genuine 
wit.  His  humorous  poems  are  marked  by  an  uncommon  ease 
of  versification,  a  natural  flow  of  language,  and  a  playful  ftlicity 
of  jest  ;  his  serious  poems  are  distinguished  for  manly  vigor  of 
thought  and  language,  and  beauty  of  imagery.  The  poems  of 
Henry  W.  Longfellow  are  chiefly  meditative,  and  often  embody 
and  illustrate  significant  truths.  They  give  little  evidence  of  the 
power  of  overmastering  passion,  but  they  are  pervaded  with  an 
earnestness  and  Ijeauty  of  sentiment  expressed  in  a  finished  and 


540  AMERICAN   LITERATtrilE. 

artistic  form,  which  at  once  wins  tlie  ear  and  impresses  the 
memory  and  heart.  In  "  Evaug*eline "  and  ''Hiawatha,"  the 
most  popular  of  his  later  productions,  he  has  sivillfully  suc- 
ceeded in  the  use  of  the  hexameter  in  Eughsh.  The  poems 
of  N.  P.  Willis  are  characterized  by  a  vivid  imagination  and  a 
brilliant  wit,  combined  with  grace  of  utterance  and  artistic 
finish.  His  picturesque  elaborations  of  some  of  the  incidents 
recorded  in  the  Bible  are  the  best  of  his  poetical  compositions. 
His  dramas  are  delicate  creations  of  sentiment  and  passion,  with 
a  relish  of  the  Elizabethan  age.  J.  II.  Lowell  unites  in  his  most 
effective  poems  a  philosophic  simplicity  with  a  transcendental 
suggestiveness.  Imagination  and  pliilanthropy  are  the  dominant 
elements  in  his  wTitings,  which  are  marked  by  a  graceful  flow 
and  an  earnest  tone.  His  satires  contain  many  sharply  draw^n 
portraits,  and  his  humorous  poems  are  replete  with  wit. 

Washington  Allston  (1779-1843)  owed  his  chief  celebrity  to 
his  paintings,  but  his  literary  -works  alone  would  have  given  him 
high  rank  among  men  of  genius.  His  poems  are  delicate, 
subtle  and  philosophical,  and  though  few  in  number,  they  are 
exquisite  in  finish  and  in  the  thoughts  which  they  embody. 

James  A.  Hillhouse  (1789-1841)  excelled  in  what  may  be 
called  the  w^ritten  drama,  which,  though  unsuited  to  representa- 
tion, is  characterized  by  noble  sentiment  and  imagery.  His 
dramatic  and  other  poems  are  the  first  instances  in  this  country 
of  artistic  skill  in  the  higher  and  more  elaborate  spheres  of 
poetic  writing,  and  have  gained  for  him  a  permanent  place 
among  the  American  poets.  The  "Culprit  Fay"  of  Joseph 
Rodman  Drake  (1795-1820),  is  a  poem  exhibiting  the  most 
delicate  fancy  and  much  artistic  skill.  It  was  a  sudden  and 
brilliant  flash  of  a  highly  poetical  mind  which  was  extinguished 
before  its  powers  were  fully  expanded.  The  poetry  of  John  G. 
Whittier  is  characterized  by  boldness,  energy  and  simplicity, 
often  united  with  tenderness  and  grace;  that  of  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes  by  humor  and  genial  sentiment.  In  poetry->  as  in  prose, 
Edgar  A.  Poe  was  most  successful  in  the  metaphysical  treatment 
of  the  passions.  His  poems,  which  are  constructed  with  great 
ingenuity,  illustrate  a  morbid  sensitiveness  and  a  shadowy  and 
gloomy  imagination.  The  poems  of  Henry  T.  Tuckerman  are 
expressions  of  graceful  and  romantic  sentiment  or  the  fruits  of 
reflection,  illustrated  with  a  scholar's  taste. 

Charles  Fenno  Hofl'man  is  the  author  of  many  admired  con- 
vivial and  amatory  poems,  and  George  P.  Morris  is  the  recog- 
nized song-writer  of  America. 

Of  numerous  other  poets,   w^hose  names  are  familiar  to  all 


AMERICAN    LITER ATUEE.  541 

readers  of  American  literature,  a  few  only  can  be  named  ; 
among  them  are  John  G.  C.  Brainerd,  James  G.  Percival, 
Richard  H.  Wilde,  James  G.  Brooks,  Charles  Sprague,  Alfred 
B.  Street,  Bayard  Taylor,  Richard  H.  Stoddard,  T.  Buchanan 
Read,  T.  B.  Aldrich,  William  Allen  Butler,  Albert  G.  Greene, 
George  D.  Prentice,  Wilham  J.  Pabodie,  Park  Benjamin,  Wil- 
liam Gilraore  Simms,  John  R.  Thompson,  William  Ross  Wallace, 
Charles  G.  Leland,  Thomas  Dunn  Enszlish,  William  D,  GallaQ,*her, 
Albert  Pike,  John  G.  Saxe,  James  T.  Fields,  Arthnr  C.  Cox, 
Cornehus  Mathews,  John  Neal,  and  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Among  the  literary  women  of  the  United  States  are  many 
graceful  \\Titers  who  possess  true  poetical  o^enius,  and  enjoy  a  high 
local  reputation.  The  "  Zophiel"  of  Maria  Brooks  (1795-1845) 
evinces  an  uncommon  degree  of  power  in  one  of  the  most  refined 
and  diificult  provinces  of  creative  art.  Prances  S.  Osgood  (1812- 
'50)  was  endowed  with  great  playfulness  of  fancy,  and  a  facility 
of  expression  which  rendered  her  almost  an  improvisatrice.  Her 
later  poems  are  marked  by  great  intensity  of  feeling  and  power 
of  expression.  The  "  Sinless  Child  "  of  Elizabeth  Oakes  Smith, 
is  a  melodious  and  imaginative  poem,  with  many  passages  of  deep 
significance.  Amelia  B.  Welby's  poems  are  distinguished  for 
sentiment  and  melody.  The  "  Passion  Flowers  "  and  other  poems 
of  JuHa  Ward  Howe  are  full  of  ardor  and  earnestness.  Mrs. 
SiQ:ournev's  metrical  writings  are  cherished  by  a  large  class  of 
readers.  Hannah  F.  Gould  has  written  manv  prettv  and  fanci- 
ful  poems,  and  Grace  Greenwood's  "  Ariadne  "  is  a  fine  burst 
of  womanly  pride  and  indignation.  Among  many  other  equally 
well  known  and  honored  names,  there  are  those  of  Elizabeth  F. 
Ellet,  Emma  C.  Embury,  Sarah  J.  Hale,  Louisa  J.  Hall,  Eliza- 
beth Bogart,  Alice  B.  Haven,  Mary  E.  Hewitt,  "  Fanny  For- 
rester," Mary  E.  Brooks,  Jane  G.  Fuller,  Estelle  A.  Lewis, 
Anna  C.  Mowatt  Ritchie,  Ann  S.  Stephens,  Sarah  H.  Whitman, 
Catharine  A.  Warfield  and  Eleanor  Lee  (''Two  Sisters  of  the 
West"),  Alice  and  Phebe  Cary,  "Edith  May,"  CaroHne  G. 
Marsh,  Ehzabeth  C.  Kinney,  and  Maria  Lowell. 

Nothing  of  very  decided  mark  has  been  contributed  to 
dramatic  literature  by  American  writers,  though  this  branch  of 
letters  has  been  cultivated  with  some  success.  John  Howard 
Payne  vrrote  several  successful  plays  ;  George  H.  Boker  is  the 
author  of  many  dramatic  works  which  establish  his  claim  to  an 
honorable  rank  among  the  dramatic  \^Titers  of  the  asre.  Single 
dramas  by  Bird,  Sargent,  Conrad,  and  other  writers,  still  keep 
their  place  upon  the  stage  ;  with  many  faults,  they  abound  in 
beauties,  and  they  are  valuable  as  indications  of  awakening  genius, 


542  AilERICAN    LITERATUEE. 

5.  Miscellaneous  Writixgs. — Of  the  essayists,  critics  and 
miscellaneous  writers  of  the  United  States,  a  few  only  may  be 
here  characterized.  Ralph  AValdo  Emerson  possesses  in  a 
remarkable  degree  the  faculties  of  a  poet,  with  the  speculative 
power  of  the  metaphysician.  He  is  keen,  subtle  and  analytical 
in  thought,  humane  in  feeling,  and  has  a  peculiar  combination 
of  traits,  which  have  placed  him  at  the  head  of  a  school. 

Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli  (d.  1850)  was  a  critic  of  great 
originahty  and  vigor  of  mind,  ripe  culture  and  fearlessness  of 
utterance.  Parke  Godwin  is  a  brilliant  political  essayist.  E. 
P.  Whipple  is  an  able  critic  and  an  essayist  of  great  acuteness, 
insight  and  logical  power.  H.  T.  Tuckerman  is  a  genial  and  a}> 
preciative  writer,  combining  extensive  scholarship  with  elevated 
sentiment  and  feeling.  George  Ripley,  though  not  ostensibly  be- 
fore the  public  as  an  author,  has  made  his  influence  widely  felt 
in  American  literature  ])y  criticism  indicating  a  thorough  know- 
ledge in  the  various  branches  of  philosophy,  theology  and  gene- 
ral literature.  Richard  Grant  White's  "  Commentaries  on  Shak- 
speare  "  have  met  with  a  cordial  reception  from  all  Shakspearean 
scholars. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  conceals  under  the  garb  of  wit  and 
humor  an  earnest  sympathy  and  a  deep  knowledge  of  human 
nature  ;  George  W.  Curtis  combines  fine  powers  of  observation 
and  satire  with  delicacy  of  taste  and  refinement  of  feeling,  and  Do- 
nald G.  Mitchell  gives  to  the  world  his  "  Reveries"  in  a  pleas- 
ing and  attractive  manner.  The  writings  of  A.  J.  Downing, 
on  subjects  relating  to  rural  life  and  architecture,  have  exer- 
cised a  wide  and  salutary  influence  on  the  taste  of  the  country. 
Willis  Gaylord  Clark  (1810-'41),  is  best  remembered  by  his 
"  Ollapodiana"  and  his  occasional  poems,  in  which  humor  and 
pathos  alternately  prevail.  The  ''Charcoal  Sketches"  of  Jo- 
seph C.  Neal  (1807- 4t),  exhibit  a  genial  humor,  and  will  be 
remembered  for  the  curious  specimens  of  character  they  embody. 

Seba  Smith  has  been  most  successful  in  adapting  the  Yankee 
dialect  to  the  purposes  of  humorous  writing  in  his  "Jack  Down- 
ing's  Letters  "  and  other  productions.  The  writings  of  Henry  D. 
Thoreau,  combining  essay  and  description,  are  quaint  and  hu- 
morous, while  those  of  "  Timothy  Titcomb  "  (J.  G.  Holland)  ore 
addressed  to  the  practical  common  sense  of  the  American  people. 

The  productions  of  Catharine  E.  Beecher  are  extensively  popu- 
lar ;  those  of  Charles  A.  Bristed  exhibit  the  rare  union  of  tne 
scholar  and  the  man  of  the  world. 

Ciiarles  T.  Brooks  is  distinguished  for  his  felicitous  transla- 
tions from  the  German  poets  and  wTiters  ;  and  Louis  Gaylord 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE.  543 

Clark   is  widely  known   through   his    "  Editor's  Table,"   and 
"  Gossip  with  readers  and  correspondents." 

C.  F.  Briggs  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  humorous  and 
satirical  sketches,  and  his  influence  has  been  felt  through  his 
criticisms  and  editorial  labors.  The  writings  of  George  D. 
Prentice  abound  in  wit  and  humor.  ^Y.  H.  Hurlburt  is  an  able 
expositor  of  political  aifairs  and  a  brilliant  descriptive  writer. 
The  style  of  F.  S.  Cozzens  is  attractive  for  its  racy  humor,  and 
T.  B.  Thorpe  has  great  descriptive  talent,  combined  with  a  keen 
perception  of  the  ludicrous. 

6.    EXCYCL0P.EDIAS,  DlCTIOXARIES    AND  EDUCATIONAL  BoOKS. 

The  Encyclopoedia  Americana,  the  first  work  of  the  kind  under- 
taken in' America,  appeared  in  1829,  under  the  auspices  of  Dr. 
Lieber,  and  contains  articles  on  almost  every  subject  of  human 
knowledge.  The  Xew  American  Cyclopaedia,  edited  by  George 
Kipley  and  Charles  A.  Dana  (commenced  in  185T,  to  be  com- 
pleted m  1862),  is  a  work  on  a  larger  and  more  original  plan, 
and  is  particularly  valuable  as  the  repository  of  all  knowledge 
bearing  upon  American  civilization,  while  at  the  same  thne  it 
embodies  a  great  amount  of  interesting  and  valuable  information 
on  all  subjects.  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  English  Authors,"  only 
one  volume  of  which  has  as  yet  appeared,  exceeds  all  similar 
works  in  the  number  of  authors  it  describes,  and  the  details  it 
contains.  Among  the  works  containing  abundant  materials  for 
the  history  of  American  literature  are  the  several  volumes  of 
Rufus  W.*^Griswold,  the  ''  Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature," 
by  G.  L.  and  E.  A.  Duyckinck,  and  other  collections  or  sketches 
by  Hart,  Cleveland,  Tuckerman,  Everest,  and  Caroline  May. 

*  The  Dictionary  of  Xoah  Webster  (1778-1843),  an  elaborate 
and  successful  undertaking,  has  exercised  an  influence  over  the 
English  language  which  will  probably  endure  for  generations ;  and 
the  recent  "publication  of  Worcester's  Dictionary,  which  adds 
many  thousand  words  to  the  registered  English  vocabulary, 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  language.  It  is  regarded 
by  competent  critics  as  the  first  of  all  English  dictionaries  in 
pouit  of  merit,  and  as  the  fitting  representative  of  the  language 
of  the  two  great  branches  of  tlie  Anglican  stock.  The  "Lec- 
tures on  the  English  Language,"  by  George  P.  Marsh,  exhibit  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  are  admirably  designed 
to  render  the  study  attractive  to  all  persons  of  taste  and  culture. 
The  scholars  of  Europe  are  much  indebted  to  those  of 
America  for  their  investigations  of  the  Karen,  the  Siamese, 
Asamese,  Chinese,  and  numerous  African  languages  ;  and  for 


544  AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 

grammars  and  dictionaries  of  tlie  Burmese,  Chinese,  the  Hawai- 
ian and  the  modern  Armenian,  Syrian,  and  Chaldee  tongues. 
Foreign  and  comparatively  unknown  languages  have  thus  been 
reduced  to  a  system  and  grammar  by  which  they  can  readily  be 
acquired  by  Europeans.  Many  valuable  works  have  also 
appeared  on  the  language  of  the  American  Indians. 

The  text-books  of  the  United  States  are  unsurpassed  by 
those  of  any  country,  and  many  of  them  are  in  use  in  England. 
Among  them  are  Anthon's  admirable  series  of  Latin  and  Greek 
Classics  and  Classical  Dictionary,  Kobinson's  Hebrew  and 
Enghsh  dictionary  of  Gesenius,  and  the  Latin  and  English 
dictionary  of  Andrews,  founded  on  the  celebrated  work  of 
Freund. 

Felton's  "  Classical  Studies,"  and  his  various  editions  of  the 
classics,  have  been  ably  prepared  and  evince  a  scholar's  enthu- 
siasm. Henry  Barnard,  by  his  *' Journal  of  Education"  and 
numerous  other  writings,  is  identified  with  the  cause  of  popular 
education  and  has  acquired  an  extensive  reputation  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  Horace  Mann  is  also  widely  known 
through  his  "  Ilcports"  on  education  ;  and  in  the  practical  car- 
rying out  of  profound  liberal  and  national  views  in  our  colleges. 
Presidents  Isott,  Tappan,  Wayland,  Sears,  and  King  have  been 
eminently  successful. 

t.  Theology,  Philosophy,  Economy,  and  Jurispkudence. — 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  Theological  writers  of  this 
country  are  among  the  ablest  of  modern  times,  and  the  diversity 
of  sects,  a  curious  and  striking  fact  in  our  social  history,  is  fully 
illustrated  by  the  literary  organs  of  each  denomination  from  the 
spiritual  commentaries  of  Bush  to  the  ardent  Catholicism  of 
Brownson.  The  works  of  Moses  Stuart  (n80-1852),  Edward 
Robinson,  Francis  Wayland  and  Albert  Barnes,  are  standard 
authorities  with  all  classes  of  Protestant  Christians. 

William  Ellery  Channing  (1780-1842)  achieved  a  wide 
reputation  for  genius  in  ethical  literature,  and  as  a  moral  essay- 
ist will  hold  a  permanent  place  in  English  letters.  Among 
other  members  of  the  clerical  profession  who  have  had  a  marked 
influence  on  the  mind  of  the  age  by  their  scholarship  or  eloquence, 
are  Drs.  Hickok,  C.  S.  Henry,  Tappan,  II.  B.  Smith,  Hitch- 
cock, W.  K.  Williams,  Alexander,  Bethune,  Hawks,  Sprague, 
Bushnell,  Thompson,  Tyng,  Bartol,  Dewey,  Korton,  Frotliing- 
ham,  Osgood,  Chapin,  13ellows,  Furness,  Livermore,  Ware, 
Peabody,  and  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 

Theodore    Parker    (1 812-60}    occupies   a   promment  jjlace 


AMERICAN   LITEEATUEE.  545 

among  the  disciples  of  the  rationalistic  school  in  the  19th 
century.  His  writings  indicate  great  scholarship  and  logical 
power  and  great  earnestness  in  developing  the  consequences  of 
his  peculiar  views  in  the  defence  of  what  he  considers  the  rights 
of  humanity. 

The  philosophical  writings  of  Dr.  Tappan,  the  author  of  a 
*'  Treatise  on  the  Will,"  and  a  work  on  the  "Elements  of  Logic," 
those  of  C.  S.  Henry,  Wayland,  Hickok,  and  Haven  have  an 
extensive  reputation  ;  and  of  the  various  works  on  political  econo- 
my those  of  Henry  C.  Carey  are  most  widely  known. 

Most  prominent  among  the  writings  of  American  jurists  are 
those  of  Kent,  Wheaton,  Story,  Livingston,  and  Bouvier.  Kent's 
(1^63-1841)  "  Commentaries"  on  American  Law  at  once  took  a 
prominent  place  in  legal  literature,  and  are  now  universally  con- 
sidered of  the  highest  authority.  Of  AVheaton's  (1785-1848) 
great  works  on  International  Law,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  one 
has  been  formally  adopted  by  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
England,  as  the  best  work  of  its  kind  extant,  and  as  a  manual 
for  tuition  by  the  professors  of  legal  science.  Among  modern 
legal  writers.  Story  (1779-1845)  occupies  a  distinguished  posi- 
tion. His  *'  Commentaries "  have  acquu'ed  a  European  repu- 
tation, and  have  been  translated  into  French  and  German. 
Livmgston's  (1764-1833)  "  System  of  Penal  Laws  for  the  United 
States,"  since  its  publication  in  1828,  has  materially  modified 
the  penal  laws  of  the  world,  and  may  be  considered  the  first 
complete  penal  system  based  upon  philanthropy,  and  designed  to 
substitute  mildness  for  severity  in  the  punishment  of  criminals. 
Bouvier's  "Institutes  of  American  Law,"  and  "Dictionary  of 
Law,"  are  considered  as  among  the  best  works  of  their  kind, 
both  in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Other  branches  of 
legal  research  have  been  treated  in  a  masterly  maimer  by  Ameri- 
can writers,  and  manv  authors  misrht  be  named  whose  works  take 
a  high  rank  in  both  hemispheres. 

8.  Natural  Sciences. — The  Physical  Sciences,  from  an  early 
period,  have  found  able  investigators  in  the  United  States.  Ben- 
jamin Thompson  (Count  Bumford)  successfully  apphed  his  know- 
ledge to  increase  the  convenience,  economy,  and  comfort  of  man- 
kind. Franklin's  discoveries  in  electricity,  the  most  brilliant 
which  had  yet  been  made,  have  been  followed  by  those  of  Morse, 
whose  application  of  that  power  to  the  telegraphic  wire,  is  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  achievements  of  modern  science.  Fitch 
and  Fulton  were  the  first  to  apply  steam  to  navigation,  a  force 
which  has  become  one  of  the  most  powerful  levers  of  civilizatioa 


546  AMERICAN   LITERATUEE. 

In  Chemistry  the  works  of  Hare,  Silliman,  Henry,  Hunt,  and 
Morfit,  are  equally  honorable  to  themselves  and  the  country.  The 
names  of  Dana,  Hitchcock,  Hall,  the  brothers  Rogers,  Eaton, 
Hodge,  Owen,  and  Whitney,  are  identified  with  the  science  of 
Geology  in  the  United  States.  The  names  of  Torrey  and  Gray 
are  eminent  in  Botany,  and  the  writings  of  the  latter  especially 
rank  among  the  most  valuable  botanical  works  of  the  age.  *  The 
Mathematical  Sciences  have  found  able  expounders.  The  merits 
of  Dr.  Bowditch  (1173-1838)  entitle  him  to  a  high  rank  among 
the  mathematicians  of  the  world.  His  Commentary  on  the 
Mecanique  Celeste  of  La  Place,  which  he  translated,  is  an  original 
work,  and  contains  many  discoveries  of  his  own.  His  "  Practical 
Navigator  "  is  the  universally  adopted  guide  in  the  American 
marine,  and  to  a  great  extent  in  the  naval  service  of  England 
and  France. 

In  Mathematics  as  well  as  Astronomy,  Peirce  and  Kill  have 
shown  themselves  able  investigators.  Bache,  of  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey,  has  made  many  valuable  contributions  to 
physical  science.  The  astronomical  works  of  Professors 
Loomis,  Gould,  Norton,  Olmsted,  and  Mitchell  hold  a  high 
position  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  ;  and  valuable  astro- 
nomical observations  have  been  made  by  Lieutenants  Maury  and 
Gillies,  and  Maria  Mitchell. 

In  Natural  History,  Holbrook's  "  North  American  Herpe- 
tology,"  or  a  description  of  the  reptiles  of  the  United  States, 
is  a  work  of  great  magnitude,  and  sustains  a  high  scientific 
reputation.  Audubon's  (1180-1851)  "  Birds  of  America"  is 
the  most  magnificent  work  on  Ornithology  ever  pubhshed. 
Since  the  death  of  Audubon,  the  subject  to  which  he  devoted 
his  life  has  been  pursued  by  Cassin  and  Girard,  who  rank 
with  him  as  naturalists.  Goodrich's  "  Animal  Kingdom"  is  a 
recent  popular  work  in  this  department. 

The  ''Crania  Americana"  of  Dr.  Morton,  the  "  Crania  Egyp- 
tiaca"  of  Gliddon,  and  the  ''Types  of  Mankind,"  the  joint  pro- 
duction of  the  above  writers  and  Dr.  Nott,  are  important  con- 
tributions to  the  department  of  Ethnology. 

DeYere  and  D wight  are  eminent  writers  on  Philology  ;  Jarvis, 
Hough,  Tucker,  DeBow,  Kennedy  and  Wynne  on  Statistics. 

Medical  literature  has  been  ably  illustrated,  and  American 
writers  on  Naval  and  Military  affairs  have  contributed  largely 
to  the  effectiveness  of  modern  warfare.  Geographical  knowledge 
has  been  greatly  increased.  Many  explorations  and  publications 
have  been  made  under  the  patronage  of  the  government,  and 
many  excellent  maps  and  charts  have  been  executed  from  actual 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  547 

suryey.s.  The  Wind  Charts  and  other  works  of  Lieutenant 
Maurv  have  greatly  advanced  the  science  of  Xavig-ation,  and 
Ms  "  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea  "  has  revealed  the  mysteries 
of  the  submarine  world  with  graphic  power. 

9.  Foreign  Writers. — Many  foreign  writers  in  the  United 
States,  some  of  whom  have  had  their  tastes  formed  here,  and 
are  essentially  American  in  principle  and  feehng,  have  contri- 
buted to  the  literature  of  the  country.  The  celebrated  Bishop 
Berkeley  (1686-53),  whose  prophetic  verses  on  America  are  so 
often  quoted,  brought  with  him  the  prestige  which  attached  to 
liigh  literary  reputation,  and  had  an  influence  on  the  progress 
of  literature  in  the  colonies.  His  "Minute  Philosopher" 
contains  many  passages  descriptive  of  the  scenery  at  Newport, 
in  the  midst  of  which  it  was  written.  Thomas  Paine  (1736- 
1809)  wrote  his  pamphlet  entitled  "  Common  Sense,"  and  his 
"  Crisis,"  in  America,  the  former  of  which,  especially,  power- 
fully affected  the  political  condition  of  the  country.  John 
Witherspoon  (1T22-1794:),  lineal  descendant  of  John  Knox, 
was  the  author  of  many  religious  works,  and  of  some  valuable 
political  essays.  Susanna  Rowson  (1T62-1824)  was  the  author 
of  "  Charlotte  Temple,"  a  novel  which  had  extraordinary  suc- 
cess in  its  day,  and  of  many  books  of  less  fame.  Joseph 
Priestley  (1733-180-4)  wrote  and  published  many  of  his  most 
valuable  works  in  the  United  States.  His  friend  Thomas 
Cooper  (1759-1840)  was  one  of  the  most  active  minds  of  the 
age,  and  his  religious,  political,  and  scientific  WTitiugs  were  not 
without  their  influence  on  the  national  literature.  The  Ameri- 
can Ornithology  of  Alexander  Wilson  (1766-1813),  a  native 
of  Scotland,  is  second  only  to  the  great  work  of  Audubon. 
The  names  of  Matthew  Carey,  Peter  Duponceau,  and  Albert 
Gallatin,  are  also  honorably  associated  with  American  letters. 

Of  the  more  recent  writers,  Dr.  Lieber  has  done  much  for  the 
advancement  of  political  and  philosophical  science  in  the  United 
States.  The  names  of  Agassiz  and  Guyot,  prominent  among 
the  scientific  investigators  of  the  age,  are  indissolubly  connected 
with  science  in  America  ;  and  Drs.  Draper  and  Dunglison  have 
made  valuable  contributions  to  the  medical  literature  of  the 
world.  Count  A.  de  Gnrowski,  an  able  scholar,  has  published 
a  w^ork  on  "  Russia  as  it  is,"  and  another  on  "  America  and 
Europe."  Mrs.  Robinson's  various  works  entitle  her  to  high 
distinction  in  the  more  grave  as  well  as  the  lighter  departments 
of  hterature.  Professor  Koeppen  has  written  two  valuable 
vrorks  on  the  ''  World  in  the  Middle  Ages."     Dr.  Brunow  has 


548  AMERICAN   LITERATURE. 

bronglit  a  European  reputation  to  the  aid  of  one  of  our  western 
universities.  Henry  Giles  has  gained  distinction  bj  his  essays 
and  criticisms,  and  Henry  William  Herbert  by  his  novels  and 
miscellaneous  writings.  Many  other  foreign  men  of  letters 
might  be  named,  who,  in  various  ways,  aid  the  development  of 
the  national  literature. 

10.  Xewspapeks  AND  PERIODICALS. — One  of  the  most  powerful 
engines  in  creating  a  taste  for  literature  amoug  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  is  the  Newspaper  and  Periodical  Press.  Every 
interest,  every  social  and  political  doctrine  has  its  organ,  and 
every  village  has  its  newspaper  ;  not  devoted  solely  to  special 
local  or  even  to  national  topics,  but  registering  the  principal 
passing  events  of  the  actual  as  well  as  of  the  intellectual  world, 
and  in  this  respect  differing  essentially  from  the  Press  of  all  other 
countries.  These  papers  are  offered  at  so  small  a  price  as  to 
place  them  within  the  reach  of  all ;  and  in  a  country  where  every 
one  reads,  the  influence  of  such  a  power  as  a  public  educator, 
in  stimulating  and  diffusing  mental  activity,  and  in  creating 
cosmopolitan  interests,  can  scarcely  be  comprehended  in  its  full 
significance.  While  there  is  much  in  these  publications  that 
is  necessarily  of  an  evanescent  character,  and  much  that  might 
perhaps  be  better  excluded,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  best  of 
our  daily  and  weekly  papers  often  contain  literary  matter  which 
in  a  less  fugitive  form  would  become  a  permanent  and  valuable 
contribution  to  the  national  literature. 

The  Magazines  and  Reviews  of  the  United  States  take  a 
worthy  place  beside  those  of  Great  Britain,  and  present  a  variety 
of  reading  which  exhibits  at  once  the  versatility  of  the  people 
and  the  cosmopolitan  tendency  of  the  hterature  which  addresses 
itself  to  the  sympathies  of  the  most  diversified  classes  of  readers. 
Among  the  Quarterly  Reviews,  the  Xorth  American  occupies 
the  most  prominent  position.  It  is  associated  with  the  earliest 
dawninirs  of  the  national  literature,  and  in  the  list  of  its  con- 
tributors  is  found  almost  every  name  of  note  in  American  letters. 
The  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art  is  the  most  eminent 
of  the  Scientific  Periodicals  ;  the  Bibhotheca  Sacra,  the  New 
Englander,  the  Christian  Examiner,  and  the  Princeton  Review 
are  among  the  most  able  of  the  Religious  Journals. 

With  the  decease  of  H.  S.  Legare,  one  of  the  most  finished 
scholars  of  the  South,  the  Southern  Quarterly,  which  had  been 
indebted  to  his  pen  for  many  of  its  ablest  articles,  ceased  its 
existence.  Putnam's  Magazine  was  long  the  medium  of  the 
most   valuable   and   interesting    fugitive   literature ;    and   the 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE.  549 

Atlantic  Monthly,  which  has  succeeded  it,  is  under  the  auspices 
of  the  most  eminent  men  of  letters  in  New  England,  and  has 
become  the  nucleus  of  a  number  of  young  and  able  writers. 
The  Knickerbocker  Magazine,  one  of  the  oldest  of  its  class  in 
the  country,  is  ably  conducted,  and  has  among  its  contributors 
many  of  the  leading  literary  men.  The  Historical  Magazine, 
and  Notes  and  Queries  concerning  the  Antiquities,  History  and 
Biography  of  America,  recently  established,  is  destined  to  be 
the  repository  of  much  valuable  information  and  many  curious 
incidents  in  the  early  history  of  the  country.  Harper's  Maga- 
zme  (illustrated)  contains  some  of  the  choicest  light  reading  of 
the  day,  and  has  reached  the  unprecedented  circulation  of 
200,000  copies  every  month. 

The  language  of  American  hterature  being  that  of  England, 
its  early  productions  were  naturally  modelled  after  those  of 
the  mother-country.  But  the  cosmopolitan  elements  of  which 
the  nation  is  composed,  and  the  peculiar  influences  of  American 
civilization  m  holding  out  to  the  human  race  opportunities  and 
destinies  unparalleled  in  history,  are  rapidly  developing  a  distinct 
national  character  which  in  the  future  must  be  reflected  in 
American  literature,  and  cannot  fail  to  produce  great  results. 
This  at  least  is  the  belief  of  all  those  who  have  faith  in  humanity 
and  in  the  spirit  which  laid  the  foundation  of  our  llepublic. 


I  K   D  E  X  . 


-» ♦  • 


[TaiJ  biographical  and  the  longer  critical  or  historical  notices  of  the  text,  as  well  as  the 
founders  and  most  prominent  representatives  of  literary  schools  or  systems,  are  uidicated 
below  by  the  use  of  small  capitals.  Names  merely  mentioned  in  the  text,  without  special 
remark,  are  in  general  not  inserted  in  the  Index,  but  may  be  found  by  referring  to  the 
departments  of  literature  to  which  they  severally  belong.] 


Abbott,  John  and  Jacob,  534 

Abelard,  philosophy,  250,  473. 

Abul  Kasim  Massl'r  (Ferdusi),  poetry,  43. 

Academy  of  Athens,  lUG;  schools  of  the 
Old  and  New,  112,  113;  della  Crusca, 
226;  del  Ciraento,  227;  the  Royal, 
London,  and  of  Sciences,  Paris,  22S  ;  the 
French,  271. 

"  Adam,"  Andreini's,  the  supposed  founda- 
tion of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  233. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  writings  of,  536. 

Addison,  Joseph,  the  "  Spectator,"  504. 

"  Adonis,"  Marmi's,  231. 

^neid,  the,  146 ;  translation  of,  by  Gavin 
Douglas,  4S6  ;  by  Dryden,  502. 

^olic  lyric  poets,  79. 

.aischines,  oratory,  104. 

.a^scHYLUS,  tragedy,  'JS. 

.ilsop,  fables,  7S. 

.^thetics,  Italian,  246. 

Agricola,  life  of,  by  Tacitus,  166. 

Agrippa,  Cornelius,  occult  sciences,  421. 

Ahriman,  the  Persian  principle  of  evil,  41. 

Akenside,  "Pleasures  of  Imagination," 506. 

Albergati,  comedy,  23S. 

Albigenses,  the,  257,  320. 

Alc^us,  lyric  poetry,  79. 

Alcman,  lyric  poetry,  81. 

Aluman,  "  Guzman  de  Alfarache,"  337. 

"  Alexander,"  the  Norman  poem  of,  25S. 

Alexander  the  Great,  Segura's  poetical  his- 
tory of,  312. 

Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  363. 

Alexander  de  Hales,  pliilosophy,  478. 

Alexandria,  library  and  school  of,  fr4;  be- 
comes the  principal  seat  of  Greek  litera- 
ture, 109  ;  the  poets  of,  110  ;  prose  writers 
of.  111 ;  early  influence  of  Christianity  at, 
113  ;  destruction  of  the  library  of,  117. 

Alexandrine  verse,  origin  of  the  name,  259. 

Alfieri,  tragedy,  238. 

AiFOXSO  THE  Wise,  311,  349  ;  his  "  Chroni- 
cle of  Spam,"  316. 

Alfred,  King,  477. 

Algarotti,  romance,  243. 

AxiiiESTCs,  Ciscius,  annals,  138. 


Alison,  history,  523. 

Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  English  Au- 
thors," 543. 

AUston,  Washington,  poetry,  540. 

Al  Mamoun,  Caliph,  190. 

Almquist,  Swedish  poetry,  402. 

"  Amadis  of  Gaul,"  the  romance  of,  259, 318. 

Ambrose,  St.,  178. 

America,  Spanish  histories  of,  327. 

American  literature,  525 ;  the  colonial  pe- 
riod— the  17th  century,  ib.  ;  from  1700  to 
1770,  527 ;  first  American  period,  from 
177o  to  1820,  ib. ;  second  American  pe- 
riod, from  1820  to  1860,  531. 

"American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art," 
548. 

Ames,  Fisher,  oratory,  etc.,  529. 

"  Aminta,"  by  Tasso,  216,  221. 

Ammianus  Jlarcellinus,  history,  176. 

Amyot,  translations,  268. 

"  Anabasis,"  Xenophon's,  105. 

Anacreon,  lyric  poetrj',  81. 

"Anatomy  of  Melancholy,"  Burton's,  493. 

Anaxagoras,  philosophy,  87. 

Anaximander,  philosophy,  86. 

Anaximenes,  philosophy,  86. 

Anderson,  Uans  Christian,  romance,  etc., 
397. 

Andrade,  Jacinto  de,  biography,  356. 

Andreini,  comedy,  233. 

Andrews,  Bishop,  sermons,  490. 

Andronicus,  Livil'S,  tragedy,  etc.,  130,  136, 
142. 

Anglo-Saxon  tongue,  the,  471  ;  literature 
in,  476. 

Anglo-Saxons,  the,  Influence  of,  on  English 
character,  3S0 ;  in  England,  462. 

"  Annals,"  the,  of  Ennius,  132 ;  of  Livy, 
158  ;  of  Tacitus,  167  ;  of  Commines,  265. 

Anne,  Queen,  literature  of  the  age  of,  468, 
502. 

Anselm,  theology,  478. 

Anthologies,  Greek,  115. 

Antisthexes,  cynic  philosophy,  IOC. 

Antonides  (Van  der  Goes),  poetry,  455. 

Antonius,  M.,  oratory,  140. 

561 


552 


INDEX. 


Apocrypha,  tlie  Greek,  119. 
Apollodorus,  history,  111. 
Apollouius  of  Perga,  mathematics,  112. 
Apollosics  the  Khodian,  epic  poetiy,  110, 

APULEirs,  philosophy  and  romance,  177. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  ])hilosophy,  etc.,  250. 

Arabian  literature,  181. 

"Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,"  194. 

Arabs,  the,  in  Spain,  306. 

"  Araucana,"  by  Ereilia,  338. 

Arbuthnot,  "  History  of  John  Bull,"  504.  _ 

"  Arcadia,"   by   Sanuuzzaro,   '221 ;    by   Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  492. 

Arcadians,  Italian  poets  so  called,  240. 

Arcliilochus,  elegy,  70  ;  iambics,  77. 

Archimedes,  mathematics  and  mechanics, 
112. 

Aretino,  comedj',  220. 

Argensola,  account  of  the  Moluccas,  341. 

Argensolas,  the,  lyric  poetry,  339. 

"Argonautic  Expedition,"  by  ApoUonius, 
110. 

"  Argonautica,"  by  Valerius  Flaccus,  ICo. 

Arici,  didactic  poetry,  242. 

Arion,  dithyrambic  poetry,  82. 

Ariosto,  "  Orlando  Furioso,"  214 ;  lyric 
poetry,  219  ;  satire,  222. 

Aristarchus,  grammar  and  criticism.  111. 

Aristippus  of  Cyrene,  philosophy,  106. 

"  Aristodemus,"  by  Monti,  239. 

Aristoti  e,  philosophy,  lOS ;  his  fame  among 
the  Arabs,  196. 

Armenian  language  and  literature,  363. 

Arminius,  theology,  451. 

Arud,  treatise  "  oii  True  Christianity,"  420. 

Avudt,  poetry,  history,  etc.,  432. 

Aruim,  romance,  438 ;  Bettina  von,  ib. 

Arnobius,  "  Disputes  with  the  Uentiles," 
178. 

Arnold,  history,  524. 

Arreboe,  poetry,  393. 

Arrian,  philosophy  of  Epictetus,  113. 

Art,  Athenian,  under  Pericles,  92. 

"Art  of  Love,"  Ovid's,  151. 

Arthur,  King,  and  the  round  table,  the  Nor- 
man romances  of,  258,  259,  480 ;  German, 
411 ;  "Welsh,  475  ;  English,  485. 

Ascham,  education,  etc  ,  4bS. 

Asgard,  the  home  of  the  Scandinavian 
deities,  384. 

Asonante,  the  Spanish  rhyme  so  called,  314. 

Astronomers,  American,  546. 

Astronomy,  Chaldaic,  21 ;  Egyptian,  64 ; 
Ptolemy's,  116. 

"  Athalie,"  by  llacine,  276. 

Athens,  literary  predominance  of,  90 ;   its 
«        downfall,  109;  schools  of,  closed  by  Jus- 
tinian, 117. 

"  Atlantic  Monthly,"  the,  549. 

Attar,  Persian  poetry,  45. 

Attius,  tragedy,  137.  - 

Audubon's  "  Birds  of  America,"  546. 

Augustine,  St.,  the  "City  of  God,"  178. 

Autos  da  fe,  324. 

Autos  sacramentales,  Spanish  dramatic  en- 
tertainments, 332,  345  ;  Portuguese,  355. 

Avatars  of  Vishnu,  26,  29. 

Averrhoes,  philosophy,  196. 

Avicenna,  philosophy  and  medicine,  196. 

Ayala,  Pedro  Lopez,  iJoetry  and  history,  313. 


Babylon,  22. 

"Babylonian  Adventures,"  the    first  ro- 
mance, 118. 

Bacchus.     See  Dionysus. 

Bacchylides,  lyric  poetry,  82. 

Bacon,  Koger,  478. 

Bacon,  Lord,  philosophy,  491 ;  "  New  At- 
lanta," 492. 

Bagdad,  literature  at,  190. 

Baggksen,  poetry,  395. 

Baillie,  Joanna,  tragedy,  517. 

Balbo,  history,  245. 

Balder,  son  of  Odin,  8S3 ;  the  death  of, 
389  ;  Evald's  poem  of,  394. 

Ballads,  Spanish,  814;  Finnish,  358  ;  Rus- 
sian, 370;  Kozak,  371;  Scandinavian, 
392;  English,  4s5. 

Balzac,  J.  L.  G.  de,  epistles,  269. 

Balzac,  Honore  de,  romance,  304. 

Banchoft,  history  of  the  United  States, 
532. 

Bandello,  novels,  224. 

Bantine  Table,  the,  126. 

Barante,  history,  300  ;  criticism,  301. 

Barbieri,  didactic  poetrv,  242. 

Barbour,  John,  "  The  Bruce,"  486. 

Bards,  Greek,  72 ;  Teutonic,  182  ;  Arabian, 
168  ;  Italian,  2U0  ;  Icelandic,  890  ;  Ger- 
man, 411 ;  Irish,  474 ;  Scotch,  474 ;  Welsh, 
475 

Baietti,  criticism,  etc.,  246. 

Barluw,  Joel,  poetry,  5^3;). 

Barnard,  Henry,  education,  544. 

BaiTos,  Portuguese  history,  356. 
Barrow,  sermons,  499. 

Barry  Cornwall,  poetry,  517. 
Barthelemy,  Abbe,  "  Voyage  of  Anachar- 


sis 


295. 


Bartlett's  "  Texas   and  New  Mexico,"  535. 

Barton,  botany  and  ethnology,  530. 

Basil,  St.,  121. 

"  Basvilliana,"  by  Monti,  241. 

"  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,"  73. 

Bauernfeld,  comedy,  435. 

Bayle,   "Historical  and  Critical  Diction- 
ary," etc ,  286. 

Baxter,  Richard,  theology,  491. 

"  Bay  Psalm  Book,"  the,  526. 

Beatrice,  Dante's,  202. 

Beattie,  "  The  Minstrel,"  511. 

Beaumarchais,  memoirs,  295. 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  drama,  495. 

Beccari,  pastoral  drama,  221. 

Beccarla,  criminal  jurisprudence,  235. 

Beecher,  Catha  ine  £.,  542. 

Bellamy,  Dutch  poetry,  458. 

Bellenden,  "  On  the  State,"  492. 

Bellini,  anatomy,  229. 

Bede,  the  Venerable,  ecclesiastical  histoiy, 
476. 

Bellman,  Swedish  poetry,  400. 

Bembo,  Italian  grammar,  :^26. 
j  Bentham,  Jeremy,  520. 

Bentivoglio,   comedy,  220  ;  history,  233  ; 
letters,  234. 

Bentlev,  classics,  500. 

Benton's  "  Thirty  Years'  View,"  536. 

"  Beowulf,"  the  poem  of,  476. 

Bkrangek,  lyric  poetry,  302. 

BERtKO  (Gouzalo;,  poetry,  311. 


INDEX. 


553 


Bercliet,  Italian  lyric  poetrj',  241. 
Berkeley,  Bishop,  philosophy,  503;  in  Ame- 
rica, 547. 
Bernard,  St.,  250. 
Bernardo  del  Carpio,  ballads  relating  to, 

oi5. 
Bkkni,  satire,  222. 

Berosus,  history  of  Babylon,  22,  111. 
Bestustief,  historical  novels,  '610. 
Betti,  didactic  poetry,  242. 
Bhagavad-Gita,  the,  'SO. 
Bhavabliuti,  Hindu  drama,  32. 
Bettina  von  Armin,  romance,  etc.,  433. 
Biancliini,  history,  244. 
Bibiena,  Cardinal,  comedy,  220. 
Bible,  the,  English  versions  of,  18,  4S2,  487, 

490;   Armenian,  364;    Old  Slavic,  366; 

Mceso-Gothic,    40S  ;    Anglo-Saxon,   477  ; 

John  Eliot's  Indian  version  of,  525.   (See 

Old  TeslaAient. ) 
Blelski,  Martin,  "  Chronicles  of  Poland," 

377. 
BiLDERDYK,  poctry,  etc.,  459  ;  Madame, 

460. 
Biography,  American,  534. 
Birchpfeifer,  Charlotte,  drama,  435. 
Blab  Phelair,  Persian  poetry,  etc.,  47. 
Blair's  "  Grave,"  506. 
Blanc,  Louis,  philosophical  history,  300. 
Blicher,  poetry  and  fiction,  397, 
Blind  Harry,  poem  of  ''  Wallace,"  4S6. 
Bocage,  Manuel  de,  poetry,  357. 
Boccaccio,  the  "  Decameron,"  etc.,  207. 
BoDMEK,  poetry  and  criticism,  424,  425. 
BoEHM,  Jacob,  mysticism,  420. 
Boerhaave,  medical  science,  452. 
BoETUius,  philosophy,  177. 
Bohemian  language  and  literature,  373. 
Boiardo,  "  Orlando  Innamorato,"  213-14. 
BoiLEAC,  satirical  and  other  poetry,  279. 
Boje,  Danish  religious  poetrj',  397. 
Boker,  George  H.,  drama,  541. 
Bolingbroke,  Lord,  504. 
BoNALD,  philosophy,  299. 
Bonaventure,  theology  and  philosophy, 

250. 
"  Book  of  Martyrs,"  Fox's,  4SS. 
Bor,  Dutch  history,  453. 
Borelli,  science,  223. 
Bormus,  the  Greek  song  of,  72. 
Born,  Bertrand  de,  troubadour,  256. 
BiJrne,  Ludwig,  poetry,  432. 
Bjscan,  Juan,  poetry,  320. 
BossuET,  eloquence,  history,  etc.,  2S0,  2S3. 
"  Bostan,"  the,  of  Sadi,  45. 
Boswell,  life  of  Johnson,  503. 
BiiTfA,  history,  245. 
Bourdaloue,  pulpit  eloquence,  280. 
Bouvier,  law  dictionary,  etc.,  545. 
Bowles,  poetry,  517. 
Bracciohni,  mock  heroics,  233. 
Bradford's  "  American  Antiquities,"  534. 
Bi  adstreet,  Anne,  poetry,  526. 
Brahe,  Tycho,  astronomy,  393. 
Brahma,  26. 

Brahmanism,  25  ;  philosophy  of,  32. 
Brandt,  Dutch  history,  455. 
Brantome,  memoirs,  233. 
Bkemek,  Pqrdbika,  romance,  402-3. 
Brenner,  Mrs.  Swedish  poetry,  393. 


Brentano,  German  romance,  488. 

Briggs,  C.  F.,  sketches,  criticism,  etc.,  547. 

Bristed,  Charles  A.,  542. 

Brito,   Bernardo    de,   Portuguese  history, 

356. 
Brodhead's  "  History  of  New  York,"  534. 
Bronte,  Charlotte,  novels,  522. 
Brooks,  Charles  T.,  translations,  542. 
Brooks,  Maria,  "  Zoppiel,"  541. 
Bkown,  Ciiaklps  Bhockdkn,  romance,  531. 
Brown,  Tliomas,  philosophy,  520. 
Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  49b. 
Browning,  Mr.  and  Mrs.,  poetry,  521. 
''  Bruce,  The,"  by  Jolin  Barbour,  436. 
Brugsch,  Egyptology,  442. 
Bruno,  Giordano,  philosophy,  229. 
"  Brut  d'Angleterre,"  by  Wace,  479. 
Brutus,  the  Norman  romance  of,  253. 
Bryant,  William  C,  poetry,  539. 
Bucolic  poets,  Alexandrian,  110. 
Bucolics,  Virgil's,  147  ;  Portuguese,  351. 
Buddhism  in  India,  34 ;  in  China,  52. 
BuFFON,  natural  history,  293. 
Bulwer,  Sir  E.  L.,  dramas,  novels,  etc  ,  5'21. 
Bulwer,  Edward  Robert,  poetry,  521. 
Bunsen,  the  Chevalier,  Egyptology,  445. 
Bunyan,  John,  499. 
Buonmattei,  Italian  grammar,  226. 
Biirger,  poetry,  430. 

Burke,  eloquence  and  literature,  509,  510. 
Burmann,  Peter,  4^1. 
Burnet,  Bishop,  history,  500. 
Burns,  Robkkt,  lyrics,  oil. 
Burton,  "Anatomy  of  Melancholy,"  493. 
Butler,  Bishop,  theology,  505. 
Butler,  Samuel,  "  Hudibras,"  etc.,  500,  501. 
Byns,  Anna,  Flemish  poetry,  452. 
Byron,  poetry  and  drama,  513. 
Byzantine  literature,  119. 

Cabala,  the  Hebrew,  19. 

Cadmus  of  Miletus,  83. 

Csedmon,  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  476. 

Cesar,  Julius,  "  Commentaries,"  etc.,  155. 

"  Cajsars,  Lives  of  the  Twelve,"  by  Sueto* 

nius,  167. 
Calderon  de  la  Barca,  drama,  331. 
Caluoun,  John  C,  oratory,  536. 
Callimachus,  librarian  of  Alexandria,  109; 

poetry,  110. 
Calvin,  theology,  267. 
Camoens,  Luis  de,  epic  poetry,  352. 
Campbell,  Thomas,  poetry,  512. 
Cancioneros,  Spanish,  321 ;  Portuguese,  349. 
"  Canterbury  Tales,"  by  Chaucer,  433. 
Cantu,  romance,  243 ;  history,  246. 
Carcano,  romance,  243. 
Cardano,  mathematics,  229. 
Carey,  Henrj'  C,  political  economy,  545. 
Carlen,  Emily,  romance,  403. 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  523. 
Caro,  comedy,  220 ;  letters,  227. 
Carpio,  Bernardo  del,  ballads  upon,  315. 
Casimir  the  Great,  376. 
Cassiodorus,  oratory,  176. 
Castes,  Hindu,  25. 
Castiglione,  moral  philosophy,  229. 
Castilian  dialect,  309  ;  character,  325. 
Catalan  dialect,  309  ;  troubadours,  320. 
Catacombs,  Egyptian,  60. 


24 


554 


IXDEX. 


"  Catiline,  the  War  of,"  b^'  Sullust,  157. 

Catlin,  Americaa  Indians,  533. 

C.vTo  THE  Censor,  133  ;  his  works,  139. 

Cats,  Jacob,  poetry,  454. 

Catullus,  Ivric  poetry,  148. 

Cavalcanti,  B.,  "  Rhetoric,"  227. 

Cavalieri,  geometry,  223. 

Cavour,  politics,  245. 

Caxton,  William,  the  first  English  printer, 

435. 
CeJerborg,  romance,  402. 
C/iUini,  Benrenuto,  autobiography,  225. 
Cklsus,  medicine,  etc.,  174. 
Celtic  literature,  474. 
Celts,  the,  in  England,  462. 
Cervantes,  romance,  334. 
Cesarl,  pliilology,  247. 
Casarotti,  criticism,  247. 
Chaldaic  language  and  literature,  21. 
Chalmers,  theology,  520. 
Chambers  of  Rhetoric,  Dutch,  443. 
Charaisso,  "Peter  Schlemihl,"  etc.,  437. 
C'lampollion,  the  discovery  of,  59. 
Chauning, William  Ellery,  theolog3',  etc.,  514 
CuAHLEMAGNE,  European  literature   before 
and  in  the  time  of,  ISl ;  his  patronage  of 
learning,  249  ;  romances  relating  to,  259  ; 
Uerman  literature  under,  409. 
Charles  I.,  English  literature  in  the  time  of, 

4iJ5. 
Charles  III.  of  Spain,  encouragement  of 

learning  by,  :544. 
Charles  V.,  the  Emperor,  823. 
Charron,  skeptical  philosophy,  2G3. 
Chastelaui,  Flemish  chronicles,  419. 
Chateaubriand,  poetry,  religion,  etc.,  293. 
Chatterton,  511. 

Chaucer,  Geoffret,  poetry,  433. 
Chaulieu,  Abbe,  poetry,  236. 
Ciiemists,  American,  516. 
Chenier,  Andre,  poetry,  296. 
Child,  Lydia  M.,  fiction,  etc.,  533. 
Chinese  literature,  49. 
Chivalry,  the  golden  age  of,  183;  the  rise 
and  spirit  of,  253 ;   French  romances  of, 
253  ;   Spanish,  313  ;   German,  411 ;   En- 
glish, 479. 
Chorus,  the  Greek,  72,  81. 
Christianity,  influence  of,  on  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonic  school,  113 ;    on  Greek  literature, 
116;  early  literature  of,  120;    at  Rome, 
173. 
"  Christianity,  the  Genius  of,"  by  Chateau- 
briand, 293. 
Cin-istians,  the,  I'liny's   dispatch  concern- 
ing, 170. 
Chronicles,    French,    234;     Spanish,    316; 
Polish,  377 ;  of  Sweden,  by  Geijer,  401  ; 
■Welsh,   475 ;    Saxon,   477  ;   English,   473, 
479  ;  Scotch,  436. 
Chrysostora,  John,  homilies,  121. 
Cicero,  oratory,  151 ;  philosopliy,  151. 
Cid,  the,  poem  of,  310  ;  ballads  relating  to, 

315  ;  chronicle  of,  317. 
Cinonio,  Italian  grammar,  226. 
Cirillo,  medical  science,  235. 
Civil   wars   of   France,  history  of  the,  by 
Davila,  233  ;  of  Flanders,  by  Bentivoglio, 
ill. 
Clarendon,  Lord,  history,  500. 


first,  produced  in  New 


Clark,  Louis  Gaylord,  "  Gossip,"  etc.,  542. 
Clark,  Willis  Gaylord,  "  Ollapodiana,"  etc., 

542. 
Classic  periods  of  German  literature,  427. 
Classic  school,  the  French,  260. 
Claudian,  poetry,  176. 
Claudius,  German  poetry,  430. 
Clay,  IIenrv,  oratory,  536. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  121. 
Clerks  of  the  Revels,  203. 
Clifton,  William,  songs,  530. 
Cobbett,  William,  politics,  520. 
Coccaja,  Merlino,  macaronic  poetry,  222. 
"  Cockayne,  the  Land  of,"  431. 
Coehorn,  Menno  van,  fortification,  451. 
Colden,  Cadwallader,  colonial  history,  527. 
Coleridge,  poetry,  514. 
Colletta,  history,  245. 
Collins,  "  Odes,"  507. 
CoLONNA,  Vittoria,  Ivric  poetry,  219. 
"  Columbiad,"  Barlow's,  530. 
Columella,  "De  Re  Rustica,"  175. 
Comedy,  Greek,  99;  Roman,  132;  Italian, 

237;  French,  277.  (See  Drama) 
CoMENius,  Bohemian  literature,  375. 
Commines,  Philippe  de,  annals,  265. 
"Commentaries,"  Ctesar's,  155;    Garcilas- 

so's,  342 ;  Kent's  and  Story's,  545. 
Commonwealth,  the  English,  literature  in 

the  time  of,  405. 
Comte,  philosophy,  301. 
Concordance,   the 
England,  526. 

CoNDiLLAC,  pliilosophy,  291. 

Confucius,  the  works  attributed  to,  51 ;  his 
life  and  doctrines,  52. 

Congreve,  drama,  5Jl. 

Conscience,  Flemish  fiction  and  history,  460. 

Constant,  Benjamin,  political  science,  299. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  "  Naval  History," 
534 ;  fiction,  536. 

Cooper,  Thomas,  religion,  politics,  etc.,  547. 

Coornhert,  poetry  and  philosophy,  452. 

Copernicus,  astronomy,  377. 

Coptic  language,  the,  57. 

Cordova,  Arabic  schools  and  literature  at, 
191. 

Corinna,  lyric  poetry,  83 

"  Corinne,"  by  Madame  de  Stael,  297. 

CoRNEiLLE,  tragedy,  272. 

Cortes,  Fernando,  reports,  327. 

Cosmo  de,  Medici,  210. 

Cossacks.     See  Kozaks. 

Courts  of  love,  253. 

Cousin,  philosophy,  301. 

Coverdale,  Miles,  Bible  translation,  437. 

Cowley,  prose,  493  ;  lyric  poetry,  493. 

Cowper,  letters,  509  ;  poetry,  511. 

Cozzens,  F.  S.,  543 

Crabbe,  "  Metrical  Tales,"  517. 

Cranmer,  theologj',  433. 

Crassus,  L.  Licinius,  oratory,  140. 

Cratinus,  comedy,  100. 

Crebillon,  tragedy,  277. 

Criticism,  Italian,  246 ;  French,  800-1  ;  Ger- 
man, 439  ;  English,  519,  522. 

Crusades,  the,  effect  of,  13^3  ;  poetical  char- 
acter of,  2.")5 ;  influence  of,  on  German 
literature,  410. 

Cruz,  Ramon  de  la,  drama,  345. 


IXDEX. 


555 


CuUworth,  theolofjy,  491. 

Cuneiform  inscriptions,  40. 

CcjRTius,  biography  of  Alexander  the  Great, 

16S. 
Curtis,  George  W.,  travels,  etc.,  535,  542. 
Cuvier,  natural  history,  801. 
Cyclic  poets,  the  Greek,  74. 
"  CyclopEedia,  New  American,"  the,  543. 
Cynic  philosophy,  the,  lOG,  113. 
Cyprian,  St.,  ITS. 

Cyril,  St.,  Slavic  version  of  the  Bihle,  36G. 
Czartoryski,  Adam,  Polish  literature,  378. 

D'Alembert,  Encyclopsedia,  292. 

Dahlgren,  Swedish  poetry,  402. 

Dahltuann,  history,  443. 

Dalin,  Swedish  literature,  399. 

Damiron,  philosophy,  301. 

Daxa,  Richard  H.,  poetrv,  539  ;  the  "  Idle 

Man,"  533. 
"  Dance  of  Death,"  the,  by  Rabbi  Santob, 

313. 
Danes,  the,  in  England,  381. 
Danish  language,  393. 
D'Anghiera,  history,  226. 
Daste,  201 ;  "  Divine  Comedy,"  203  ;  other 

works,  205. 
Dark  ages,  the,   commencement   of,   117; 

European  literature  in,  ISl. 
Darwin,  "  Botanic  Garden,"  511. 
Davanzati,  historv,  226. 
Davila,  "  Civil  Wars  of  France,"  283. 
"  Decameron,"  Boccaccio's,  208. 
Decker,  drama,  496. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  "Robinson  Crusoe,"  504. 
Deken,  Agatha,  Dutch  romance,  458. 
De  Laet,  Flemish  Literature,  460. 
De  Launoy,  Baroness,  Dutch  poetry,   etc. 

457. 
Delavigxe,  lyric  poetry,  302. 
Del  Cimento,  the  Academy,  227. 
Delia  Casa,  oratory,  227 ;   moral  philoso- 
phy, 229. 
Delia  Crusca,  the  Academy,  226. 
De  Maistre,  political  science,  299. 
De  Makre,  Dutch  tragedy  and  poetry,  456. 
DEM0CRITU3,  philosophy,  87. 
Demonology  in  Germany,  421. 
De  Morgan,  logic,  421. 
Demosthenes,  oratory,  103. 
Denham,  poetry,  498. 
De  Quincey,  criticism,  523, 
"  De  Re  Rustica,"  by  Cato  the  Censor,  139 ; 

by  Columella,  175. 
De  Rktz,  Cardinal,  memoirs,  283, 
Dershavin,  Russian  poetry,  868. 
Dkscartes,  philosophy,  273. 
De  s'Gravenweert,,  poetry,  etc.,460. 
Deshoulieres,  Madame,  poetry,  280. 
De  Vigny,  lyric  poetry,  303;  romance,  304. 
De  Vries,  history  of  Dutch  poetry,  460. 
De  Weeit,  "New  Doct-jne,"  443. 
De  Wette,  theology,  443. 
Dialectics,  the  Socratic,  105. 
Diaz,  Bernal,  history,  327. 
DicKKNs,  novels,  522. 
Dictionaries,  American,  543. 
Didactic   poetry,  Hebrew,  15;    Hindu,  31; 

Roman,  147  ;  Italian,  222,  242  ;  Spanish, 

840. 


Diderot,  292. 

Digest,  Justinian's,  178. 

Dingelstedt,  poetry,  4:33. 

DiODORUS  SicuLUS,  history,  11 G. 

Diogenes  thk  Cvsic,  1(J6. 

Dionys  us.  King,  Portuguese  poetry,  349. 

Dionysius  of  Jlalicarnassus,  rhetoric   and 

arclueology,  115. 
Dionysus  (Bacchus),  70  ;  Orphic  worship  of, 

84 ;  origin  of  the  drama  from,  94. 
Disraeli,  novels,  522. 
Dithyramb,  the,  82,  95. 
"Divine  Comedy,"  Dante's,  203. 
Dmitrief,  poetry,  369. 
Dobrowsky,  Bohemian  literature,  375. 
"  Don  Quixote,"  335. 
Don  Roderic,  the  chronicle  of,  317. 
Donne,  sermons,  490  ;  lyrics,  493. 
Doric  lyric  poets,  81. 
Douglas,  Gavin,  poetrj",  436. 
"  Douglas,"  Home's  tragedy  of,  510. 
Downing,  A.  J.,  rural  life  and  architecture, 

542. 
Drakb,   Joseph  Rodman,   "  Culprit  Fay," 

540. 
Drama,  Hebrew,  15-    Hindu,  31;    Greek, 
93,  94  ;  Chinese,  55  ;  Roman,  130  et  seq., 
143,  li)3  ;  Italian,  212,  219,  232  ;    French, 
,   262,  269,  271,  274,  805  ;  Spanish,  319,  328, 
345 ;  Portuguese,  355,  357  ;  Russian,  367, 
368  ;  PoUsh,  378  ;  Danish,  394  ;  Swedish, 
399  ;  German,  416,  424,  423,  4:53  ;  Dutch, 
454,  456 ;  English,  489,  493,  510  ;  Ameri- 
can, 541. 
Drayton,  '•  Poly-Olbion,'  498. 
Dryden,  John,  prose,  500  ;  poetiy,  502. 
Dodevant,  Mine.  (George  Sand),  romance, 

304. 
DcMAS,  romance  and  di-ama,  305. 
Dl'nbak,  AVILLIA.M,  Scottish  poetry, 436. 
"  Dunciad,"  Pope's,  503. 
Duns  Scotus,  philosophy,  478,  432. 
Dutch   literature  to  the  16th  century,  447; 
in  the  16th  century,  452  ;  in  the  17th,  453  ; 
in  the  18th,  455 ;  in  the  19th,  458. 
Dutch  Republic,  rise  of  the,  449 ;  Motley'3 

history  of,  5:3:3. 
Dwight,  Timothy,  poetry,  etc,  530. 

Eclecticism,  Cousin's,  301. 

Eclogues,  110. 

Edda,  the  poetic,  387  ;  the  prose,  391. 

Education,  Hebrew,  12;  Hindu,  36;  Chinese, 

56 ;  modern  Egyptian,  64 ;  Turkish,  362. 
Educational  books,  American,  54:3. 
Edwards,  Jonathan,  theology,  527. 
Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies,  109. 
Egyptian  literature,  57. 
Eleatic  school  of  philosophy,  86. 
Elegy,  Greek,  76 ;  Roman,  150. 
Eliot,  John,  Indian  translation  of  tlie  Bible, 

526. 
Elizabethan  era,  the,  468. 
KUet,  Mrs  ,  female  biography,  534. 
Elliott,  the  Corn-Law  Rhymer,  521. 
Eloquence,   Arabian,   192  ;  French,   under 

Louis  XIV.,  280  ;  during  the  Revolution, 

294;  English,  509.     (See  Oratory.) 
Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  poetry,    511 ;  es 

Bays,  542. 


556 


IXDEX. 


Empedocles,  philosophy,  ST. 
Encyclopaedia,   the    iMcnch,   291  ;    Ameri- 
cana, 54-3. 
English  literature,  461 ;  introduction,  462  ; 
before  the  Conquest,  474 ;  in  the  Celtic 
tongues,?^.;  in  the  Latin,  475,477;  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  47<) ;  in  Norman  French, 
479;  in  Saxon   English.  4S1  ;  in  the  14lh 
century,  ib.  ;  in  the  15tli,  4S4  ;  in  the  age 
of  the  Reformation,  4S7 ;  from   Spenser 
to  Milton,  490  ;  from  the  Restoration  to 
the  Revolution,  499  ;  in  the  ISth  century, 
502;  in  the  19Lh,  511. 
EngUsh  race,  the,  Anglo-Saxon  and  Scandi- 
navian elements  in,  3S0. 
EiJtvos,  Uungarian  romance   and  drama, 
361. 

Epic  poetry,  Hebrew,  15;  Hindu,  2S; 
Greek,  73  t^  «6</.  ,•  Roman,  14.5, 104  ;  Ital- 
ian, 213  et  seq  231,  241;  Spanish,  810, 
83S  ;  Portuguese,  352  ;  Finnish,  359 ;  Ser- 
vian, 372 ;  German,  409,  412.  (See 
Poetry.) 

EpicriiTUS,  pliilosophy,  113. 

Epigram,  Greeli,  77  ;  Roman,  162  ;  Span- 
isli,  340. 

Epistles,  the,  of  Seneca,  173. 

Epistolary  writings,  ItaUan,  234.  (See  Let- 
ters.) 

ERAS.MU3,  classics  and  theologj',  450. 

Eratosthenes,  chronology,  geography,  etc., 
Ill,  112. 

Ekcilla,  narrative  poetry,  333. 

Erigena,  philosophi',  476. 

"  Essay  on  Criticism,"  and  "  Essay  on 
Man,"  Pope's,  503. 

Essayists,  the,  of  Queen  Anne's  time,  504; 
modern  British,  519. 

Essedi,  Persian  poetry,  44, 

Etrurians,  the,  125. 

Etruscan  literature,  123;  language,  125, 
126  ;  religion,  127  ;  dramatic  entertain- 
ments, 130. 

Eucleides  of  Megara,  philosophy,  106. 

EccLiD,  mathematics,  112. 

Eapolis,  comedy,  100. 

Europe,  literature  of,  in  the  dark  ages,  ISl  ; 
social  and  political  state  of,  163  ;  gen- 
eral influence  of  French  literature  in,  39S. 

Eusebius,  ecclesiastical  history,  121. 

Eutropius,  Flavins,  history,  176. 

EVALD,  Danish  poetry,  394. 

Evf>lyn,  John,  miscellaneous  prose,  500. 
Everard,  Johannes  Secundus,  poetry,  452. 

Everett,  Edward,  oratory,  536 

"Excursion,"  Wordsworth's,  515. 

Fabius  Pictor,  history,  133. 

Fable,  Greek,  7S ;  Roman,  160;  French, 
27S  ;  Russian,  369  ;  German,  416,  420. 

Fabliaux,  the,  of  tiie  trouveres,  ^61. 

Fi'.buUe  Atellanai,  the,  130. 

"  Faerie  Queene,"  Spenser's,  496. 

Fahlcrantz,  Swedish  poetry,  402. 

Fathers,  Christian,  the  Greek,  119  ;  the  La- 
tin, 17S, 

Faust,  the  legend  of,  421 ;  Goethe's  drama 
of,  427. 

"  Federalist,"  the,  529. 

Fcith,  Dutch  poetry,  4o8. 


Feizi  Sciieik,  Persian  poetry,  46. 

Felton's  "  Classical  Studies,"  544. 

Female  songs,  Servian,  372. 

Female  writers,  modern  German,  4-33. 

Fexelon,  theology,  romance,  etc.,  284. 

Ferdusi,  Persian  poetrj',  43. 

Ferischta,  Persian  history,  47. 

FERKEniA,  poetry  and  drama,  352,  355. 

"  Ferrex  and  Porrex,"  the  earliest  English 

tragedy,  490. 
Fescennine  verses,  129. 
Feyjoo,  Benito,  science,  344. 
FiCHTE,  philosophy,  444. 
Fiction,  Chinese,   56 ;  the  proper  office  of, 
435 ;  German,  4:36 ;  American,  536.     (See 
Romance,  and  Novels.) 
FiELDiso,  novels,  506. 
Filangieri,  legislative  philosophy,  235. 
FiLiCAjA,  lyric  poetry,  232. 
Finnish  language  and  literature,  358. 
Fiorentino,  didactic  poetry,  242. 
Firenzuola,  comedy.  220  ;  novels,  223. 
FiscHART,  prose  satire,  419. 
Flaccus,  Valerius,  epic  poetry,  165. 
Flanders,  history  of  the  civil  wars,  of,  233  ; 

early  distinction  of,  44S. 
Flechier,  pulpit  eloquence,  2S0. 
Flemming.  Paul,  hymns,  423. 
Flemish  language,  447  ;  literature,  contem- 
porary, 460. 
Fletcher,  drama,  495. 
Fletcher,  Giles,  religious  poetry,  498. 
Fleury,  Abbe,  "  History  of  Christianity," 

233. 
Flint,  western  trarels,  534. 
Florence,  historv  of,  by  ^Malaspini,  201 ;  by 

Machiavelli,  224  ;  by  others.  226. 
Florida,  history  of,  by  Garcilasso,  342. 
Fo,  religion  of,  52. 
Fokke,  satire,  459. 

Fonblanqu3,  Albany,  journalism,  523. 
Fostenelle,  tragedy  and  science,  2S6. 
Ford,  drama,  496. 
Forster,  George,  travels,  445. 
Fortiguerri,  mock  heroics,  242. 
FoscoLO,  Ugo,  tragedy,  240  ;   lyric  poetry, 
241 ;  romance,  243 ;  criticism  and  philo- 
logy, 247. 
Foster,  practical  theology,  520. 
Fox,  John,  ''  Book  of  Martyrs"  4>8. 
France,  history  of  the  civil  wars  of,  by  Da- 

vila,  233  ;  Godwin's  history  of.  533. 
Francis  de  Sales,  St.,  religion,  26S. 
Franck,  history,  and  theology,  419. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  philosophy,  etc.,  527. 
Franzen,  Swedish  poetry,  4ul. 
Frati-es  Arvales,  ancient  chant  of  the,  126. 
French  literature,  introduction,  249  ;  in  the 
middle   ages,  252;  in   the   l.^th   century, 
26;3  ;   under  the  Renaissance  and  the  Re- 
formation, 265 ;  the  golden   age  of,  274 ; 
in  the  ISth  century,  2S5  ;  during  the  Revo- 
lution, 290 ;  under  the  Empire,  296  ;  since 
the    Restoration,   299;    influence    of,   in 
Spain.  343  ;  in  Poland.  37S ;  in  Sweden  and 
throughout  Europe.  393  et  seq. 
Freiligrath,  poetry,  432. 
I  Fkeneau,  Philip,  poetry,  5-3(t. 
i  Freytag,  comedy,  -fc^S;  romance.  489 
i  Frigga,  the  wife  of  Odin,  3>4. 


INDEX. 


i57 


Frisic  lacifuage,  447. 
"  Friso,"  epic  poem,  by  Van  Ilaren,  456. 
"  Fi-ithiofg  Saga."  by  Tegn^r,  401. 
Froissart,  chronicles,  2'>i. 
Frontinus,  tactics,  architecture,  etc.,  175. 
Fronton,  Cornelius,  oratorv,  176. 
Fuller,  "Worthies  of  England,"  491. 
Fuller  (Ossoll),  Margaret,  criticism,  642. 

Gaelic  literature,  474. 

Gaius,  "Institutes,"  141. 

Galba,  oratory,  140. 

Galbs,  philosophy  and  medicine,  116. 

Galician  dialect  and  literature,  the  original 
of  the  Portuguese,  3i'9,  849. 

Galileo,  astronomy,  22S  ;  his  influence  on 
philosophy,  247. 

Galluppi,  philosophy,  247. 

Gallus,  Martin,  Polish  history,  376. 

Garcilasso  de  la.  Vega,  poetry,  326. 

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  history,  341. 

Geijer,  history,  4')1. 

Gellert,  "  Fables,"  425. 

Geologists,  American,  546. 

George  II.  and  III.,  literature  of  the  times 
of,  46S,  505  et  seq. 

George  Sand  (Mme.  Dudevant),  romance, 
3' 14. 

Georgics,  Virgil's,  147. 

Gerhard,  Paul,  hymns,  423. 

German  literature,  introduction,  404;  in  the 
earliest  times,  40S  ;  under  Charlemagne 
and  his  successors,  409 ;  the  Suabian  age 
of,  410 ;  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries, 
414 ;  the  Lutheran  period  of,  417  ;  in  the 
17th  century,  422 ;  the  Silesian  schools  of, 
4.'o ;  the  Saxonic  and  Swiss  schools  of, 
424 ;  the  Gottingen  school  of,  430 ;  the 
Romantic  school  of,  4;31. 

Germany,  treatise  on,  by  Tacitus,  166 ;  by 
Mme.  de  Stael,  297. 

Gervase,  of  Tilbury,  chronicles,  478,  479. 

Gervinus,  literary  history,  etc.,  441. 

Gessner,  '•  Idj'ls,"  425. 

'■  Gesta  Romanorum,"  the,  479. 

Gherardini,  philology,  247. 

GiambuUari,  history,  226. 

Giaxnoxe,  history,  244. 

Giants,  the,  of  Scandinavian  mythology, 
3S2  et  seq. 

"  Giavidan  Kird,"  a  Zendic  work,  39. 

Gibbon',  history,  508. 

"  Gil  Bias,"  by  Le  Sage.  286. 

Ginguene,  literary  history,  3^1. 

GiOBERTi,  aesthetics.  246  ;  philosophy,  248. 

Gioja,  philosophy,  247. 

Giordani,  criticism,  247. 

Giraldi,  Cinzio,  drama,  220  ;  novels,  223. 

Giraldus  Cambrensis,  chronicles,  473. 

Girardin,  St.  Marc,  criticism,  301. 

Giusti,  satire,  242. 

Gleim,  poetry,  425 

Gods,  Egyptian,  62  ;  Greek,  69  ;  Roman, 
127  ;  Scandinavian,  383. 

Goddesses,  Scandinavian,  384. 

Godwin,  Farke,  "  History  of  France,"  533  ; 
essays,  542. 

GoKTHE,427;  dramas,  4-33;  novels,  436. 

Golden  age,  the,  of  Greece,  67, 90 ;  of  Rome, 
124;  of  France,  274. 


"Golden  Ass,"  the,  by  Apuleius,  1T7;  by 
Firetizuola,  223. 

GoLDoxi,  comedy,  237. 

Goldsmith,  prose,  503;  comedy,  510 ;  po- 
etry, i//. 

Goshra,  history,  327. 

Gt).sG0RA,  Luis,  founder  of  the  '  cultivated 
style,"  310. 

Gonzalez,  poetry,  345. 

Gonzalez,  Fernan,  ballads  relating  to,  315. 

Go.NZALO  iBerceo),  poetry,  311. 

Goodkicu,  S.  G.  (Peter  Parley),  juvenile 
works,  534  ;  "  Animal  Kingdom  "  546. 

Gothic  literature,  408-9. 

Gothic  school,  the,  of  Sweden,  401. 

Gottingen  school  of  poetry,  430. 

GoTTSCUKD,  poetry  and  criticism,  424,  4Si. 

"Gbtz  of  Berlichingen,"  by  Goethe,  427, 
4oo. 

Gould,  Hannah  F.,  poetry,  541. 

GowfcR,  John,  "  Confessio  Amantis,"  483. 

Gozzi,  Carlo,  comedy,  233. 

Gozzi,  Gaspar,  satire,  242  ;  criticism,  246. 

Graal.     See  San  Graal. 

Gracchi,  the,  oratory,  140. 

Grammarians,  Alexandrian,  111 ;  Roman, 
142,  158,  176  ;  Arabian,  192  ;  Italian,  226. 

"Grave."  Elair'.s,  506. 

Gravina,  patron  of  Metastasio,  236;  crit- 
icism. 246. 

Gray,  "Elegy,"  etc.,  507. 

Graj-don,  revolutionary  memoirs,  531. 

Grazzini  (Lasca),  novels,  223. 

Greek  Literature,  66 ;  from  remote  anti- 
quity to  Herodotus,  71  ;  the  Athenian 
epoch  of,  90;  the  Alexandrian,  109  ;  in 
Rome,  114,  123,143;  continued  decline 
of,  116 ;  last  echoes  of,  117. 

Greek  fathers,  the,  119. 

Greeks,  the  ancient,  character  and  genius 
of,  67  ;  compared  with  the  Romans, 
128-9, 135. 

Greene,  drama,  494. 

Greene,  G.  W.,  biography,  etc.,  534. 

Greenwood,  Grace,  "  Ariadne,"  541. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  121. 

Gregory  of  Touis,  history.  249. 

Greville,  Fulke,  poetry,  493. 

Grillparzer,  drama  -iS'). 

Grimm,  Jacob  and  William,  archaeology, 
philology,  etc.,  440-41. 

Grossi,  epic  poetry,  241 ;  romance,  24^?. 

Grotius,  Hugo,  jurisprudence,  etc.,  450. 

Griin,  Anastasius,  poetry,  4^33. 

Grusdtvig,  Danish  literature,  396. 

GuAKi.Ni,  "Pastor  Fido,"  221. 

GuERRAZzi,  romance,  243. 

GtJicciARDiNi,  history,  225. 

GcizoT,  philosophical  history,  300 ;  criti- 
cism, 301. 

"  Gulistan,"  the,  by  Sadi,  45. 

Gurowski,  Count  A.  de,  547. 

GcsTAVUs  III.,  Swedish  literature,  399. 

Gutzkow,  poetry,  433 ;  drama,  435. 

"  Guzman  de  Alfarache,"  by  Aleman,  337. 

Hafiz.  Persian  poetry,  45. 
Hagedorn,  German  poetr^',  425. 
Hahn-Hahn,  Countess,  fiction,  433. 
Hale,  Mrs,   female  biography,  534. 


5oS 


INDEX. 


JTall,  Bishop,  thcoloj^y,  etc.,  491. 

Hall,  Kobeit,  theology,  5-JO. 

Ilallam,  literary  history,  Jj'.'.S. 

Hali.kck,  FiTz  Gkeicni:,  poetry,  539. 

Haller,  German  literature,  4'25. 

Ilallman,  Swedish  drama,  400. 

IlAMiLTdX,  Ai.EXANOKH,  o'^S  ;  the  "Federal- 
ist," etc.,  5-.'9. 

Hamilton,  Count,  French  memoirs,  283. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  metaphysics,  521. 

Hammarskiild,  Swedish  literature,  401. 

Hanke,  Henriette,  moral  fiction,  433. 

Hardesbkrg  (Novalis),  romance,  etc.,  431, 
437. 

Hardy,  Alexander,  French  comedy,  269. 

Hiring,  Wilhelm  (Wilibald  Alexis),  ro- 
mance, 43S. 

Haroun  al  Raschid,  caliph,  190. 

"  Harper's  Magazine,"  549. 

Harrington,  "  Oceana,"  492. 

Hatifi,  Persian  poetry,  46. 

Hauch,  Danish  poetry,  etc.,  397. 

Hawes,  Stephen,  poetry,  4S4. 

Hawthokne,  fiction,  537. 

Hazlitt,  William,  criticism,  519. 

Headley,  J.  T.,  biography  and  history,  -534. 

Hebrew  literature,  9. 

Heeren,  history,  442. 

Hegel,  philosophy,  445. 

Heiberg,  Danish  drama,  etc.,  397. 

Heimdall,   the  warder  of  the  Scandinavian 
gods,  383. 

'•  Heimskringla,"  the,  by  Snorre  Sturleson, 
391. 

Urink,  IIeinrich,  poetry,  432 

Heiiisius,  Daniel,  classics,  451. 

Heinsius,  Nicholas,  poetry,  4.52. 

"  Heldenbuch,"  the,  1S2,  412. 

Helmers,  poem  of  "TheDutchNation,"45S. 

HHLVETiUri,  philosophy,  292. 

Hemans,  Mrs  ,  poetry,  517. 

Henricourt,  Fieuiish  chronicles,  449. 

Henry  VIII.,  English  literature  ia  the  time 
of,  487. 

Henry  the  Minstrel,  poem  of  "  Wallace," 
4b6. 

Henry   of  Ofterdingen,  minnesinger,  411  ; 
romance  of,  by  Novalis,  437. 

Henrysou,  Kobert,  Scotti.sh  poetry,  486. 

Hensius,  Dutch  [)oetry,  455. 

Hekaclitus,  philosophy,  8t). 

Herbert,  George,  reiij;ious  poetry,  493. 

Heudek,  poetry,  theology,  etc.,  420;  criti- 
cism, 439. 

Hermes,  inventor  of  Egyptian  letters,  57. 

"  Hero  and  Leaiider,"  by  Musieus,  119. 

Hkrudotus,  history,  83. 

Herrera,  lyric  poetry,  339;  history,  311. 

Herrick,  lyric  poetry,  493. 

llerwegh,  poetry,  433. 

Herz,  Danisli  poetry  and  drama,  397. 

Herz,  Henriette,  romance,  43S. 

He-I(jd,  the  works  of,  75. 

Hexameters,  Greek,  72. 

Hey  wood,  John,  interludes,  489. 

Hey  wood,  Thomas,  drama,  496 

Hilarius,  hymns,  176. 

"  Hildebrand  Lied,"  the,  409. 

Hildreth's  "  History  of  the  United  States," 
534. 


HtLLHOUSE,  jAMn:s  A.,  poetry,  540. 

Hieroglyphics,  Egyptian,  58. 

Hindu  literature,  23. 

Hipparchus,  astronomy,  112. 

"  Historical  Magazine,"  the,  549. 

"  Historic-^,"  the,  of  Tacitus,  166. 

History,  Hebrew,  15;  Hindu,  32  ;  Chinese, 
53  ;  Egyptian,  (!1 ;  Greek.  88, 101;  Roman, 
137,  155,  16.5,  176;  Arabian,  195;  Italian, 
'^01,  224,  233,  244;  French,  283,  239,  294, 
299 ;  Spanish,  327,  341  ;  Portuguese, 
356;  Scandinavian,  391  ;  Swedish,  401  ; 
German,  440,  442 ;  Dutch,  453  et  neq.  ; 
English,  492,  500,  507-S,  523;  American, 
532. 

riitopadesa,  the,  31. 

HoBBES,  ptiilosophy  and  history  492. 

Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno,  poetry  etc,.  535, 
540. 

Hoffmann,  fiction,  438. 

Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  poetry,  433. 

Holfmannswalden,  poetry,  424. 

Hoelty,  poetry,  430. 

Hogg,  James,  poetry,  521. 

Hohenstauffen  dynasty,  the,  German  litera- 
ture under,  4l>'. 

HoLBEKG,  Danish  literature,  394. 

Holbrook,  "  North  American  Herpetology," 
546. 

Holland.     See  Dutch  literature. 

Holland,  J.  G.  ("  Timothy  Titcomb  "),  542. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  poetry,  etc.,  54fl, 
542. 

Home,  tragedy  of  "Douglas,"  510. 

HoMKR,  poems  of,  73. 

Honover,  or  Hom,  the  first  prophet  of  Per- 
sia, 40. 

Hood,  Tiiomas,  poetry,  521. 

Hoofuian,  Elizabeth,  poetry,  4^5. 

HooFT,  poetry,  history,  etc.,  454. 

Hoogvliet,  poem  of  "Abraham,"  456. 

Hook,  Theodore,  novels,  522. 

Hooke,  "  Ecclesiastical  Polity,"  490. 

Hope's  "  Anastasius,"  518. 

llopkinson,  Francis,  poetry,  530. 

Horace,  poetry,  149. 

HoRTENbius,  Quintets,  oratory,  140. 

Horus,  the  Egyptian  god,  63. 

Hoveden,  Roger  de,  clironicles,  478. 

Howe,  "  Living  Temple,"  499. 

Howe,  Julia  Ward,  poetry,  541. 

Huber,  Theresa,  novels,  433. 

Hugo,  Victor,  lyric  poetry,  303 ;  romance, 
3Qi;  drama,  3U5. 

Hu.MDOi.uT,  Alexander  von,  travels,    etc., 

445,  446. 
Humboldt,  William  von,  philology,  etc.,  439. 
Hume,  i)hilosopliy,  505  ;  history,  508. 
Hungarian  language  and  literature,  359. 
Hunt,  Leigh,  poetry,  517. 
llurlburt,  W.  II.,  political  economy,  54-3. 
Hushang,  Persian  i)Oetry,  39. 
Huss,  John,  Bohemian  literature,  374. 
HuTTKN,  satire,  420. 

Huydecoper,  grammar  and  tragedy,  456. 
Huygens,  poetry,  455. 
Huyghens,  Christian,  astronomy,  451. 
llymenajos,  the  Greek,  72. 
Hymns,  the  Homeric,  75;  early  Christian, 
176  ;  Luther's,  419 ;  German,  421,  423, 


INDEX. 


559 


Htpatia,  philosophy,  113. 
Ilypereides,  oratoiy,  104. 

Iambic  poetry,  Greek,  77. 

Iamblichus,  the  first  romance  writer,  113, 

Iberians,  the,  3oS. 

Jbvccs,  lyric  poetry,  82. 

Iceland,  the  colonization  of,  3S7. 

Icelandic  or  old  Noise  language  and  litera- 
ture, oS6. 

Idyls,  Alexandrian,  110. 

Ignatius,  St.,  120. 

"  Igor's  Expedition,"  a  Russian  epic,  367. 

Iliad,  the,  73;  Pojje's  translation  of,  5iJ3; 
Cowper's,  511. 

"Index  Exijurgatorius,"  the  first  Spanish, 
3-24. 

India,  social  constitution  of,  25 ;  sacred 
books  of,  27 ;  modern  literature  of,  3(3 ; 
education  in,  ib. 

Indians,  American,  works  relat"ng  to,  533. 

Inquisition,  the  Spanish,  322,  324,  34(3. 

Inscriptions,  cuneiform,  40 ;  Egyptian,  57, 
60;  ancient  Koman,  125-6. 

"  Institutes  "  of  Gaius,  141 ;  of  Justinian, 
17'J. 

"  Institutes  of  Oratory,"  by  Quintilian,  163. 

lonians,  the  Asiatic,  yO. 

Ionic  school  of  philosophy,  85. 

Irving,  Washington,  biography,  534 ;  "As- 
toria," 535  ;  fiction,  536. 

Isajus,  oratory,  1U4. 

Ishmael,  progenitor  of  the  Arabians,  1S5. 

Isis,  the  Egyptian  goddess,  63. 

ISLA,  •'  History  of  Friar  Gerund,"  344. 
IsoCRATES,  oratory,  103. 
Italian  literature,   introduction,  193 ;  rise 
of,  2  lO  ;  first  decline  of,  209  ;  revival  of, 
211 ;  decline  of,  in  the  17th  century,  230  ; 
second  revival  of,  234  ;  influence  of,   in 
Spain,  3;  in  Portugal,  351. 
Italy,  the  original  inhabitants  of,  124  ;  his- 
tory of,  by  Guicciardini,  225 ;  universities 
of,   228 ;  antiquities   and   annals    of,  by 
Muratori,  244. 

James  I.,  English  literature  in  the  time  of, 

465,  490  et  seq. 
James  I.  of  Scotland,  "  The  King's  Quair," 

486. 
Jam  I,  Persian  poetry,  46. 
Jayadeva,  Hindu  poetry,  31. 
Jefferson,  writings  of,  525  ;  Randall's  life 

of,  534. 
Jeffrey,  Francis,  essays  and  criticism,  519. 
Jerome,  St.,  epistles,  etc.,  178. 
Jerome  of  Prague,  374. 
"Jerusalem  Delivered,"  Tasso's,  216. 
Jews,  arcliseology  and    history  of  tlie,  by 

Josephus,  115.    (See  Hebrew  Literature.) 
Job,  book  of,  15. 
Jodelle,  drama,  2G9. 
Jua.NsuN,  S.iMUr.L,  5  5,  508,  509. 
Jonjon,  Bkn,  drama,  i'ib. 
Joiuville,  life  of  St.  Louis,  264. 
Jose,  Antonio,  Portuguese  drama,  357. 
Josephus,   Flavius,  history,  etc.,  115. 
Josilia,  Hungarian  romance,  361. 
Jotuns,  the  Scandinavian  giants,  3S3  et  seq. 
Jouffroy,  philosophy,  3  »1, 


Jovellanos,  poetry,  etc.,  31-5. 

Judd's  "  .Margaret,"  538. 

"  Jugurthine  War,"  the,  by  Sallust,  157. 

Junius,  the  letters  of,  509. 

Jurisprudence,  Roman,  141, 178;  American, 

545. 
Justin  Martyr,  philosophy,  121. 
Justinian,  the  Code  and  Institutes  of,  179. 
Juvenal,  satire,  161. 

Kalidasa,  Hindu  drama,  SI   82. 

Kane,  E.  K.,  arctic  explorations,  535. 

Kant,  philosophy,  444. 

Kantemir,  Russian  literature,  863. 

Kafila,  Hindu  philosophy,  33. 

Kradshitc  Vukah,     Stephanovitcli,   Servian 

national  songs,  etc.,  372. 
Karamsin,  Russian  i)oetry  and  history,  363. 
Kastner,  mathematics  and  poetry,  425. 
Keats,  poetry,  516. 
Kellgren,  Swedish  poetry,  309. 
Keraeny,  Hungarian  romance,  3G1. 
Kempis,  Thomas  a,  ''  Imitation  of  Christ," 

417. 
Kennedy,  "  Swallow  Barn,"  538. 
Kent's  '•  Commentaries,"  545. 
Kerner,  poetry,  432. 
Kexel,  Swedish  comedy,  4i>0. 
Kheraskof,  Russian  literature,  36S. 
Khondemir,  Persian  history,  47. 
Khoronen,  Finnish  poetry,  ;-!59. 
"  Khosru  and  Shireen,  History  of,"  42. 
Kingo,  Danish  psalms  and  hymns,  393, 
"  King's  Quair,"  the,  486. 
Kingsley,  romance,  522. 
Kirkland.  Mrs.,  "  Life  of  Washington," 

"  New  Home,"  538 
Kleisl,  poetry,  425. 

Klingek,  drama  of  '•  Storm  and  Stress,"  etc., 
4:31. 

Klopstock,  "  The  Messiah,"  426. 

"  Knickerbocker  Magazine,"  tlie,  549. 

Knolles,   '  Turkish  History,"  492. 

Knorring,  Baroness,  Swedish  romance,  403. 

Kochanowski,  Polish  poetry,  377. 

Kock,  Paul  de,  fiction,  3ii5. 

Koeppen,  "•  World  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  547. 

Kollar,  Bohemian  poetry,  375. 

Konarski,  Stephen,  Polish  literature,  378. 

Koran,  the,  185. 

KiiRNER,  Theodop.e,  poetiy,  431. 

Koslof,  Russian  poetry,  309. 

Kossuth,  influence  of,  on  Hungarian  litera- 
ture, 360. 

Kotzebue,  drama,  434. 

Kozaks,  songs  and  ballads  of  the,  370-71. 

Kramerius,  Bohemian  literature,  375. 

Krasicki,  Polish  poetry,  378. 

Krishna,  the  incarnation  of  Tishnu,  29. 

Krylof,  Russian  fable,  309. 

Kuthy,  Hungarian  romance,  361. 

Labericts,  mimography,  144. 
La  Bruyere,  "  Characters,"  282. 
Lactantius,  "  Divine  Institutes,"  179. 
Lafayette,  Mme.  de,  270 ;  romance,  2S4. 
La  Fontaine,  fables,  27S. 
La  Harpe,  criticism,  294. 
Lamartine,  philosophical  history,  300 ;   po- 
etry,  2i'3. 


5-34; 


560 


INDEX. 


Lamb,  CttA.ui,F,=;,  51i>. 

L.VME.v.VAis,  pliil().s')i)hy,  etc.,  301. 

Laniotte,  crificis;ii,  2Si. 

La  Motte  Folql-e,  romance,  437. 

Lanlor,  \\'alter  .Salvage,  oil. 

Lanfranc,  tlieolo^^ry.  4rs. 

Laagemlijlv,  coined^',  4ou. 

Lasgland,  RosiiRr,  '•  Vision  of  Piers  Plcv- 
man,"  4S:J. 

Language,  Hebrew,  10 ;  Syriac.  Chaldaic 
and  Plicenician,  '2i  ;  Sanscrit,  24  ;  Prakrit, 
etc.,2>;  Persian, ;3S;  Chinese,  4D  ;  Egyp- 
tian, 57;  Greek,  OS;  Latin,  124,  ISO,  183; 
Arabian,  184  ;  Italian,  11»9  ;  French,  250  ; 
Provencal,  '251 ;  Spanish,  oOS  ;  Portuguese, 
818  ;  Finnish,  yjS  ;  Hungarian,  359  ;  Turk- 
ish, 361;  Armenian,  30  5;  Russian,  360; 
Servian,  371 ;  Bohemian.  373  ;  Polish, 3. 5  ; 
Icelandic,  Danish,  Swedish  and  Norwe- 
gian, 3S6 ;  German,  4  8 ;  Dutch,  Flemish 
and  Frisic,  417  ;  Anglo-Saxon,  471 ;  En- 
glish, 472. 

Languages,  classification  of,  xv. 

Langue  d'oc  and  d'oul,  251. 

Lao-T-sk,  religion  of  the  Tao,  52. 

Lara,  the  Seven  Lords  of,  Spanish  ballads  up- 
on, Sl-i. 

Las  Casas,  history,  327. 

Latimer,  sermons  and  letters,  483. 

Latin  language,  the,  124;  corruption  of, 
180  ;  its  use  in  the  dark  ages,  181 ;  blend- 
ing of,  with  the  Teutonic  tongues,  183 ; 
Hungarian  literature  in,  359,  300  ;  Polish, 
377;  German,  422 ;  Dutch,  450;  English, 
475,  477. 

"  Launcelot,"  the  romance  of,  4S0. 

Laura  dk  Sade,  206. 

"Laws,"  the,  of  Plato,  1S7. 

Layamon,  rhymed  chronicles,  431. 

Ledyard,  Joun,  travels,  631. 

Legends,  German,  439. 

Leibnitz,  philosophy,  423. 

Leipsic,  the  l)ook  fairs  of,  445. 

Leiewel,  civil  rights,  379. 

Lengren,  Anna  Maria,  poetry,  400. 

Leo  the  Great,  Pope,  ITS. 

Leo  X.,  Pope,  212,  219. 

Leon,  Luis  de,  lyric  poetry,  339. 

Leopardi,  lyrics,  241 ;  satire,  242 ;  criticism, 
247. 

Leopold,  Swedish  poetry,  399. 

Lepsius,  Egvptology,  442. 

Le  Sage,  "  Gil  Bias,"  286. 

"  Lesbian  Adventures,"  the,  by  Longus,  119. 

Lessing,  drama,  criticism  and  philosophy, 
426,  433. 

Letters,  the,  of  Pliny  the  younger,  169;  of 
Mme.  de  Sevigne,  284;  of  Mme.  de  Main- 
tenon,  285 ;  of  Junius,  Walpole,  and 
Cowper,  509  ;  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tionary period,  528. 

"  L'  Heptameron,"  by  Marguerite  de  Valois, 
266. 

Lidner,  Swedish  literature,  400. 

Lieber,  Dr.,  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana," 
etc.,  .543,  547. 

''  Life  of  Jesus,"  by  Strauss,  443-4. 

Linnajus,  botany,  403,  452. 

Linus,  the  Greek  song  of,  71. 

Lippi,  mock  heroic  poetry,  232. 


Lipsius,  philology,  451. 

Literary  history,  French,  300  ;  German,  439  ; 

English,  523. 
Livingston's  "  System  of  Penal  Laws,"  645. 
LIVI0S  AxDRO.siODS,  tragedy,  etc.,  13  »,  131, 

142. 
Livv,  history,  1.5S. 
LOBEIRA,  Vasco  dk,  "  Amadis  of  Gaul,"  259, 

LoBO,  Rodriguez,  Portuguese  literature,  355. 

Locke,  Joun,  philosophy,  499. 

Lockhart,  novels,  51.8. 

Logic,  Aiistotelian,  108. 

Logographers,  the  Greek,  88. 

Lohenstein,  poetry,  424. 

Lokman,  fables,  39. 

LoUio,  oratory,  227. 

LoMONOsoF,  grammar,  etc.,  368. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  liction,  533  ;  poet- 
ry, 539. 

LoNGiNUS,  philosophy,  114. 

"  Longobards  of  the  first  Crusade,"  by 
Grossly  241. 

Longus,  "  The  Lesbian  Adventure,"  119. 

Loosjes,  poetry  and  romance,  459. 

Loots,  poetry,  460. 

Lope.     See  Vega,  and  Rueda. 

Lorenzi,  didactic  poetry,  242. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  211. 

Lorris,  Guillaume  de,  trouv^re,  261. 

Lossing's  "  Field  Book  of  the  Revolution," 
534. 

Louis  XIV.,  the  age  of,  274. 

Lowell,  J.  R.,  poetry,  540. 

LucAN,  epic  poetry,  164. 

LucrAN,  philosophy,  114. 

Lucilius,  satire,  137. 

LucRETiU-s,  didactic  poetry,  147. 

"  Ludwigs  Lied,"  the,  410. 

"Lusiad,"  the,  of  Camoens,  353. 

Luther,  Martin,  418. 

Lutheran  period  of  German  literature,  417. 

"  Lutrin,"  the,  by  Boileau,  279. 

Lyceum,  the,  of  Athens,  108  ;  school  of 
the,  113. 

Lycophron,  poetry,  410. 

Lycurgus,  oratory,  104. 

Lydgate,  Joun,  poetry,  434. 

Lj-ric  poetry,  Hebrew,  13;  Hindu,  30; 
Greek,  78  ;  ^Tlolic,  79  ;  Doric,  81 ;  Ro- 
man, 148  ;  Italian,  218,  232,  240  ;  French, 
302  ;  Spanish,  339  ;  German,  421 ;  English, 
498.     (See  Poetry  and  Songs  ) 

Lysias,  oratory,  102. 

Macaronic  poetry,  222. 
Macaulay,  essays  and  history,  523. 
McCuUoch,  political  science,  520. 
"  McFingal,"  Trumbull's,  550. 
Machiavelli,  romance,  223  ;  history,  224  ; 

"  Art  of  War,"  etc.,  22o  ;   "  The  Prince," 

229. 
Macias,  Portuguese  poetry,  350. 
Mcintosh,  Maria  J.,  fiction,  etc.  538. 
Mackenzie,  "  The  Man  of  Feeling,"  509. 
Macpherson,  Ossianic  poems,  474;  "  Fingal," 

511. 
Macrobius,  philosophy,  177. 
Madison,  politics  and  histoiy,  529. 
M-ECEnas,  literary  patronage,  150. 


INDEX. 


561 


Maerlant,  Flemish  translations,  443.  j  MELANcnTHOV,  theology,  419. 

Maffei,Scipio.\e,  tragedy,  "ioS  ;  history.  244  ;  !  Mele.vdez,  founder  of  the  school  of  Sala- 


criticLsm,  246 ;  philosophy,  247 

Magazines.  American,  548. 

"  Magnalia,"  Cotton  Mather's,  526. 

Magyars,  language  and  migrations  of  tiv?, 
Sod ;  modern  literature  of  tlie,  '660. 

"  Mahabharata,"  the,  20. 

Maine  de  Byran,  ijhilosoph.y,  293. 

Maixfesox,  Mme.  de,  letters,  285. 

Maluerbe,  poetry,  2&J. 

Malaspini,  "  History  of  Florence,"  201. 

Malebraxche,  philosophy,  2''2. 

Mallory,  Sir   Thomas,  '■  Mort  Arthur,"  4S5. 

Malthus,  "  Theory  of  Population,"  52  J. 

Mamiani,  philosophy,  2-l8. 

Mandeville,  Sir  John,  travels,  4-!-3. 

Manetho,  history,  57,  61,  109,  111. 

Mann,  Horace,  education,  544. 

Manrique  the  younger,  poetry,  321. 

Manu,  Code  of,  35. 

JIaxuel,  German  polemics,  419. 

Maxuel,  Dox  JtTAX,  apologues,  312. 

Manuel  de  Bocage,  Portuguese  poetry,  357. 

Manuel  do  Nacimento,  Portuguese  litera- 
ture, 357. 

Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament,  16 ; 
Egyptian,  57,  60. 

Manzoni,  Tragedy,  240 ;  hymns,  241 ;  ro- 
mance, 24^1 

Marchi,  military  construction,  229. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  stoic  philosophy,  114. 

Marenco,  tragedy,  240. 

Marguerite  de  Valois,  L'Heptam^ron,  etc., 
266. 

Mariajxa,  "  History  of  Spain,"  341. 

Marie  of  France,  poetry,  4S0. 

Marixi,  founder  of  the  Marioist  school  of 
poetry,  231. 

Marlowe,  tragedy,  etc.,  494. 

Marmontel,  romance,  etc.,  294. 

Marxix  de  St.  Algegoxde,  Dutch  litera- 
ture, 453. 

Marsh,  George  P.,  "Lectures  on  the  English 
Language,"  543. 

Marot,  poetry,  266. 

Marshall,  Chief  Justice,  529 ;  "  Life  of 
Washington,"  i6. 

Martelli,  tragedy,  238. 

Martial,  epigrams,  162. 

Martineau,  Mis5,  stories,  522. 

'•  Martinus  Scriblerus,"  memoirs  of,  504. 

Marvell,  Andrew,  poetry,  500. 

Mascheroni,  didactic  poetry,  242. 

Massillon,  pulpit  eloquence,  280. 

Massinger,  drama,  496. 

JIaster-singers,  the,  415,  420,  423. 

Mathematics  at  Alexandria,  112. 

Mathematicians,  American,  546. 

Mather,  Cottox,  "  Magnalia,"  526. 

Mathews,  Cornelius,  fiction,  53S. 

JIaury,  Lieut.,  wind  charts,  etc.,  547. 

"  Maxims,"  the,  of  Rochefoucauld,  2S2. 

Mayo,  fiction,  53S. 

Mazzocchi,  archaeology,  23.5. 

Medici,  dk',  Cosmo,  210;  Lorexzo,  211 :  Leo- 
pold, 227. 

Megaric  philosophers,  the,  11-3. 

"  >fejnoun  and  Leila,  Misfortunes  of,"  42. 

Mela,  Pompanius,  geography,  174. 


;      manca,  344. 

I  Melodrama,  Italian,  236. 

]  Melville,  fiction,  538. 

'  Jlemoirs,  French,  283. 

;  Mena,  Juan  de,  poetry,  321. 

Mexa.ndek,  comedy,  100. 

Mkndozx,   DifcGO  de,   poetry,  history,   etc., 
320,  33J. 

Mesg-tse,  philosophy,  52. 

Menzel,  literary  history,  etc.,  441. 
I  Menziui,  satire,  233 
I  "  Merlin,"  the  romance  of,  430. 
I  "  Merope,"  by  MuSA,  238. 
!  Mesrob,  Armenian  literature,  363. 
j  "  Metamorphoses,"   the,  of    Ovid,  151  ;   of 
!      Apuleius,  177. 
I  Metastasio,  melodrama,  236. 

Meteren,  Dutch  history,  453. 

Meun,  Jean  de,  trouvere,  261. 

"  Mexico,  Conquest  of,"  by  Solis,  842. 

Mezeray,  history,  283. 

Michael  Angelo,  poetry,  219. 

Michelet,  philosophical  liistory,  SOO. 

Mickiewicz,  poetry-,  379. 

Midgard  Serpent,  the,  384-5. 

Miguet,  philosophical  history,  300. 

Mill,  James,  logic,  etc.,  520,  524. 

MiLTOX,  prose,  4112  ;  poetry,  498. 

Mimes  and  mimograpliers,  Roman,  143. 

Minnesingers,  the,  411. 

'•  Minstrel,"  Beattie's,  511. 

Miracle  Plays,  English,  489. 

Mirghola,  Persian  history,  47. 

Mirkhond,  Persian  history,  47. 

Mitchell,  Donald  G.,  "  Reveries,"  542. 

Mitford,  Miss,  drama,  517 ;  fiction,  518. 

Moasi,  Persian  i)oetry,  44. 

Mochnachi,  Polish  history  and  literature, 
37;i. 

Mock    heroic    poetry,    Italian,    232,    242 ; 
French,  279. 

Mohammed,  the  religion  of,  185. 

^lohammed  Ali,    schools    established     by, 
64.  ^' 

Moliere,  comedy,  277. 

Monstrelet,  Flemish  chronicles,  449. 

MoxTAiGXE,  "  Essays,"  267. 

Montecuccoli,  strategy,  229. 

MoxTEMAYOR,  pastoral  romance,  337,  352. 

MoxTE^Qritr,  Baron  de,  "  Spirit  of  Laws," 
etc.,  287. 

Montgomery,  poetry,  517. 

MoxTi,  tragedy,  239  ;    criticism  and  pliilolo- 
gy,  247. 

Moore,  Thomas,  poetry,  517. 

Moorish  ballads,  315. 

Moors,  the,  in  Spain,  306,  323. 

Moral  philosophy,  French,  281. 

Morales,  history,  341. 

Moralities,  the  dramatic  entertainments  of, 
French,  263  ;  English,  489. 

MoRATix  the   elder,  poetry,  etc.,  344,345; 
the  younger,  drama,  345. 

More,  theologv,  491. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  "  Utopia,"  etc.,4S7,  48S. 

Morris,  George  P.,  songs,  540. 

Moschus,  bucolic  poetry,  111. 

Mosheira,  '•  Ecclesiastical  History,"  445. 

24* 


562 


INDEX. 


Motley,  '•  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch 

Republic,"  bSi. 
Mu(,'arabes,  8'>9. 
MuUer,  Danish  poetry,  397. 
Mullor,  Iiistoiy.  442. 
Miiller,  K.  O.,  literary  history,  -141. 
Milliner,  drama,  4o'>. 
MchATOKi,  history,  214;  citicism,  246. 
Jl'cre,  Grecian  literatu:  e,  524. 
Murray,  Lindiej',  English  Uiammar,  5'jO. 
MusKus,  "  lleio  and  Leander,"  119. 
Museum,  the,  of  Alexandria,  109. 
Music,  Greek,  7'J  ;  Italian,  2;J6. 
Musset,  A.  de  ,  lyric  poetry,  303. 
"  My  Prisons,"  by  Silvio  Pellico,  240. 
Myrtis,  a  Boeotian  poetess,  S3. 
Mysteries,  the  dramatic  entertainments  of, 

French,  262  ;  Spanish,  319  ;  German,  416, 

424;  English,  469. 
Mvstics,  German,  before  the  Reformation, 

416. 
ISIytbology,     Slavic,     366;    Scandinavian, 

3S2  ;  German,  406.  (See  Religion.) 

NiEvirs,  epic  poetry,  etc.,  131,136. 

Najjoleon,  inimical  to  literature,  269. 

Nardi,  history,  225. 

Narrative  poems,  Spanish,  333. 

NHruszeuicz,  history,  37S. 

"Natural  History,"  by  Plinv,  173;  by 
liulFon,  293. 

"  Nature,"  poem  on,  by  Parmenides,  86. 

"  Nature  of  Things,"  by  Lucretius,  147. 

Naubert,  Renedicte,  romance.  433. 

Neander,  history  of  the  church,  443. 

Neal,  Joseph  C,  "  Charcoal  Sketches,"  542. 

Necker,  morals,  295, 

Nemesius,  "  Nature  of  Man,"  121. 

Necroix)les,  Egyptian,  6D. 

Neo-Platonism,  113. 

New  England,  early  literature  of,  526. 

New  Testament,  the,  Syriac  translation  of, 
21 ;  character  and  structure  of,  120. 

Newman,  John,  "Concordance,"  526. 

Newspapers,  English,  523  ;  American,  54S. 

"  Nibelungen  Lied,"  the,  1S2,  412. 

Nicholas,  the  Emx)eror,  Russian  literature 
under,  369. 

Nicolai,  German  criticism,  425. 

Nicole,  moral  philosophy,  822. 

NicoLiNi,  tragedy,  240. 

NiEBL'HR,  history,  443. 

NiEMCEWicz,  poetry,  373. 

NiECwLAND,  poetry,  and  mathematics,  4.5S. 

"Night  Thoughts,"  Young's,  506. 

Nisard,  criticism,  301. 

Nizami,  Persian  poetry,  44. 

Nomz,  Dutch  drama,  457. 

Nonnus,  reviver  of  the  Greek  epos,  119. 

NuKDENFLVCHT,  CuAHLOTTE,  Swedish  poctry, 
oJ9. 

Norman  French,  the,  English  literature  in, 
47i^. 

Norman  literature,  253. 

Normans,  the,  in  England,  463,  477. 

Norse  languages,  3S6 

North,  Christopher    Prof.  Wilson),  519. 

"  North  American  Review,"  the,  545. 

Northmen,  the,  in  France,  253  ;  their  char- 
acter and  influence,  o:>l. 


Norwegian  language,  8S6. 

Nota,  Italian  comedy,  233. 

Notker  Teutonicus,  409. 

Nov.^Lis,  romance,  etc.,  431,  437. 

Novels,  Italian,  20S,  223;  Russian,  370; 
German,  423,  436  ;  English,  469,  f-06,  509, 
518,  521.     (See  Romance,  and  Fiction.) 

Novum  Organum,  Bacon's,  491. 

Num,  the  Egyptian  de;ty,  62. 

ObeKsks,  Egyptian,  61. 

Occam,  metaphysics,  4S2. 

"  Ode  to  God,"  Dershavin's,  363. 

Odin,  the  god,  3S3  ;  the  descent  of,  8S9. 

Odyssey,  the,  73 ;  Pope's  translation  of, 
503;  Cowper's,  511. 

"  (Edipus  Tyrannus,"  by  Sophocles,  99. 

Oehlexschlvgkk,  poetry,  396. 

Oersted,  the  b:  others,  Danish  literature, 
397-8. 

Old  Testament,  the,  11,  17;  manuscripts 
and  translations  of,  IS;  the  Septuagint 
version  of.  111  ;  Latin  version  of,  by  St. 
Jerome,  178. 

Olympus,  70. 

Omar  Khiam,  Persian  poetry,  44. 

Opera,  Italian,  236;  French,  277. 

Opitz,  poetry,  422,  423. 

Orange,  William  I.,  Prince  of,  449. 

"  Orations,"  Cato's,  1S4. 

"  Orator,"  Cicero's,  153. 

Oratory,  Athenian,  101 ;  Roman,  1-39,  151  ; 
Italian,  227  ;  Polish,  377 ;  Dutch,  459  ; 
American,  523,  535.     (See  Eloquence). 

"  Oratory,  Institutes  of,"  by  Quintilian, 
163. 

Origen,  Christian  philosophy,  121. 

"  Origins,  The,"  by  Cato  the  Censor,  139. 

"  Orlando  Furioso,"  214. 

"  Orlando  Innamorato,"  214. 

Orle.ans,  Charles,  Duke  of,  poetry,  264. 

Ormuzd,  the  Persian  principle  of  good,  41. 

Orphic  doctrines  and  poems,  84. 

Oscans,  the,  124 ;  language  of,  125;  drama- 
tic entertainments  of,  130. 

Osgood,  Frances  S.,  poetry,  541. 

Osiris,  the  Egyptian  god,  63. 

Ossian,  the  poems  of,  474. 

Otfried,  rhymed  Gospel  book,  409. 

Ottava  rima,  the,  209. 

Otway,  drama,  500. 

OviD,  poetry,  150  ;  drama,  136. 

OviEDO,  history,  327. 

OxtNSTJERNA,  poctry,  399. 

Pacdvius,  tragedy,  136. 

Paeans,  Greek,  72. 

Pagano,  Mario,  criminal  science,  235. 

Paine,  Thomas,  politics,  547. 

Palacky,  "  History  of  Bohemia,"  375. 

Palladio,  architecture,  229. 

Palmblad,  criticism,  novels,  etc.,  401. 

Pandects,  Justinian's,  179. 

Panslavism,  the  hterature  of,  369. 

Pantomime,  Roman,  144. 

Paper,  introduction   of,  by   the  Arabians, 

197. 
Papirian  code,  the,  141. 
Papyri,  Egyptian,  57,  60. 
Paracelsus,  mystic  pliilosophy,  421 . 


INDEX. 


563 


Paradise,  the  Mohammedan,  1S7. 

'"Paradise  Lost,"  -I'Ji) ;  supposed  fouuda- 
tioa  of,  2i-i. 

Paiusi,  lyric  poetry,  211 ;  satire,  212 ;  criti- 
cism, 217. 

Paris,  Matthe\v,  chronicles,  473. 

Pariier,  Theodore,  theology,  514. 

Parmenides,  philosophj-  and  poetry,  S6. 

Parsee  language,  3S ;  literature,  39  ;  reli- 
gion, 40 

Partou,  American  biography,  531. 

P.\SCAL,  science  and  moral  philosophy, 
273. 

Passeroni,  mock  heroic  poetry,  242. 

"  Pastor  Fido,"  Guarini's,  221. 

Pastoral  drama,  Italian,  221 ;  poetry,  Alex- 
andrian, 110;  Spanish,  310;  Portuguese, 
355. 

Patanjali,  Hindu  philosophy,  33. 

Paterculus,  history,  165. 

Patrizi,  natural  philosophy,  229. 

Paulding,  fiction,  53S. 

Pusanias,  geography,  116. 

Payne,  Joan  Howard,  drama,  541. 

Pehlvic  language,  33;  literature,  39. 

Pelasgians,  the,  124. 

Pellico,  Silvio,  tragedy,  etc.,  240 :  songs, 
241. 

Peloponnesian  war,  its  effects  on  Greek 
literature,  102. 

Percy's  "Reiiques,"  509. 

Pkricles,  statesmanship,  91;  oratory,  101. 

Peripatetics,  the,  lOS. 

Perry's  '•  Expedition  to  Japan,"  535. 

Persian  literature,  33. 

Persius,  satire,  160. 

Perlicari,  criticism,  217. 

"Peru,  Commentaries  on,"  by  Garcilasso 
de  la  Vega  342. 

Peter  the  Great,  literature  under,  337. 

Peter  Parley  (S.  G.  Goodrich),  534. 

"  Peter  Schlemihl,"  by  Chamisso,  487 ;  by 
Wood,  53S. 

Petijfi,  Hungarian  poetry,  361. 

Petkarch,  205  ;  lyric  poetry,   206  ;  satire, 

^Pfeiffer,  Ida,  travels,  445. 

Ph.edrus,  fables,  160. 

"  Pharsalia,"  by  Lucan,  164. 

Phoenician  literature,  32, 

Philetas  of  Cos,  elegiac  poetry,  110. 

Philippics,  the,  of  Demosthenes,  104. 

Philology,  Italian,  247. 

Philosophy,  Hebrew,  17  ;  Hindu,  32,  35 ; 
Persian,  47  ;  Chinese,  51 ;  Greek,  85, 105  ; 
Alexandrian,  111 ;  Roman,  153,  171, 177  ; 
Arabian,  195  ;  Italian,  229,  247  ;  French, 
273,  231,  290,  301 ;  German,  444 ;  English, 
491,  503,  505,  509,  520  ;  Scottish,  510. 

Phrynichus,  drama,  96. 

Plitha,  the  Egyptian  god,  62. 

Pichler,  Caroline,  "  Tales,"  433. 

Picodella  Mirandola,  Italian  literature,  212. 

"Piers  Plowman,  the  Vision  of,"  433. 

Pike,  Zebulon,  American  topography,  531. 

Pindar,  lyric  poetry,  83. 

Pi.sDEMOsrE,  lyric  poetry,  241. 

Pinkney,  Lieut.,  travels,  531. 

Plato,  philosophv,  106. 

Plaittus,  comedy,  1-33. 


"Pleasures  of  Imagination,"  by  Akensiie, 
5u6. 

Pliny  the  elder,  natural  history,  173. 

Pliny  the  younger,  letters,  169 ;  his  dis- 
patch about  the  Christians,  ib. 

Plutarch,  biograi)hy,  etc.,  116. 

p. IE,  Edgkr  A.,  tales,  537  ;  poetry,  540. 

Poetry,  Hebrew,  12 ;  Sanscrit,  27  ;  modern 
Hindu,  32,  35  ;  Persian,  42,  Chinese,  55  ; 
Greek,  71  et  se;j.  ;  Alexandrian,  llO  ; 
Roman,  129,  145,  176 ;  Arabian,  192  ; 
Italian,  200,  212,  231,  236;  Provemjal, 
252 ;  national  characteristics  of,  260  ; 
French,  26  •,  256,  276,  239  ;  Spanish,  310, 
326,  333 ;  Portuguese,  349 ;  Hungarian, 
361;  Turkish,  36i ;  Russian,  363;  Ser- 
vian, 371 ;  Polish,  377  et  i<eq. ;  Icelandic, 
or  Old  Norse,  3Sr;  Danish,  33J  et  aeq  ; 
Swedish,  393  et  >ieq.  ;  German,  411 ;  cor- 
porations of,  415;  the  true  sphere  of, 
435,  436  ;  Dutch,  443,  452  et  seq.;  English, 
469,  483,  433,  496,  506,  511,  512,  520,  521 ; 
Erse  or  Gaelic,  474;  Cymric,  475  ;  Anglo- 
Saxon,  476  ;  Scottish,  436  ;  American, 
530,  539. 

Polish  language  and  literature,  375. 

Poliziano,  drama,  213. 

PoUok's  "Course  of  Time,"  51T. 

PoLYBius,  history,  115. 

Polycarp,  early  Cln-istian  literature,  120. 

"  Poly-Oibion,"  Drayton's,  498. 

Pomponius,  Roman  law,  141. 

L'ooT,  lyric  poetry,  456. 

Pope,  poetry,  603. 

fort  Royalists,  the,  274 

Porta,  Luigi  da,  ■'  Giuiietta,"  223. 

Portuguese  literature,  313. 

"  Positive  Philosophy,"  Comte's,  301. 

Potocki,  the  brothers,  Polish  literature,  373. 

Prentice,  George  D.,  541,543. 

Prescott,  history,  533. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  547. 

Psalms,  the,  13. 

■'  Prince,"  the,  of  Machiavelli,  229. 

Printing,  effect  of  the  invention  of,  417  ; 
claimed  by  Holland,  449  ;  its  introduc- 
tion into  England,  435. 

Procter  (Barry  Cornwall),  poetry,  517. 

Prdperviu,-',  elegy,  150. 

Prophets,  the  Hebrew,  14. 

Provencal  language,  250  ;  literature,  252  ; 
in  Italy,  200 ;  in  Spain,  309,  320  ;  in 
Portugal,  349. 

Proverbs,  Spanish,  342. 

"  Provincial  Letters,"  Pascal's,  274. 

Prudentius,  hymns,  176. 

Pryor,  poetry,  502. 

Ptolemies,  the,  64,  109. 

Ptolemy  Soter,  history.  111. 

Ptolemy,  astronomy  and  geography,  116. 

Pulci,  "  Morgante  Maggiore,"  213. 

Puranas,  the,  27. 

Puritans  of  New  England,  literature  of  the, 
526. 

Pushkin,  Ru-sian  poetrj',  370. 

Pyramids,  the  Egyptian,  60. 

Pyrrhon,  philosophy,  113. 

Pythagijkxs,  philosophy,  87. 

Quarles,  "  Divine  Emblenjs,"  493. 


i64 


IXDEX. 


QuKVEDO,  poetry,  theology,  etc.,  340. 
Quinault,  opera,  277. 
Quiiitana,  poetry,  8io. 
QuiNTiLiAN,  rhetoric,  168. 

Rabbinical  literature,  18. 

Uabelai^,  Fraxci:<,  liumor,  2G7. 

Itabeuer,  satire,  42o. 

Racise,  tragedy,  etc.,  276. 

Ragxor  Loubkok,  ttie  Danish  scald,  390. 

Rahbek,  Danish  literature,  '6db. 

Rahel  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  romance,  43S. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  history,  41»2. 

"Ralph   Roister  Doister,"  the  comedy  of, 

49  Lt. 
"  Ramayana,"  the,  29. 
Rambouillet,  Mme.  de,  27''. 
RamJer,  poetry,  42o. 
Ramon  de  la  Cruz,  drama,  o4\ 
Ramsay,  David,  American  liistory,  531. 
Ranke,  history,  443. 
"  Rape  of  the  Bucket,"  by  Tassoni,  232. 
'■  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  by  Tope,  o>3. 
Raumer,  history,  iis. 
Raupach,  drama,  4oo. 
Raynal,  Abbe,  history,  294. 
Kedi,  natural  pliilosophv,  etc.,  2^9  :  letters, 

234. 
Reid,  THOMA.S,  philosophy,  510. 
Redondillas,  or  roundelays,  Spanish,  314. 
Reformation,  the,  266 ;  in  Spain,  324 ;  G-er- 

man  literature  of,  417  ;    in  Holland,  449 ; 

English  Uterature  in  the  age  of,  4-57. 
Reimarius,  theology,  44^3. 
Reinhard,  sermons,  443. 
Rehgion,  Hebrew,  12 ;  Hindu,   25 ;  ancient 

Persian,  4i) ;  Chinese,  51 ;    Egyptian,  62 ; 

Greek,   (k)  ;  Roman,   127 ;   Arabian,   12S. 

(See  Mythology. ) 
Renaissance,  the,  265. 
"  Republic,"  Plato's,  li'7. 
Reviews,  English,  470,  513 ;  American,  548. 
Revolution,  the   French,  literature   duruag, 

290  ;  American,  527  et  fie/. 
Rey  of  Nagiowic,  poetry,  3(  7. 
"Reynard  the  Fox,"  the  fable  of,  417. 
Rhapsodists,  Greek,  72,  74,  75. 
Rhetoric,   Greek,  li2;  Roman,   168;    Ara- 
bian, 192  ;  Italian,  227 ;  Dutch  Chambers, 

of,  44S. 
Rhvme,  the  first  use  of,  in  European  poetry 

26). 
RiBEV'RO,  poetry,  351. 
Ricardo,  political  science,  52  >. 
Richard  Cueur  de  Lion  as  a  troubadour,  256. 
RicarER,  Jean  Paul,  novels,  425. 
Richardson,  novels,  506. 
Ridley,  theology,  4S3. 
RiNUCci.NT,  melodrama,  236. 
Ripley,  George,  criticism,  542. 
Ritter,  Carl,  geography,  442. 
"Robbers,"  Schiller's,  429,  4:34. 
Robert  of  Gloucester,   chronicles,  4S1. 
RoBEHT.-iON,  history,  5=JS. 
Robinson,  Mrs.,  547. 
RocuKFOucACLi),  Duke  de,  moral  philosophy 

and  history,  2Sl. 
Roderic,  Don,  the  chronicle  of,  317. 
Rogers,  Samuel,  jjo-^trv,  517. 
Rollin,  "  Ancieijf.  History,"  233. 


Romagnosi,  philosophy,  247. 

"  Roman  Archaeology,"  by  Dionysius  o! 
llalicarnassus,  115. 

Roman  literature,  introduction,  122 ;  from 
tlie  first  Punic  war  to  the  age  of  Cicero, 
122  ;  to  the  death  of  Augustus,  143 ;  to  tlio 
close  of  the  reign  of  Theodoric,  159. 

Romance,  the  first,  at  Alexandria,  IIS ;  Ita- 
lian, 243  ;  French,  2S4,  303 ;  Spanish,  3ls, 
334;  Swedish,  4')2  ;  German,  436  ;  Dutcli, 
45s.  (See  Novels,  Fiction,  Chivalry,  and 
Arthur.) 

Romance  language,  the,  250. 

"  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  261. 

Romans,  of  origin  the,  125 ;  compared  with 
the  Greeks,  129,  135 ;  in  Britain,  462. 

Romantic  school,  the  French,  26  i,  3u2  ;  the 
German,  431. 

Rome,  Greek  literature  in,  114, 123, 143  ;  de- 
praved state  of,  in  the  first  century,  161. 

RossARD,  poetry,  26S. 

Roscommon,  Lord,  poetry,  501. 

Rosetta  stone,  the,  69. 

Rosini;  romance,  243. 

RosMixi,  philosophy,  248. 

Rossi,  Gherardo  de',  comedy,  238. 

Roswitha,  drama,  410. 

Rotgans,  poetry,  455.  ■ 

Roumi,  Persian  poetry,  45. 

Round  table.     See  Arthur. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Baptiste,  lyric  poetry,  236. 

RousriEAi",  Jean  Jacques,  292. 

Rovaui,  romance,  24^3. 

Rowsou,  Susanna,  "  Charlotte  Temple,"  547. 

Royer-CoUard,  philosophy,  298. 

Rucellai,  drama,  220;  didactic  poetry,  222. 

Riickert,  lyric  poetry,  432. 

RuDEL,  Gkofkroy,  troubadour,  256 

Rueda,  Lope  de,  founder  of  the  Spanish  t-he- 
atre,  32  S. 

Ruiz,  Juan,  poetry,  318. 

Rumford,  Count,  science,  531,  515. 

Runeberg,  Swedish  poetry,  402. 

Runes  and  rune  songs,  3S8. 

Russian  language  and  literature,  366. 

Rybinski,  poetry,  377. 

Saa  de  Miranda,  pastoral  poetry,  351 ;  com- 
edy, 355. 

Saad-ed-Din,  Turkish  history,  362. 

Sabeism,  or  star-worship,  164. 

Sabines,  the,  124. 

Sacchetti,  Franco,  "  Novels  and  Tales,"  209. 

Sachs,  Hans,  the  master-singer,  420. 

Sackville,  Thomas,"  Mirror  for  Magistrates," 
489. 

Sadi,  Persian  poetry,  44 

Sagas,  the,  of  Scandinavia,  182,  391. 

Ste.  Beuve,  criticism,  301;  lyric  poetry,  303. 

St.  Pierre,  Bernardin  de,  romance  and  fable, 
295. 

St.  Simon,  Duke  de,  memoirs,  283. 

Sakuntala,  tlie,  32. 

Salamanca,  the  literary  school  of,  344. 

Sallust,  history,  156. 

Salmasius,  defence  of  Charles  L,  452. 

Salviati,  comedy,  220  ;  grammar^  226. 

Salvator  Rosa,  satire,  233. 

Samuel  the  Wise,  the  poetic  Edda,  337. 

Sanconiathon,  I'hoenician  hisrory,  22. 


INDEX. 


505 


Sandoval,  "  Hbtory  of  Spain,"  S41. 

Sandys,  George,  Ovid's  "  iletamorphoses," 
526. 

San  Graal,  or  Saint  Graul,  tradition  and  ro- 
mance of  the,  412,  4'50. 

Sanxazzaro,  "Arcadia,"  221. 

Sanscrit  literature,  23. 

Saxtillana,  Maniuis  of,  poetry,  321. 

Santob,  Ilabbi,  Spanish  poetry',  313. 

Sappho,  lyric  poetry,  Sa 

Sarpi,  history,  233. 

Satire,  Roman,  129,  137,  160 ;  Italian,  222  ; 
233,  242  ;  French,  279  ;  Spanish,  34u ; 
German,  420. 

Saturnian  verse,  126. 

"  Saul,"  by  Alfieri,  230. 

Saurin,  sermons,  2S1. 

Savonarola,  oratory,  227. 

Saxo  Grammaticus,  Danish  chronicles,  393. 

'•  Saxon  Chronicle,"  the,  477. 

Saxonic  schools  of  German  poetry,  424, 425. 

Scalds,  the  Scandinavian,  1S2.  390. 

Scaliger.-;,  the,  classics,  etc.,  451. 

Scamozzi,  architecture,  229. 

Scarron,  burlesque,  2t>9. 

Schaflfarik,  Slavic  literature,  375. 

Scheele,  chemistry,  4'i3. 

SCHELLiXG,  philosophy,  444. 

Schiller,  poetry,  429:  drama,  434  ;  letters, 
439. 

SCHLEGEL,  AuGcsTrs  and  Fkiedrich,  poetry, 
criticism,  etc.,  431,  440. 

Schlegel,  John  Ellas,  drama,  425. 

Schleiermacher,  theology,  44^3. 

Schlosser,  liistory,  442,  44-3. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  K.,  American  Indians, 
533  ;  travels,  5:34. 

Schubart,  poetry,  430. 

Schwab,  poetry,  4-32. 

Science,  Hindu,  32 ;  Chinese,  54 ;  Egyptian, 
63:  Alexandrian,  112;  lloman,  173  ;  Ara- 
bian, 196 ;  Italian,  227 ;  French,  293,  301 ; 
Polish,  377 ;  German,  44?  ;  English,  524 ; 
American,  545. 

Scolia,  Greek,  81. 

Scotland,  ancient  literature  of,  474,  4S5. 

Scott,  Michael,  "the  wizard,"  47S,  4S5. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  poetry,  513 ;  novels,  51S. 

Scribe,  vaudeville,  305. 

Scriptures.     See  Bible  and  Old  Testament. 

SccDERT,  Mlle.  de,  romaiice,  270. 

"Seasons,"  Thomson's, 507. 

Sedgwick,  Catherine  M.,  5^35 ;  tales,  533. 

Segura,  Juan  Lorenzo,  poetry,  312, 

Seneca,  philosophy,  172  ;  the  tragedies  at- 
tributed to,  16S. 

Seneca  the  rhetorician,  1G3. 

Septuagint,  the,  IS,  109,  111. 

"  Sepulchres,"  the,  of  Pindemonte  and  of 
Foscolo,  241. 

Servian  language  and  literature,  371. 

Seven  sages,  the,  of  Greece,  85. 

Sevigne,  Mme.  de,  letters,  27o,  254. 

Siiaftesbury,  Lord,  ethics,  504. 

"  ShahNameh,"  the  Persian  poem  of,  43. 

Shakspeare,  493  et  seq. 

Siiici.LEV,  poetry,  516  ;  Mrs.,  fiction,  513. 

Siieridan,  comedy,  510. 

Shirley,  drama,  496. 

Shukofsky,  Russian  poetry,  869. 


I  Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  poetry,  492. 

I  Sigourney,  Lydia  H.,  5^59;  poetry,  541. 

Silesian  schools  of  German  literature,  423. 

SiLiLS  Italicls,  poem  of  "  Punica,"  165. 

Silver  age,  the,  of  Rome,  124. 

Simeon  of  Polotzk,  tragedy,  3C7. 

SI.MM.S,  William  Gilmore,  romance,  5S7 ; 
poetry,  541. 

S1.MONIDES,  elegy,  76 ;  epigram,  77 ;  lyrics,  82. 

Sismondi,  philosophical  history,  oOO ;  literary 
history,  301. 

Siva,  the  Hindu  god,  26 

SiciiLTON,  satirical  poery,  4SS 

SkeptiitJsm,  French,  in  the  16th  century, 
207 ;  in  the  ISth,  2S5. 

Slavic  literatures,  .365 ;  race,  ib.  \  languages 
and  mvthology,  "6^6. 

Smith,  Adam,  "  Wealth  of  Nations,"  510. 

Smith,  Elizabeth  Oakes,  "Sinless  Child," 
541. 

Smith,  Seba,  "  Jack  Downing,"  etc.,  542. 

Snorre  Stl-rleson,  prose  Edda,  390  ; 
"  Heimskringla,"  391. 

Socratks  and  the  Socratic  schools,  105. 

"  Sofonisba,"  Trissiuo's  tragedy  of,  220. 

Solis,  "  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  342. 

Solon,  elegy,  77. 

Songs,  anre-IIomeric,  71 ;  Russian,  370  ;  Ser- 
vian, 372  -,  of  the  minnesingers,  411 ;  of 
Burns,  611.     (See  Lvric  Poetrv.) 

"  Song  of  the  Bell,"  Schiller's,  429. 

Sophists,  the,  102. 

Suphocle.s,  tragedy,  9?. 

Sordello,  troubadour,  256. 

"  Sorrows  of  Werther,"  by  Goethe,  423 

South,  theology,  409. 

Southerne,  drama,  501. 

SoLTHEY,  Rob-ert,  poctiy,  512. 

Souza,  Portuguese  sonnets,  357. 

Spain,  Arabian  schools  and  literature  in, 
191;  history  of,  by  Mariana,  841;  recent 
and  present  state  of  literature  in,  346. 

Spallanzani,  natural  philosophj^,  235. 

Spanish  literature,  introduction,  3' 6  ;  from 
1200  to  15UI',  310  ;  Italian  influence  on, 
321,  326 ;  under  the  domination  of  the 
Austrian  family,  323 ;  effect  of  intole- 
rance on,  ib. ;  under  the  Bourbons,  343 ; 
French  influence  on,  ib.\  in  the  ISth  cen- 
tuiy,  ib.  ;  in  the  19th,  846. 

Sparks,  Jared,  American  biogi'aphy,  534. 

"Spectator,"  Van  Effin's,  45T;  Addison's, 
504. 

Spegel,  Swedish  psalms,  398. 

Spenser,  "  Faerie  Queene,"  etc.,  496. 

Speroni,  drama,  220  ;  oratory,  227 ;  moral 
philosophj',  229. 

Spieghel,  Dutch  poetry,  453. 

Spinoza,  philosophy,  452. 

Spolverini,  didactic  poetry,  242. 

Sprekers,  early  Dutch  poets,  443. 

Squier,  E.  G.,  American  antiquities,  535. 

Stael,  Mme.  de,  206. 

Stagnelius,  Swedish  poetry,  402. 

Statics,  comeil^',  1^34. 

St.vtics,  p.,  epic  poetry,  165. 

Stephens,  John  L.,  travels,  535. 

Stksichokl'S,  lyric  poetry,  82. 

Stewart,  Dugald,  philosophy,  52  \ 

Stjernujelm,  poetry,  etc.,  398. 


5GQ 


INDEX. 


Stoics,  the,  113. 

Stoke,  MeUs,  "  Chronicle  of  Holland,"  44S. 

Stolberg,  Christian  and  Leopold,  poetry,  4oO. 

"  Storm  and  Stress,"  drama  of,  431. 

Story's  "  Commentaries,"  545. 

Stowe,   Harrikt    Beecher,    5o5-,    "Uncle 

Tom's  Cabin,"  53S. 
Stkabo,  geography,  IIG. 
Strapparola,  fairy  tales,  22''>. 
Strauss,  '■  Life  of  Jesus,"  443-4. 
Styl,  Dutch  history,  45S. 
Suabian  age,  the,  of  German  literature,  410  ; 

school  of  poetry,  432 
Sublime,  the,  Longinus  on,  114. 
"  Sublime  and   Beautiful,"  Burke   on  the, 

510  ;  essays  on  the,  5"20. 
Spe,  Eugene,  novels,  304. 
Suetonius,  biography,  107. 
Sufis,  the,  41. 

Sully,  Duke  of,  memoirs,  233. 
Sulpicius,  Severus,  liistory,  176. 
Sumarokof,  Russian  literature,  363. 
SuRKEY,  Earl  of,  poetry,  4SS. 
"  Sweden,  Chronicles  of,"  by  Geijer,  401. 
Ssvedenborg,  theology  and  sc'ence.  403. 
Swedish    literature,   80S;    the    Phosphoric 

and  Gothic  schools  of,  401. 
Swift,  satire,  etc.,  504. 
Swiss  school  of  German  poetry,  424,  425. 
Symmachus,  o-atoiy,  176. 
Synesius,  epistles,  etc  ,  121. 
Szegligeti,  Hungarian  drama,  861. 
Szymonowicz,  Simon,  Polish  poetry,  377. 

Tacitus,  history,  166. 

Tales,  Arabian,  191;  Spanish,  357. 

Talmud,  the,  19. 

Tao,  religion  of  the,  -2. 

Tappan,  Dr.,  philosophy,  545. 

Tasso,  Torquato,  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 
216;  dramas,  220;  "  Aminta,"  231;  let- 
ters, 227  ;  moral  philosophy,  229. 

"  Tasso,"  Goethe's  drama  of,  4:33. 

Tassoni,  mock  heroic  poetry,  232. 

"  Tatler,"  the,  504. 

Tauler,  "  German  Theology,"  417. 

Taylor,  Henry,  drama,  etc.,  521. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  theology,  491. 

Tkgner,  poetry,  401, 

Telesio,  philosophy,  229. 

Temple,  Sir  William,  essays,  500. 

Ten  Kate,  grammar,  etc.,  457. 

Tennyson,  poetry,  521, 

Tkuence,  comedy,  134. 

Terpander,  music,  79. 

Tertullian,  apology  for  the  Christians,  173. 

Terza  rima,  the,  205. 

Teutonic,  languages,  403. 

Thackeray,  novels,  522. 

Thales  of  Miletus,  philosophy,  85. 

Tlieatres,  Greek,  97 ;  Spanish,  333,  3L5. 

Theocritus,  bucolic  poetry,  110. 

Theodosius,  Code  of,  179. 

"  Theogony,"  the,  of  Hesiod,  75. 

Theology,  German,  443  ;  English,  4S3,  490, 
499,  505  ;  American,  529,  530,  544. 

Theon,  the  father  of  Hypatia,  118. 

TiiESPis,  drama,  96. 

Thierrj',  philosophical  history,  300. 

Thiers,  pliilosoiJhical  hiitory,  3lj0. 


Thirty  Yeara' War,  disastrous  eflfects  of  the* 

422. 

Tholuck,  theology,  443. 

Thomasius,  philosopliy,  etc.,  423. 

Thompson,  Benjamin  (Count  Rumford), 
science,  531,  545. 

Tho.mson,  "Seasons,"  etc.,  507. 

Thor,  tlie  Scandinavian  god,  333. 

Thoreau,  llenrv  D.,  542. 

Thorpe,  T.  B.,  543. 

Thorild,  Swedish  poetry,  400. 

Threnoi,  Greek,  72. 

Thucydides,  history,  104. 

TiBULLUS,  elegy,  150. 

Ticknor's  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature," 
533. 

Tieck,  poetry,  fairy  tales,  etc.,  431,  437. 

Tillotson,  theology,  499. 

Timocreon,  lyric  poetry,  82 ;  epigram  on, 
77. 

Tir.\B03Cin,  literary  history,  246. 

Togray,  Persian  poetry.  44. 

Tollens,  poetry  and  romance,  460. 

Tommaseo,  philology,  247. 

Torricelli,  inventor  of  the  barometer,  228. 

Torti,  lyric  poetry,  241. 

Tragedv,  Greek,  origin  of,  95;  character 
of,  96;  Roman,  134;  Italian,  238;  French, 
269,  276,  2S9.     (See  Drama.) 

Trajan,  Roman  literature  in  the  time  of, 
166;  his  letter  to  Pliny  about  the  Chris- 
tians, 171. 

Travels,  German,  445;  American,  531,  534. 

Trent,  Sarpi's  historv  of  the  Council  of,  234. 

Triads,  the  Welsh,  475. 

Tribonian,  jurisprudence,  179. 

Trissino,  drama,  220. 

Trollope,  Mrs  ,  novels,  522. 

Troubadours,  the,  252  ;  in  Spain,  330  ;  origin 
of  their  ballad  metre,  127. 

Trouveres,  the,  25S. 

Trumbull,  John,  poetry,  530. 

Tuckerman,  Henry  T.,  poetry,  540;  criti- 
cism, 542. 

"  Tusculan  Disputations,"  Cicero's,  154 

Twelve  tables,  laws  of  the,  126,  142. 

Tycho  Brake,  astronomy,  393. 

Tj-ndale,  translations  of  Scripture,  4S7. 

Tyrt^us,  elegy,  75. 

Udall,  Nicholas,  comedy,  490, 

Uhland,  ballad  poetry,  4^32. 

Ulphila.*^,  Mceso-Gothic  version  of  the  Bi- 
ble, 408. 

Umbrians,  the,  124 ;  language  of,  125. 

'•  Undine,"  b.v  La  Motte  Foque,  4J37. 

United  Provinces,  Republic  of  the,  449, 
453. 

United  States,  the,  growth  and  develop- 
ment of,  532  ;  foreign  writeis  in,  547. 
(See  American  Literatu.-e.) 

Universities,  Italian,  228 ;  German,  417, 
418;  Dutch,  449. 

"  Utopia,"  by  Sir  Thomas  More,  4S7. 

Valerius  Maximus,  "  Memorable  Sayings 
and  Deeds,"  168. 

Valhalla,  the  residence  of  Odin,  384. 

Valkvrior,  virgins  of  Scandinavian  My- 
thology, 384. 


IXDEX. 


56^ 


Vallenhoven,  poetry,  455. 
Valiniki,  the  "  llaniayana,"  29. 
Tan  Alphen,  poetry,  4>S. 
Yjn  dkk  PAL>f,  orations,  Bibliciil   transla- 
tions, etc.,  459. 
Tan  Effkx,  "  Spectator,"  457. 
Van  Harex,  OnnoZwier,  tragedy,  etc.,  456. 
Van  Haren,  "William,  epic,  <6. 
A"an  Hoevell,  slavery,  460. 
Van  Kampen,  history,  460. 
Van  Lennep,  Jan,  romance,  460. 
Van  Mkkkkx,  Madame,  tragedy,  etc.,  457. 
Yas  Winter,  tragedy,  457. 
Varnhagen  von  Ense,  biography,  4^3. 
Varro,  miscellaneous,  139. 
Vasari,  history  of  artists,  226. 
Vedanta,  philosophy'  of  the,  33. 
Vedas,  the,  27. 
Vega,  L'ipe  de,  drama,  329. 
Veika,  defence  of  Indians  and  Jews,  356. 
Verri,  Alexander,  romance,  24,3. 

Vettori,  rhetoric,  221. 

Vicente,  Gil.,  Portuguese  drama,  265. 

Vico,  philosophy  of  history,  244. 

Vignola,  architecture,  229. 

Viilani,  the,  Florentine  historians,  209. 

Ville-Hardocin  chronicles,  25S,  264. 

Villemain  history,  300  ;  criticism,  301. 

Villena,  Marquis  of,  "  Labors  of  Heicules," 
etc.,  321. 

Villon,  poetry,  264. 

Vinet,  ciiticism,  301, 

ViKGiL,  epic  poetry,  145;  didactic  poetry, 
147. 

Visconti,  Quirlco,  archaeology,  235. 

Vishnu,  the  Hindu  god,  26,  29. 

"  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman."  4S3. 

Visscher,  Dutch  poetry,  4"»3. 

Vitalis,  Swedish  poetry,  402. 

ViTRCvrus,  architecture.  159. 

Vladimir  the  Great  of  Russia,  367. 

Voiture,  poetry.  269. 

Voland,  the  northern  Vulcan,  3S9. 

VoLTAiRK,  skeptical   philosophy,    history, 
tragedy,  etc  ,  283. 

VoNDEL,  poetry  and  drama,  454. 

Von  Wisin,  Russian  drama,  368. 

Vossius,  the  Dutch  family  of,  451. 

Vulgate,  tlie,  IS. 

Vyasa,  the  compiler  of  the  Vedas,  27. 

^ace,  "Brut  d'Angleterre,"  479. 

Wagenaar,  history,  457. 

"  Wallace,"  by  Blind  Harry,  4S6. 

Yy'allenberg,  Swedish  poetry,  400. 

Waller,  poetry,  493. 

Wallin,  Archbishop,  Swedish  poetry,  401. 

Walpole,  "Letters,"  509. 

Walter  of  the  Vogel  Weide,  minnesinger, 

411. 
Walton,  Izaak,  biography  and  "  Angling," 

500. 
Warburton,  Bishop,  theology,  505. 
Ware,  William,  classical  romance,  53S. 
Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry,"  509. 
Washington,  52S  ;  biographies  of,  533. 
Waverley  Novels,  the,  51S. 
•'  Wealth  of  Nations,"  Adam  Smith's,  51 ) . 
Webster,  Daniel,  oratory,  535. 
Webster's  Dictionary,  5t3. 


Welby,  Amelia  B.,  poetry,  541. 

Wellekens,  Dutch  poetry,  455. 

Welsh  literature,  475. 

Werner,  drama,  435. 

Whately,  Archbishop,  logic,  524. 

Whewell,  science  and  logic,  524. 

AVheaton,  international  law,  545. 

AVhipple,  E.  P.,  criticism,  etc.,  542. 

White,  Kirk,  poetry,  517. 

White,   Richard   Grant,   commeutaiies   on 

Shakspeare,  542. 
Wickliffe,  Joun,  4S2. 
Whittier,  John  G.,  poetry,  540. 


ploring  E.N'pe 

William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  449. 

William  of  Malmesbury,  chronicles,  473 

Willis,  N.  P.,  tales  and  sketches,  535,  5=37  ; 
poetry,  540. 

AVilson," Alexander,  American  ornithology, 
547. 

Wilson,  Professor,  poetry,  516 ;  fiction,  51S  ; 
magazine  writing,  519. 

Wilson,  Thomas,  logic  and  rhetoric,  483. 

Winckelmann,  art  criticism,  439. 

NViKT,  W11J.IAJI,  biography,  etc  ,  531. 

Wiselius,  Dutch  tragedy,  etc.,  460. 

Witchcraft  in  Germany,  421. 

"Witherspoon,  John,  religion  and  politics, 
517. 

Wolf,  philosophy,  423. 

Wolff,  Elizabeth  Bekker,  romance,  453. 

Wolfram  of  Eschenbach,  minnesirger,  411, 
412 

Wood,  George,  "  Peter  Schlemihl,"  533. 

Worcester's  Dictionary,  513. 

Wordsworth,  poetry,  515. 

"  Works  and  Days,''  llesiod's,  75 

AVriting,  Hebrew,  10  ;  Cliinese,  50 ;  Egyp- 
tian, 53. 

Wyntouu,   Andrew,   "Original    Cronykil," 

436. 

Xenophanes,  Eleatic  school  of  philosophy 

86. 
Xesophon,  history,  105. 

Tggdrasil,  the   Scandinavian   tree   of  life, 

384. 
Ymer,  the  progenitor  of  the  Scandinaviaa 

god.s,  382. 
Young,  "  Night  Thoughts,"  506. 
"  Yussuf  and  Zuleika,  Loves  of,"  42. 

Zachariae,  poetry,  425. 

Zaluski,  Polish  literature,  378. 

Zendavesta,  the,  40. 

Zendic  language,  33 ;  literature,  39.    _  _ 

Zeno  Apostolo,  melodrama,  236  ;  criti;iwn, 

246. 
Zeno  of  Elea,  philosophy,  86. 
Zeno  the  Stoic,  113.  ^ 

Zeus,  the  chief  of  the  Greek  god.^  a* 
Zoroaster,  reformer  of  the  religion  of  ilt 

magi,  40. 
Zurita,  "  Annals  of  Aragon,"  311. 
Zenodotus,  grammar,  111. 
ZsciioKKE,  fiction,  43^. 
ZwiNGLB,  theology,  419. 


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